Footnotes

1.

For examples see M. Dobrizhoffer, Historia de Abiponibus (Vienna, 1784), ii. 92 sq., 240 sqq.; C. Gay, “Fragment d'un voyage dans le Chili et au Cusco,” Bulletin le la Société de Géographie (Paris), Deuxième Série, xix. (1843) p. 25; H. Delaporte, “Une Visite chez les Araucaniens,” Bulletin de la Société de Géographie (Paris), Quatrième Série, x. (1855) p. 30; K. von den Steinen, Unter den Naturvölkern Zentral-Brasiliens (Berlin, 1894), pp. 344, 348; E. F. im Thurn, Among the Indians of Guiana (London, 1883), pp. 330 sq.; A. G. Morice, “The Canadian Dénés,” Annual Archaeological Report, 1905; (Toronto, 1906), p. 207; (Sir) George Grey, Journals of Two Expeditions of Discovery into North-West and Western Australia (London, 1841), ii. 238; A. Oldfield, “The Aborigines of Australia,” Transactions of the Ethnological Society of London, N.S. iii. (1865) p. 236; J. Dawson, Australian Aborigines (Melbourne, Sydney, and Adelaide, 1881), p. 63; Rev. G. Taplin, “The Narrinyeri,” Native Tribes of South Australia (Adelaide, 1879), p. 25; C. W. Schürmann, “The Aboriginal Tribes of Port Lincoln,” Native Tribes of South Australia, p. 237; H. E. A. Meyer, in Native Tribes of South Australia, p. 195; R. Brough Smyth, The Aborigines of Victoria (Melbourne, 1878), i. 110, ii. 289 sq.; W. Stanbridge, in Transactions of the Ethnological Society of London, New Series, i. (1861) p. 299; L. Fison and A. W. Howitt, Kamilaroi and Kurnai, pp. 250 sq.; A. L. P. Cameron, “Notes on some Tribes of New South Wales,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xiv. (1885) pp. 361, 362 sq.; W. Ridley, Kamilaroi, Second Edition (Sydney, 1875), p. 159; Baldwin Spencer and F. J. Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia (London, 1899), pp. 46-48; Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits, v. (Cambridge, 1904) pp. 248, 323; E. Beardmore, “The Natives of Mowat, British New Guinea,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xix. (1890) p. 461; R. E. Guise, “On the Tribes inhabiting the Mouth of the Wanigela River, New Guinea,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxviii. (1899) p. 216; C. G. Seligmann, The Melanesians of British New Guinea (Cambridge, 1910), p. 279; K. Vetter, Komm herüber und hilf uns! oder die Arbeit der Neuen-Dettelsauer Mission, iii. (Barmen, 1898) pp. 10 sq.; id., in Nachrichten über Kaiser-Wilhelmsland und den Bismarck-Archipel, 1897, pp. 94, 98; A. Deniau, “Croyances religieuses et mœurs des indigènes de l'ile Malo,” Missions Catholiques, xxxiii. (1901) pp. 315 sq.; C. Ribbe, Zwei Jahre unter den Kannibalen der Salomo-Inseln (Dresden-Blasewitz, 1903), p. 268; P. A. Kleintitschen, Die Küstenbewohner der Gazellehalbinsel (Hiltrup bei Münster, n.d.), p. 344; P. Rascher, “Die Sulka,” Archiv für Anthropologie, xxix. (1904) pp. 221 sq.; R. Parkinson, Dreissig Jahre in der Südsee (Stuttgart, 1907), pp. 199-201; G. Brown, D.D., Melanesians and Polynesians (London, 1910), p. 176; Father Abinal, “Astrologie Malgache,” Missions Catholiques, xi. (1879) p. 506; A. Grandidier, “Madagascar,” Bulletin de la Société de Géographie (Paris), Sixième Série, iii. (1872) p. 399; Father Campana, “Congo, Mission Catholique de Landana,” Missions Catholiques, xxvii. (1895) pp. 102 sq.; Th. Masui, Guide de la Section de l'État Indépendant du Congo à l'Exposition de Bruxelles-Tervueren en 1897 (Brussels, 1897), p. 82. The discussion of this and similar evidence must be reserved for another work.

2.

C. Meiners, Geschichte der Religionen (Hannover, 1806-1807), i. 48.

3.

R. I. Dodge, Our Wild Indians, p. 112.

4.

F. Blumentritt, “Der Ahnencultus und die religiösen Anschauungen der Malaien des Philippinen-Archipels,” Mittheilungen d. Wiener geogr. Gesellschaft, 1882, p. 198.

5.

Sir James E. Alexander, Expedition of Discovery into the Interior of Africa, i. 166; H. Lichtenstein, Reisen im Südlichen Africa (Berlin, 1811-1812), i. 349 sq.; W. H. I. Bleek, Reynard the Fox in South Africa (London, 1864), pp. 75 sq.; Theophilus Hahn, Tsuni-Goam, the Supreme Being of the Khoi-Khoi (London, 1881), pp. 56, 69.

6.

Callimachus, Hymn to Zeus, 9 sq.; Diodorus Siculus, iii. 61; Lucian, Philopseudes, 3; id., Jupiter Tragoedus, 45; id., Philopatris, 10; Porphyry, Vita Pythagorae, 17; Cicero, De natura deorum, iii. 21. 53; Pomponius Mela, ii. 7. 112; Minucius Felix, Octavius, 21; Lactantius, Divin. instit. i. II.

7.

Plutarch, Isis et Osiris, 35; Philochorus, Fragm. 22, in C. Müller's Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum, i. p. 378; Tatian, Oratio ad Graecos, 8, ed. Otto; J. Tzetzes, Schol. on Lycophron, 208. Compare Ch. Petersen, “Das Grab und die Todtenfeier des Dionysos,” Philologus, xv. (1860) pp. 77-91. The grave of Dionysus is also said to have been at Thebes (Clemens Romanus, Recognitiones, x. 24; Migne's Patrologia Graeca, i. col. 1434).

8.

Porphyry, Vit. Pythag. 16.

9.

Philochorus, Fr. 184, in C. Müller's Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum, ii. p. 414.

10.

Ch. Lobeck, Aglaophamus (Königsberg, 1829), pp. 574 sq.

11.

G. Maspero, Histoire ancienne des peuples de l'Orient classique: les origines, pp. 108-111, 116-118. On the mortality of the Egyptian gods see further A. Moret, Le Rituel du culte divin journalier en Égypte (Paris, 1902), pp. 219 sqq.

12.

Plutarch, Isis et Osiris, 21, 22, 38, 61; Diodorus Siculus, i. 27. 4; Dittenberger, Orientis Graeci inscriptiones selectae, i. No. 56, p. 102.

13.

A. Wiedemann, Die Religion der alten Aegypter, pp. 59 sq.; G. Maspero, Histoire ancienne des peuples de l'Orient classique: les origines, pp. 104-108, 150. Indeed it was an article of the Egyptian creed that every god must die after he had begotten a son in his own likeness (A. Wiedemann, Herodots zweites Buch, p. 204). Hence the Egyptian deities were commonly arranged in trinities of a simple and natural type, each comprising a father, a mother, and a son. “Speaking generally, two members of such a triad were gods, one old and one young, and the third was a goddess, who was, naturally, the wife, or female counterpart, of the older god. The younger god was the son of the older god and goddess, and he was supposed to possess all the attributes and powers which belonged to his father.... The feminine counterpart or wife of the chief god was usually a local goddess of little or no importance; on the other hand, her son by the chief god was nearly as important as his father, because it was assumed that he would succeed to his rank and throne when the elder god had passed away. The conception of the triad or trinity is, in Egypt, probably as old as the belief in gods, and it seems to be based on the anthropomorphic views which were current in the earliest times about them” (E. A. Wallis Budge, The Gods of the Egyptians, London, 1904, i. 113 sq.). If the Christian doctrine of the Trinity took shape under Egyptian influence, the function originally assigned to the Holy Spirit may have been that of the divine mother. In the apocryphal Gospel to the Hebrews, as Mr. F. C. Conybeare was kind enough to point out to me, Christ spoke of the Holy Ghost as his mother. The passage is quoted by Origen (Comment. in Joan. II. vol. iv. col. 132, ed. Migne), and runs as follows: “My mother the Holy Spirit took me a moment ago by one of my hairs and carried me away to the great Mount Tabor.” Compare Origen, In Jeremiam Hom. XV. 4, vol. iii. col. 433, ed. Migne. In the reign of Trajan a certain Alcibiades, from Apamea in Syria, appeared at Rome with a volume in which the Holy Ghost was described as a stalwart female about ninety-six miles high and broad in proportion. See Hippolytus, Refut. omnium haeresium, ix. 13, p. 462, ed. Duncker and Schneidewin. The Ophites represented the Holy Spirit as “the first woman,” “mother of all living,” who was beloved by “the first man” and likewise by “the second man,” and who conceived by one or both of them “the light, which they call Christ.” See H. Usener, Das Weihnachtsfest, pp. 116 sq., quoting Irenaeus, i. 28. As to a female member of the Trinity, see further id., Dreiheit, ein Versuch mythologischer Zahlenlehre (Bonn, 1903), pp. 41 sqq.; Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, ch. 1. vol. ix. p. 261, note g (Edinburgh, 1811). Mr. Conybeare tells me that Philo Judaeus, who lived in the first half of the first century of our era, constantly defines God as a Trinity in Unity, or a Unity in Trinity, and that the speculations of this Alexandrian Jew deeply influenced the course of Christian thought on the mystical nature of the deity. Thus it seems not impossible that the ancient Egyptian doctrine of the divine Trinity may have been distilled through Philo into Christianity. On the other hand it has been suggested that the Christian Trinity is of Babylonian origin. See H. Zimmern, in E. Schrader's Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament,3 pp. 418 sq., 440.

14.

L. W. King, Babylonian Religion and Mythology (London, 1899), p. 8.

15.

Plutarch, De defectu oraculorum, 17.

16.

This is in substance the explanation briefly suggested by F. Liebrecht, and developed more fully and with certain variations of detail by S. Reinach. See F. Liebrecht, Des Gervasius von Tilbury Otia Imperialia (Hanover, 1856), p. 180; S. Reinach, Cultes, mythes et religions, iii. (Paris, 1908), pp. 1 sqq. As to the worship of Tammuz or Adonis in Syria and Greece see my Adonis, Attis, Osiris, Second Edition (London, 1907). In Plutarch's narrative confusion seems to have arisen through the native name (Tammuz) of the deity, which either accidentally coincided with that of the pilot (as S. Reinach thinks) or was erroneously transferred to him by a narrator (as F. Liebrecht supposed). An entirely different explanation of the story has been proposed by Dr. W. H. Roscher. He holds that the god whose death was lamented was the great ram-god of Mendes in Egypt, whom Greek writers constantly mistook for a goat-god and identified with Pan. A living ram was always revered as an incarnation of the god, and when it died there was a great mourning throughout all the land of Mendes. Some stone coffins of the sacred animal have been found in the ruins of the city. See Herodotus, ii. 46, with A. Wiedemann's commentary; W. H. Roscher, “Die Legende vom Tode des groszen Pan,” Fleckeisen's Jahrbücher für classische Philologie, xxxviii. (1892) pp. 465-477. Dr. Roscher shews that Thamus was an Egyptian name, comparing Plato, Phaedrus, p. 274 d e; Polyaenus, iii. 2. 5; Philostratus, Vit. Apollon. Tyan. vi. 5. 108. As to the worshipful goat, or rather ram, of Mendes, see also Diodorus Siculus, i. 84; Strabo, xvii. 1. 19, p. 802; Clement of Alexandria, Protrept. ii. 39, p. 34, ed. Potter; Suidas, s.v. Μένδην.

17.

F. Liebrecht, op. cit. pp. 180 sq.; W. Robertson Smith, Religion of the Semites,2 pp. 412, 414. The latter writer observes with justice that “the wailing for 'Uncūd, the divine Grape-cluster, seems to be the last survival of an old vintage piaculum.” “The dread of the worshippers,” he adds, “that the neglect of the usual ritual would be followed by disaster, is particularly intelligible if they regarded the necessary operations of agriculture as involving the violent extinction of a particle of divine life.” On the mortality of the gods in general and of the Teutonic gods in particular, see J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 i. 263 sqq.; compare E. H. Meyer, Mythologie der Germanen (Strasburg, 1903), p. 288. As to the mortality of the Irish gods, see Douglas Hyde, Literary History of Ireland (London, 1899), pp. 80 sq.

18.

“Der Muata Cazembe und die Völkerstämme der Maravis, Chevas, Muembas, Lundas und andere von Süd-Afrika,” Zeitschrift für allgemeine Erdkunde, vi. (1856) p. 395; F. T. Valdez, Six Years of a Traveller's Life in Western Africa (London, 1861), ii. 241 sq.

19.

See Taboo and the Perils of the Soul, pp. 6, 7 sq.

20.

See Taboo and the Perils of the Soul, pp. 26 sqq.

21.

W. W. Gill, Myths and Songs of the South Pacific (London, 1876), p. 163.

22.

H. A. Junod, Les Ba-Ronga (Neuchatel, 1898), pp. 381 sq.

23.

W. Barbrooke Grubb, An Unknown People in an Unknown Land (London, 1911), p. 120.

24.

T. C. Hodson, The Naga Tribes of Manipur (London, 1911), p. 159.

25.

Rev. J. Roscoe, The Baganda (London, 1911), p. 281.

26.

Ch. Wilkes, Narrative of the U.S. Exploring Expedition (London, 1845), iii. 96.

27.

U.S. Exploring Expedition, Ethnology and Philology, by H. Hale (Philadelphia, 1846), p. 65. Compare Th. Williams, Fiji and the Fijians,2 i. 183; J. E. Erskine, Journal of a Cruise among the Islands of the Western Pacific (London, 1853), p. 248.

28.

G. Turner, Samoa, p. 335.

29.

Martin Flad, A Short Description of the Falasha and Kamants in Abyssinia, p. 19.

30.

H. Diels, Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker,2 i. (Berlin, 1906) p. 81; id., Herakleitos von Ephesos2 (Berlin, 1909), p. 50, Frag. 136, ψυχαὶ ἀρηίφατοι καθαρώτεραι ἢ ἐνὶ νούσοις.

31.

F. de Castelnau, Expédition dans les parties centrales de l'Amérique du Sud, iv. (Paris, 1851) p. 380. Compare id. ii. 49 sq. as to the practice of the Chavantes, a tribe of Indians on the Tocantins river.

32.

R. Southey, History of Brazil, iii. (London, 1819) p. 619; R. F. Burton, in The Captivity of Hans Stade of Hesse (Hakluyt Society, London, 1874), p. 122.

33.

C. von Dittmar, “Über die Koräken und die ihnen sehr nahe verwandten Tschuktschen,” Bulletin de la Classe philologique de l'Académie Impériale des Sciences de St-Pétersbourg, xiii. (1856) coll. 122, 124 sq. The custom has now been completely abandoned. See W. Jochelson, “The Koryak, Religion and Myths” (Leyden and New York, 1905), p. 103 (Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History, The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, vol. vi. part i.).

34.

C. von Dittmar, op. cit. col. 132; De Wrangell, Le Nord de la Sibérie (Paris, 1843), i. 263 sq.; “Die Ethnographie Russlands nach A. F. Rittich,” Petermann's Mittheilungen, Ergänzungsheft, No. 54 (Gotha, 1878), pp. 14 sq.; “Der Anadyr-Bezirk nach A. W. Olssufjew,” Petermann's Mittheilungen, xlv. (1899) p. 230; V. Priklonski, “Todtengebräuche der Jakuten,” Globus, lix. (1891) p. 82; R. von Seidlitz, “Der Selbstmord bei den Tschuktschen,” ib. p. 111; Cremat, “Der Anadyrbezirk Sibiriens und seine Bevölkerung,” Globus, lxvi. (1894) p. 287; H. de Windt, Through the Gold-fields of Alaska to Bering Straits (London, 1898), pp. 223-225; W. Bogaras, “The Chukchee” (Leyden and New York, 1904-1909), pp. 560 sqq. (Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History, The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, vol. vii.).

35.

L. A. Waddell, “The Tribes of the Brahmaputra Valley,” Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, lxix. part iii. (1901) pp. 20, 24; T. C. Hodson, The Naga Tribes of Manipur (London, 1911), p. 151.

36.

K. Simrock, Handbuch der deutschen Mythologie,5 pp. 177 sq., 507; H. M. Chadwick, The Cult of Othin (London, 1899), pp. 13 sq., 34 sq.

37.

Procopius, De bello Gothico, ii. 14.

38.

J. Grimm, Deutsche Rechtsalterthümer,3 p. 488. A custom of putting the sick and aged to death seems to have prevailed in several branches of the Aryan family; it may at one time have been common to the whole stock. See J. Grimm, op. cit. pp. 486 sqq.; O. Schrader, Reallexikon der indogermanischen Altertumskunde, pp. 36-39.

39.

See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 4 sq.

40.

Taboo and the Perils of the Soul, pp. 5 sq.

41.

J. B. Labat, Relation historique de l'Éthiopie occidentale (Paris, 1732), i. 260 sq.; W. Winwood Reade, Savage Africa (London, 1863), p. 362.

42.

G. Merolla, Relazione del viaggio nel regno di Congo (Naples, 1726), p. 76. The English version of this passage (Pinkerton's Voyages and Travels, xvi. 228) has already been quoted by Sir John Lubbock (Lord Avebury) in his Origin of Civilisation,4 pp. 358 sq. In that version the native title of the pontiff is misspelt.

43.

Diodorus Siculus, iii. 6; Strabo, xvii. 2. 3, p. 822.

44.

R. Lepsius, Letters from Egypt, Ethiopia, and the peninsula of Sinai (London, 1853), pp. 202, 204. I have to thank Dr. E. Westermarck for pointing out these passages to me. Fazoql lies in the fork between the Blue Nile and its tributary the Tumat. See J. Russeger, Reisen in Europa, Asien und Afrika, ii. 2 (Stuttgart, 1844), p. 552 note.

45.

Brun-Rollet, Le Nil Blanc et le Soudan (Paris, 1855), pp. 248 sq. For the orgiastic character of these annual festivals, see id. p. 245. Fazolglou is probably the same as Fazoql. The people who practise the custom are called Bertat by E. Marno (Reisen im Gebiete des blauen und weissen Nil (Vienna, 1874), p. 68).

46.

J. Russegger, Reisen in Europa, Asien und Afrika, ii. 2, p. 553. Russegger met Assusa in January 1838, and says that the king had then been a year in office. He does not mention the name of the king's uncle who had, he tells us, been strangled by the chiefs; but I assume that he was the Yassin who is mentioned by Brun-Rollet. Russegger adds that the strangling of the king was performed publicly, and in the most solemn manner, and was said to happen often in Fazoql and the neighbouring countries.

47.

R. Lepsius, Letters from Egypt, Ethiopia, and the peninsula of Sinai (London, 1853), p. 204. Lepsius's letter is dated “The Pyramids of Meroë, 22nd April 1844.” His informant was Osman Bey, who had lived for sixteen years in these regions. An anqareb or angareb is a kind of bed made by stretching string or leather thongs over an oblong wooden framework.

48.

I have to thank Dr. Seligmann for his kindness and courtesy in transmitting to me his unpublished account and allowing me to draw on it at my discretion.

49.

As to Jŭok (Čuok), the supreme being of the Shilluk, see P. W. Hofmayr, “Religion der Schilluk,” Anthropos, vi. (1911) pp. 120-122, whose account agrees with the briefer one given by Dr. C. G. Seligmann. Otiose supreme beings (dieux fainéants) of this type, who having made the world do not meddle with it and to whom little or no worship is paid, are common in Africa.

50.

P. W. Hofmayr, “Religion der Schilluk,” Anthropos, vi. (1911) pp. 123, 125. This writer gives Nykang as the name of the first Shilluk king.

51.

P. W. Hofmayr, op. cit. p. 123.

52.

This is the view both of Dr. C. G. Seligmann and of Father P. W. Hofmayr (op. cit. p. 123).

53.

The word kengo is applied only to the shrines of Nyakang and the graves of the kings. Graves of commoners are called roro.

54.

On the use of flowing blood in rain-making ceremonies see The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, i. 256, 257 sq.

55.

Dr. C. G. Seligmann, The Shilluk Divine Kings (in manuscript).

56.

On this subject Dr. Seligmann writes to me (March 9th, 1911) as follows: “The assumption of the throne as the result of victory in single combat doubtless occurred once; at the present day and perhaps for the whole of the historic period it has been superseded by the ceremonial killing of the king, but I regard these stories as folk-lore indicating what once really happened.”

57.

These particulars I take from letters of Dr. C. G. Seligmann's to me (dated 8th February and 9th March 1911). They are not mentioned in the writer's paper on the subject.

58.

When one of the king's wives is with child, she remains at Fashoda till the fourth or fifth month of her pregnancy; she is then sent away to a village, not necessarily her own, where she remains under the charge of the village chief until she has finished nursing the child. Afterwards she returns to Fashoda, but the child invariably remains in the village of his or her birth and is brought up there. All royal children of either sex, in whatever part of the Shilluk territory they may happen to die, are buried the village where they were born.

59.

As to the disappearance of the early Roman kings see The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, vol. ii. pp. 312 sqq.; as to the disappearance of the early kings of Uganda, see the Rev. J. Roscoe, The Baganda (London, 1911), p. 214.

60.

See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, i. 1 sqq., ii. 376 sqq.

61.

“E. de Pruyssenaere's Reisen und Forschungen im Gebiete des Weissen und Blauen Nil,” Petermann's Mittheilungen, Ergänzungsheft, No. 50 (Gotha, 1877), pp. 18-23. Compare G. Schweinfurth, The Heart of Africa, Third Edition (London, 1878), i. 48 sqq. In the text I have followed de Pruyssenaere's description of the privations endured by the Dinka in the dry season. But that description is perhaps only applicable in seasons of unusual drought, for Dr. C. G. Seligmann, writing from personal observation, informs me that he regards the description as much overdrawn; in an average year, he tells me, the cattle do not die of famine and the natives are not starving. According to his information the drinking of the blood of their cattle is a luxury in which the Dinka indulge themselves at any time of the year.

62.

For this and the following information as to the religion, totemism, and rain-makers of the Dinka I am indebted to the kindness of Dr. C. G. Seligmann, who investigated the Shilluk and Dinka in 1909-1910 and has most obligingly placed his manuscript materials at my disposal.

63.

On the importance of the rain-makers among the Dinka and other tribes of the Upper Nile, see The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, i. 345 sqq.

64.

Emin Pasha in Central Africa, being a Collection of his Letters and Journals (London, 1888), p. 91; J. G. Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, ii. 529 sq. (from information given by the Rev. John Roscoe).

65.

Father Guillemé, in Annales de la Propagation de la Foi, lx. (1888) p. 258; id., “Credenze religiose dei Negri di Kibanga nell' Alto Congo,” Archivio per lo studio delle tradizioni popolari, vii. (1888) p. 231.

66.

The Travels of the Jesuits in Ethiopia, collected and historically digested by F. Balthazar Tellez, of the Society of Jesus (London, 1710), p. 197. We may compare the death of Saul (1 Samuel, xxxi. 3-6).

67.

Lieut. H. Pope-Hennessy, “Notes on the Jukos and other Tribes of the Middle Benue,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxx. (1900) p. (29).

68.

J. G. Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, ii. 608, on the authority of Mr. H. R. Palmer, Resident in Charge of Katsina.

69.

F. T. Valdez, Six Years of a Traveller's Life in Western Africa (London, 1861), ii. 194 sq.

70.

Nathaniel Isaacs, Travels and Adventures in Eastern Africa (London, 1836), i. 295 sq., compare pp. 232, 290 sq.

71.

The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, i. 392.

72.

J. dos Santos, “Eastern Ethiopia,” in G. McCall Theal's Records of Southeastern Africa, vii. (1901) pp. 194 sq. A more highly-flavoured and full-bodied, though less slavishly accurate, translation of this passage is given in Pinkerton's Voyages and Travels, xvi. 684, where the English translator has enriched the unadorned simplicity of the Portuguese historian's style with “the scythe of time” and other flowers of rhetoric.

73.

J. dos Santos, op. cit. p. 193.

74.

Xenophon, Hellenica, iii. 3. 3; Plutarch, Agesilaus, 3; id., Lysander, 22; Pausanias, iii. 8. 9.

75.

Herodotus, iii. 20; Aristotle, Politics, iv. 4. 4.; Athenaeus, xiii. 20, p. 566. According to Nicolaus Damascenus (Fr. 142, in Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum, ed. C. Müller, iii. p. 463), the handsomest and bravest man was only raised to the throne when the king had no heirs, the heirs being the sons of his sisters. But this limitation is not mentioned by the other authorities.

76.

G. Nachtigal, Saharâ und Sûdân, iii. (Leipsic, 1889) p. 225; A. Bastian, Die deutsche Expedition an der Loango-Küste (Jena, 1874-75), i. 220.

77.

P. W. Joyce, Social History of Ancient Ireland (London, 1903), i. 311.

78.

Strabo, xvii. 2. 3, p. 823; Diodorus Siculus, iii. 7.

79.

Mohammed Ebn-Omar El-Tounsy, Voyage au Darfour (Paris, 1845), pp. 162 sq.; Travels of an Arab Merchant in Soudan, abridged from the French by Bayle St. John (London, 1854), p. 78; Bulletin de la Société de Géographie (Paris), IVme Série, iv. (1852) pp. 539 sq.

80.

R. W. Felkin, “Notes on the Waganda Tribe of Central Africa,” in Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, xiii. (1884-1886) p. 711; J. Roscoe, “Further Notes on the Manners and Customs of the Baganda,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxii. (1902) p. 77 (as to sneezing).

81.

Narrative of Events in Borneo and Celebes, from the Journal of James Brooke, Esq., Rajah of Sarawak, by Captain R. Mundy, i. 134. My friend the late Mr. Lorimer Fison, in a letter of August 26th, 1898, told me that the custom of falling down whenever a chief fell was observed also in Fiji, where it had a special name, bale muri, “fall-follow.”

82.

Mgr. Bruguière, in Annales de l'Association de la Propagation de la Foi, v. (1831) pp. 174 sq.

83.

A. Dalzel, History of Dahomy (London, 1793), pp. 12 sq., 156 sq.

84.

Father Baudin, “Le Fétichisme ou la religion des Nègres de la Guinée,” Missions Catholiques, xvi. (1884) p. 215.

85.

Missionary Holley, “Étude sur les Egbas,” Missions Catholiques, xiii. (1881) pp. 351 sq. Here Oyo is probably the same as Eyeo mentioned above.

86.

Simon Grunau, Preussische Chronik, herausgegeben von Dr. M. Perlbach (Leipsic, 1876), i. p. 97.

87.

Lucian, De morte Peregrini. That Lucian's account of the mountebank's death is not a fancy picture is proved by the evidence of Tertullian, Ad martyres, 4, “Peregrinus qui non olim se rogo immisit.”

88.

D. S. Macgowan, M.D., “Self-immolation by Fire in China,” The Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal, xix. (1888) pp. 445-451, 508-521.

89.

E. W. Nelson, “The Eskimo about Bering Strait,” Eighteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Part I. (Washington, 1899), pp. 320, 433 sq.

90.

Revelation xx. 1-3.

91.

Revelation xiii. 18.

92.

Ivan Stchoukine, Le Suicide collectif dans le Raskol russe (Paris, 1903), pp. 45-53, 61-78, 84-87, 96-99, 102-112. The mania in its most extreme form died away towards the end of the seventeenth century, but during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries cases of collective suicide from religious motives occurred from time to time, people burning themselves in families or in batches of thirty or forty. The last of these suicides by fire took place in 1860, when fifteen persons thus perished in the Government of Olonetz. Twenty-four others buried themselves alive near Tiraspol in the winter of 1896-97. See I. Stchoukine, op. cit. pp. 114-126.

93.

Voltaire, Essai sur les Mœurs, iii. 142-145 (Œuvres complètes de Voltaire, xiii. Paris, 1878).

94.

Duarte Barbosa, A Description of the Coasts of East Africa and Malabar in the Beginning of the Sixteenth Century (Hakluyt Society, London, 1866), pp. 172 sq.

95.

L. di Varthema, Travels, translated by J. W. Jones and edited by G. P. Badger (Hakluyt Society, London, 1863), p. 134. In a note the Editor says that the name Zamorin (Samorin) according to some “is a corruption of Tamuri, the name of the most exalted family of the Nair caste.”

96.

Francis Buchanan, “Journey from Madras through the Countries of Mysore, Canara, and Malabar,” in Pinkerton's Voyages and Travels, viii. 735.

97.

Alex. Hamilton, “A New Account of the East Indies,” in Pinkerton's Voyages and Travels, viii. 374.

98.

The sidereal revolution of Jupiter is completed in 11 years 314.92 days (Encyclopaedia Britannica, Ninth Edition, s.v. “Astronomy,” ii. 808). The twelve-years revolution of Jupiter was known to the Greek astronomers, from whom the knowledge may perhaps have penetrated into India. See Geminus, Eisagoge, I, p. 10, ed. Halma.

99.

W. Logan, Malabar (Madras, 1887), i. 162-169. The writer describes in particular the festival of 1683, when fifty-five men perished in the manner described.

100.

Sir H. M. Elliot, The History of India as told by its own Historians, iv. 260. I have to thank Mr. R. S. Whiteway, of Brownscombe, Shottermill, Surrey, for kindly calling my attention to this and the following instance of the custom of regicide.

101.

De Barros, Da Asia, dos feitos, que os Portuguezes fizeram no descubrimento e conquista dos mares e terras do Oriente, Decada Terceira, Liv. V. cap. i. pp. 512 sq. (Lisbon, 1777).

102.

Saxo Grammaticus,Historia Danica, viii. pp. 410 sq., ed. P. E. Müller (p. 334 of Mr. Oliver Elton's English translation).

103.

T. K. Gopal Panikkar (of the Madras Registration Department), Malabar and its Folk (Madras, N. D., preface dated Chowghaut, 8th October 1900), pp. 120 sq. I have to thank my friend Mr. W. Crooke for calling my attention to this account.

104.

Voyage d'Ibn Batoutah, texte arabe, accompagné d'une traduction par C. Deffrémery et B. R. Sanguinetti (Paris, 1853-58), iv. 246 sq.

105.

The Wonders of the East, by Friar Jordanus, translated by Col. Henry Yule (London, 1863, Hakluyt Society), pp. 32 sq.

106.

India in the Fifteenth Century, being a Collection of Voyages to India in the century preceding the Portuguese discovery of the Cape of Good Hope, edited by R. H. Major (Hakluyt Society, London, 1857), “The Travels of Nicolo Conti in the East,” pp. 27 sq. An instrument of the sort described in the text (a crescent-shaped knife with chains and stirrups attached to it for the convenience of the suicide) used to be preserved at Kshira, a village of Bengal near Nadiya: it was called a karavat. See The Book of Ser Marco Polo, newly translated and edited by Colonel Henry Yule, Second Edition (London, 1875), ii. 334.

107.

Major P. R. T. Gurdon, The Khasis (London, 1907), pp. 102 sq., quoting Mr. Gait in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal for 1898.

108.

E. T. Dalton, Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal (Calcutta, 1872), p. 146.

109.

F. T. Valdez, Six Years of a Traveller's Life in Western Africa (London, 1861), ii. 158-160. I have translated the title Maquita by “chief”; the writer does not explain it.

110.

Ynglinga Saga, 29 (The Heimskringla, translated by S. Laing, i. 239 sq.). Compare H. M. Chadwick, The Cult of Othin (London, 1899), p. 4. According to Messrs. Laing and Chadwick the sacrifice took place every tenth year. But I follow Prof. K. Weinhold who translates “hit tiunda hvert ár” by “alle neun Jahre” (“Die mystische Neunzahl bei den Deutschen,” Abhandlungen der könig. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1897, p. 6). So in Latin decimo quoque anno should be translated “every ninth year.”

111.

Saxo Grammaticus, Historia Danica, iii. pp. 129-131, ed. P. E. Müller (pp. 98 sq. of Oliver Elton's English translation).

112.

Adam of Bremen, Descriptio insularum Aquilonis, 27 (Migne's Patrologia Latina, cxlvi. col. 644). See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, vol. ii. pp. 364 sq.

113.

Plutarch, Agis, II. Plutarch says that the custom was observed “at intervals of nine years” (δι᾽ ἐτῶν ἐννέα), but the expression is equivalent to our “at intervals of eight years.” In reckoning intervals of time numerically the Greeks included both the terms which are separated by the interval, whereas we include only one of them. For example, our phrase “every second day” would be rendered in Greek διὰ τρίτης ἡμέρας, literally “every third day.” Again, a cycle of two years is in Greek trieteris, literally “a period of three years”; a cycle of eight years is ennaeteris, literally “a period of nine years”; and so forth. See Censorinus, De die natali, 18. The Latin use of the ordinal numbers is similar, e.g. our “every second year” would be tertio quoque anno in Latin. However, the Greeks and Romans were not always consistent in this matter, for they occasionally reckoned in our fashion. The resulting ambiguity is not only puzzling to moderns; it sometimes confused the ancients themselves. For example, it led to a derangement of the newly instituted Julian calendar, which escaped detection for more than thirty years. See Macrobius, Saturn. i. 14. 13 sq.; Solinus, i. 45-47. On the ancient modes of counting in such cases see A. Schmidt, Handbuch der griechischen Chronologie (Jena, 1888), pp. 95 sqq. According to Schmidt, the practice of adding both terms to the sum of the intervening units was not extended by the Greeks to numbers above nine.

114.

Die Dorier,2 ii. 96.

115.

E. Man, Aboriginal Inhabitants of the Andaman Islands, pp. 84 sq.

116.

W. E. Roth, North Queensland Bulletin, No. 5, Superstition, Magic, and Medicine (Brisbane, 1903), p. 8.

117.

A. W. Howitt, The Native Tribes of South-East Australia, p. 429.

118.

A. W. Howitt, op. cit. p. 430. One of the earliest writers on New South Wales reports that the natives attributed great importance to the falling of a star (D. Collins,Account of the English Colony in New South Wales (London, 1804), p. 383).

119.

Spencer and Gillen, Northern Tribes of Central Australia, p. 627.

120.

Spencer and Gillen, op. cit. pp. 488, 627 sq.

121.

G. Thilenius, Ethnographische Ergebnisse aus Melanesien, ii. (Halle, 1903) p. 129.

122.

H. A. Junod, Les Ba-ronga (Neuchatel, 1898), p. 470.

123.

A. C. Hollis, The Masai (Oxford, 1905), p. 316.

124.

J. Campbell, Travels in South Africa (London, 1815), pp. 428 sq.

125.

Id., Travels in South Africa, Second Journey (London, 1822), ii. 204.

126.

G. Zündel, “Land und Volk der Eweer auf der Sclavenküste in Westafrika,” Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu Berlin, xii. (1877) pp. 415 sq.; C. Spiess, “Religionsbegriffe der Evheer in Westafrika,” Mittheilungen des Seminars für Orientalische Sprachen zu Berlin, vi. (1903) Dritte Abtheilung, p. 112.

127.

Boscana, “Chinigchinich, a Historical Account of the Origin, etc., of the Indians of St. Juan Capistrano,” in A. Robinson's Life in California (New York, 1846), p. 299.

128.

C. Lumholtz, Unknown Mexico (London, 1903), i. 324 sq.

129.

K. von den Steinen, Unter den Naturvölkern Zentral-Brasiliens (Berlin, 1894), pp. 514 sq. The Peruvian Indians also made a prodigious noise when they saw a shooting star. See P. de Cieza de Leon, Travels (Hakluyt Society, London, 1864), p. 232.

130.

G. Kurze, “Sitten und Gebräuche der Lengua-Indianer,” Mitteilungen der Geographischen Gesellschaft zu Jena, xxiii. (1905) p. 17; W. Barbrooke Grubb, An Unknown People in an Unknown Land (London, 1911), p. 163.

131.

M. Dobrizhoffer, Historia de Abiponibus (Vienna, 1784), ii. 86.

132.

W. Tetzlaff, “Notes on the Laughlan Islands,” Annual Report on British New Guinea, 1890-91 (Brisbane, 1892), p. 105.

133.

H. Oldenberg, Die Religion des Veda, p. 267.

134.

W. Crooke, Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India (Westminster, 1906), ii. 22.

135.

Holzmayer, “Osiliana,” Verhandlungen der gelehrten Estnischen Gesellschaft zu Dorpat, vii. (1872) p. 48.

136.

Guillain, Documents sur l'histoire, la géographie, et le commerce de l'Afrique Orientale, ii. (Paris, N.D.) p. 97; C. Velten, Sitten und Gebräuche der Suaheli (Göttingen, 1903), pp. 339 sq.; C. B. Klunzinger, Upper Egypt (London, 1878), p. 405; Budgett Meakin, The Moors (London, 1902), p. 353.

137.

E. Dieffenbach, Travels in New Zealand (London, 1843), ii. 66. According to another account, meteors are regarded by the Maoris as betokening the presence of a god (R. Taylor, Te Ika a Maui, or New Zealand and its Inhabitants,2 p. 147).

138.

Ch. Wilkes, Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition, v. 88.

139.

A. W. Howitt, Native Tribes of South-East Australia, p. 369.

140.

A. W. Howitt, in Brough Smyth's Aborigines of Victoria, ii. 309.

141.

E. Palmer, “Notes on some Australian Tribes,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xiii. (1884) p. 292. Sometimes apparently the Australian natives regard crystals or broken glass as fallen stars, and treasure them as powerful instruments of magic. See E. M. Curr, The Australian Race, iii. 29; W. E. Roth, North Queensland Ethnography, Bulletin No. 5, p. 8.

142.

J. Macgillivray, Narrative of the Voyage of H.M.S. Rattlesnake (London, 1852), ii. 30.

143.

P. A. Kleintitschen, Die Küstenbewohner der Gazellehalbinsel (Hiltrup bei Münster, n.d.), p. 227.

144.

P. Rascher, “Die Sulka,” Archiv für Anthropologie, xxix. (1904) p. 216.

145.

Dudley Kidd, Savage Childhood (London, 1906), p. 149.

146.

J. Halkin, Quelques Peuplades du district de l'Uelé (Liège, 1907), p. 102.

147.

O. Baumann, Durch Massailand zur Nilquelle (Berlin, 1894), p. 163.

148.

O. Baumann, Durch Massailand zur Nilquelle (Berlin, 1894), p. 188.

149.

E. Petitot, Monographie des Dènè-Dindjé (Paris, 1876), p. 60; id., Monographie des Esquimaux Tchiglit (Paris, 1876), p. 24.

150.

A. Henry, “The Lolos and other Tribes of Western China,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxiii. (1903) p. 103.

151.

Pliny, Nat. Hist. ii. 28.

152.

F. Panzer, Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie, ii. 293; A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche, p. 457, § 422; E. Meier, Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben, p. 506, §§ 379, 380.

153.

P. Sébillot, Traditions et superstitions de la Haute-Bretagne, ii. 353; J. Haltrich, Zur Volkskunde der Siebenbürger Sachsen (Vienna, 1885), p. 300; W. Schmidt, Das Jahr und seine Tage in Meinung und Brauch der Romänen Siebenbürgens, p. 38; E. Gerard, The Land beyond the Forest, i. 311; J. V. Grohmann, Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren, p. 31, § 164; Br. Jelínek, “Materialien zur Vorgeschichte und Volkskunde Böhmens,” Mittheilungen der anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien, xxi. (1891) p. 25; G. Finamore, Credenze, usi e costumi Abruzzesi, pp. 47 sq.; M. Placucci, Usi e pregiudizj dei contadini della Romagna (Palermo, 1885), p. 141; Holzmayer, “Osiliana,” Verhandl. der gelehrten Estnischen Gesellschaft zu Dorpat, vii. (1872) p. 48. The same belief is said to prevail in Armenia. See Minas Tchéraz, “Notes sur la mythologie arménienne,” Transactions of the Ninth International Congress of Orientalists (London, 1893), ii. 824. Bret Harte has employed the idea in his little poem, “Relieving Guard.”

154.

H. Lew, “Der Tod und die Beerdigungs-gebräuche bei den polnischen Juden,” Mittheilungen der anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien, xxxii. (1902) p. 402.

155.

A. Schlossar, “Volksmeinung und Volksaberglaube aus der deutschen Steiermark,” Germania, N.R., xxiv. (1891) p. 389.

156.

Boecler-Kreutzwald, Der Ehsten abergläubische Gebräuche, Weisen und Gewohnheiten (St. Petersburg, 1854), p. 73.

157.

E. Monseur, Le Folklore wallon, p. 61; A. de Nore, Coutumes, mythes et traditions des provinces de France, pp. 101, 160, 223, 267, 284; B. Souché, Croyances, présages et traditions diverses, p. 23; P. Sébillot, Traditions et superstitions de la Haute-Bretagne, ii. 352; J. Lecœur, Esquisses du bocage normand, ii. 13; L. Pineau, Folk-lore du Poitou (Paris, 1892), pp. 525 sq.

158.

L. F. Sauvé. Le Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges (Paris, 1889), pp. 196 sq.

159.

F. Chapiseau, Le Folk-lore de la Beauce et du Perche (Paris, 1902), i. 290; G. Finamore, Credenze, usi e costumi Abruzzesi (Palermo, 1890), p. 48.

160.

North Indian Notes and Queries, i. p. 102, § 673. Compare id. p. 47, § 356; Indian Notes and Queries, iv. p. 184, § 674; W. Crooke, Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India (Westminster, 1896), i. 82.

161.

W. Ellis, Polynesian Researches,2 iii. 171.

162.

Maximilian Prinz zu Wied, Reise in das Innere Nord-America (Coblenz, 1839-1841), ii. 152. It does not, however, appear from the writer's statement whether the descent of the soul was identified with the flight of a meteor or not.

163.

D. C. J. Ibbetson, Outlines of Panjab Ethnography (Calcutta, 1883), p. 118, § 231.

164.

L. Ideler, Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie, ii. 605 sqq. Ninety-nine lunar months nearly coincide with eight solar years, as the ancients well knew (Sozomenus, Historia ecclesiastica, vii. 18). On the religious and political import of the eight years' cycle in ancient Greece see especially K. O. Müller, Orchomenus und die Minyer,2 pp. 213-218; id., Die Dorier,2 i. 254 sq., 333 sq., 440, ii. 96, 483; id., Prolegomena zu einer wissenschaftlichen Mythologie (Göttingen, 1825), pp. 422-424.

165.

“Ancient opinion even assigned the regulation of the calendar by the solstices and equinoxes to the will of the gods that sacrifices should be rendered at similar times in each year, rather than to the strict requirements of agriculture; and as religion undoubtedly makes larger demands on the cultivator as agriculture advances, the obligations of sacrifice may probably be reckoned as of equal importance with agricultural necessities in urging the formation of reckonings in the nature of a calendar” (E. J. Payne, History of the New World called America, ii. 280).

166.

As to the eight years' servitude of Apollo and Cadmus for the slaughter of dragons, see below, p. 78. For the nine years' penance of the man who had tasted human flesh at the festival of Zeus on Mount Lycaeus, see Pliny, Nat. hist. viii. 81 sq.; Augustine, De civitate Dei, xviii. 17; Pausanias, viii. 2. 6; compare Plato, Republic, viii. p. 565 D E. Any god who forswore himself by the water of Styx was exiled for nine years from the society of his fellow-gods (Hesiod, Theogony, 793-804). On this subject see further, E. Rohde, Psyche,3 ii. 211 sq.; W. H. Roscher, “Die enneadischen und hebdomadischen Fristen und Wochen der ältesten Griechen,” Abhandlungen der philolog.-histor. Klasse der Königl. Sächsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, xxi. No. 4 (1903), pp. 24 sqq.

167.

Plato, Meno, p. 81 a-c; Pindar, ed. Boeckh, vol. iii. pp. 623 sq., Frag. 98.

168.

Homer, Odyssey, xix. 178 sq., τῇσι δ᾽ ἐνὶ Κνωσός, μεγάλη πόλις, ἔνθα τε Μίνως ἐννέωρος βασίλευε Διὸς μεγάλου ὀαριστής. with the Scholia; Plato, Laws, i. I. p. 624 a, b;[id.] Minos, 13 sq., pp. 319 sq.; Strabo, ix. 4. 8, p. 476; Maximus Tyrius, Dissert. xxxviii. 2; Etymologicum magnum, s.v. ἐννέωροι, p. 343, 23 sqq.; Valerius Maximus, i. 2, ext. I; compare Diodorus Siculus, v. 78. 3. Homer's expression, ἐννέωρος βασίλευε, has been variously explained. I follow the interpretation which appears to have generally found favour both with the ancients, including Plato, and with modern scholars. See K. Hoeck, Kreta, i. 244 sqq.; K. O. Müller,Die Dorier,2 ii. 96; G. F. Unger, “Zeitrechnung der Griechen und Römer,” in Ivan Müller's Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft, i. 569; A. Schmidt, Handbuch der griechischen Chronologie (Jena, 1888), p. 65; W. H. Roscher, “Die enneadischen und hebdomadischen Fristen und Wochen der ältesten Griechen,” Abhandlungen der philolog.-histor. Klasse der Königl. Sächsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, xxi. No. 4 (Leipsic, 1903), pp. 22 sq.; E. Rohde, Psyche,3 i. 128 sq. Literally interpreted, ἐννέωρος means “for nine years,” not “for eight years.” But see above, p. 59, note 1.

169.

Apollodorus, iii. 1. 3 sq., iii. 15. 8; Diodorus Siculus, iv. 77; Schol. on Euripides, Hippolytus, 887; J. Tzetzes, Chiliades, i. 479 sqq.; Hyginus, Fabulae, 40; Virgil, Ecl. vi. 45 sqq.; Ovid, Ars amat. i. 289 sqq.

170.

K. Hoeck, Kreta, ii. (Göttingen, 1828) pp. 63-69; L. Preller, Griechische Mythologie,3 ii. 119-123; W. H. Roscher, Über Selene mid Verwandtes (Leipsic, 1890), pp. 135-139; id., Nachträge zu meiner Schrift über Selene (Leipsic, 1895), p. 3; Türk, in W. H. Roscher's Lexikon der griech. und röm. Mythologie, iii. 1666 sq.; A. J. Evans, “Mycenaean Tree and Pillar Cult,” Journal of Hellenic Studies, xxi. (1901) p. 181; A. B. Cook, “Zeus, Jupiter, and the Oak,” Classical Review, xvii. (1903) pp. 406-412; compare id., “The European Sky-god,” Folklore, xv. (1904) p. 272. All these writers, except Mr. Cook, regard Minos and Pasiphae as representing the sun and moon. Mr. Cook agrees so far as relates to Minos, but he supposes Pasiphae to be a sky-goddess or sun-goddess rather than a goddess of the moon. On the other hand, he was the first to suggest that the myth was periodically acted by the king and queen of Cnossus disguised in bovine form.

171.

Compare The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 368 sq.

172.

Bekker's Anecdota Graeca, i. 344, s.v. Ἀδιούνιος ταῦρος.

173.

Eusebius, Praeparatio Evangelii, iii. 13. 1 sq.; Diodorus Siculus, i. 84. 4, i. 88. 4; Strabo, xvii. 1. 22 and 27, pp. 803, 805; Aelian, De natura animalium, xi. II; Suidas, s.v. Ἆπις; Ammianus Marcellinus, xxii. 14. 7; A. Wiedemann, Herodots Zweites Buch, p. 552; A. Erman, Die ägyptische Religion (Berlin, 1905), p. 26; E. A. Wallis Budge, The Gods of the Egyptians (London, 1904), i. 330.

174.

E. A. Wallis Budge, The Gods of the Egyptians, i. 25.

175.

Pausanias, i. 26. 1. For a description of the scenery of this coast, see Morritt, in Walpole's Memoirs relating to European Turkey, i.2 p. 54.

176.

W. H. Roscher, Über Selene und Verwandtes, pp. 30-33.

177.

See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 130 sqq. We are told that Egyptian sovereigns assumed the masks of lions, bulls, and serpents as symbols of power (Diodorus Siculus, i. 62. 4).

178.

As to Minos and Britomartis or Dictynna, see Callimachus, Hymn to Diana, 189 sqq.; Pausanias, ii. 30. 3; Antoninus Liberalis, Transform. 40; Diodorus Siculus, v. 76. On Britomartis as a moon-goddess, see K. Hoeck, Kreta, ii. 170; W. H. Roscher, Über Selene und Verwandtes, pp. 45 sq., 116-118. Hoeck acutely perceived that the pursuit of Britomartis by Minos “is a trait of old festival customs in which the conceptions of the sun-god were transferred to the king of the island.” As to the explanation here adopted of the myth of Zeus and Europa, see K. Hoeck, Kreta, i. 90 sqq.; W. H. Roscher, op. cit. pp. 128-135. Moschus describes (ii. 84 sqq.) the bull which carried off Europa as yellow in colour with a silver circle shining on his forehead, and he compares the bull's horns to those of the moon.

179.

See W. H. Roscher, op. cit. pp. 76-82. Amongst the passages of classical writers which he cites are Plutarch, De facie in orbe lunae, 30; id., Isis et Osiris, 52; Cornutus, Theologiae Graecae compendium, 34, p. 72, ed. C. Lang; Proclus, on Hesiod, Works and Days, 780; Macrobius, Commentar. in Somnium Scipionis, i. 18. 10 sq.; Pliny, Nat. hist. ii. 45. When the sun and moon were eclipsed, the Tahitians supposed that the luminaries were in the act of copulation (J. Wilson, Missionary Voyage to the Southern Pacific Ocean (London, 1799), p. 346).

180.

Plutarch, Theseus, 15 sq.; Diodorus Siculus, iv. 61; Pausanias, i. 27. 10; Ovid, Metam. viii. 170 sq. According to another account, the tribute of youths and maidens was paid every year. See Virgil, Aen. vi. 14 sqq., with the commentary of Servius; Hyginus, Fabulae, 41.

181.

Apollodorus, i. 9. 26; Apollonius Rhodius, Argon. iv. 1638 sqq., with the scholium; Agatharchides, in Photius, Bibliotheca, p. 443b, lines 22-25, ed. Bekker; Lucian, De saltatione, 49; Zenobius, v. 85; Suidas, s.v. Σαρδάνιος γέλως; Eustathius on Homer, Odyssey, xx. 302, p. 1893; Schol. on Plato, Republic, i. p. 337A.

182.

Apollodorus, i. 9. 26.

183.

Hesychius, s.v. Ταλῶς.

184.

Diodorus Siculus, xx. 14; Clitarchus, cited by Suidas, s.v. Σαρδάνιος γέλως, and by the Scholiast on Plato, Republic, p. 337A; Plutarch, De superstitione, 13; Paulus Fagius, quoted by Selden, De dis Syris (Leipsic, 1668), pp. 169 sq. The calf's head of the idol is mentioned only by P. Fagius, who drew his account from a book Jalkut by Rabbi Simeon.

185.

Compare M. Mayer, s.v. “Kronos,” in W. H. Roscher's Lexikon d. griech. u. röm. Mythologie, iii. 1501 sqq.

186.

J. Tzetzes, Chiliades, i. 646 sqq.

187.

Homer, Iliad, xviii. 590 sqq.

188.

Plutarch, Theseus, 21; Julius Pollux, iv. 101.

189.

As to the Game of Troy, see Virgil, Aen. v. 545-603; Plutarch, Cato, 3; Tacitus, Annals, xi. 11; Suetonius, Augustus, 43; id., Tiberius, 6; id., Caligula, 18; id., Nero, 6; W. Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities,3 s.v. “Trojae ludus”; O. Benndorf, “Das Alter des Trojaspieles,” appended to W. Reichel's Über homerische Waffen (Vienna, 1894), pp. 133-139.

190.

O. Benndorf, op. cit. pp. 133 sq.

191.

B. V. Head, Historia numorum (Oxford, 1887), pp. 389-391.

192.

O. Benndorf, op. cit. pp. 134 sq.

193.

Pliny, Nat. hist. xxxvi. 85.

194.

O. Benndorf, op. cit. p. 135; W. Meyer, “Ein Labyrinth mit Versen,” Sitzungsberichte der philosoph. philolog. und histor. Classe der k. b. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu München, 1882, vol. ii. pp. 267-300.

195.

See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, i. 312.

196.

B. V. Head, Historia numorum, p. 389.

197.

Censorinus, De die natali, 18. 6.

198.

The suggestion was made by Mr. A. B. Cook. The following discussion of the subject is founded on his ingenious exposition. See his article, “The European Sky-god,” Folklore, xv. (1904) pp. 402-424.

199.

As to the Delphic festival see Plutarch, Quaest. Graec. 12; id., De defectu oraculorum, 15; Strabo, ix. 3. 12, pp. 422 sq.; Aelian, Var. hist. iii. 1; Stephanus Byzantius, s.v. Δειπνίας; K. O. Müller, Die Dorier,2 i. 203 sqq., 321-324; Aug. Mommsen, Delphika (Leipsic, 1878), pp. 206 sqq.; Th. Schreiber, Apollo Pythoktonos, pp. 9 sqq.; my note on Pausanias, ii. 7. 7 (vol. ii. 53 sqq.). As to the Theban festival, see Pausanias, ix. 10. 4, with my note; Proclus, quoted by Photius, Bibliotheca, p. 321, ed. Bekker; Aug. Boeckh, in his edition of Pindar, Explicationes, p. 590; K. O. Müller, Orchomenus und die Minyer,2 pp. 215 sq.; id., Dorier,2 i. 236 sq., 333 sq.; C. Boetticher, Der Baumkultus der Hellenen, pp. 386 sqq.; G. F. Schömann, Griechische Alterthümer,4 ii. 479 sq.

200.

Apollodorus, iii. 4. 2, iii. 10. 4; Servius, on Virgil, Aen. vii. 761. The servitude of Apollo is traditionally associated with his slaughter of the Cyclopes, not of the dragon. But see my note on Pausanias, ii. 7. 7 (vol. ii. pp. 53 sqq.).

201.

W. H. Roscher's Lexikon d. griech. und röm. Mythologie, ii. 830, 838, 839. On an Etruscan mirror the scene of Cadmus's combat with the dragon is surrounded by a wreath of laurel (Roscher, op. cit. ii. 862). Mr. A. B. Cook was the first to call attention to these vase-paintings in confirmation of my view that the Festival of the Laurel-bearing celebrated the destruction of the dragon by Cadmus (Folklore, xv. (1904) p. 411, note 224).

202.

Pausanias, ix. 10. 2; K. O. Müller, Die Dorier,2 i. 237 sq.

203.

For evidence of the wide diffusion of the myth and the drama, see Th. Schreiber, Apollon Pythoktonos, pp. 39-50. The Laurel-bearing Apollo was worshipped at Athens, as we know from an inscription carved on one of the seats in the theatre. See E. S. Roberts and E. A. Gardner, Introduction to Greek Epigraphy, ii. (Cambridge, 1905) p. 467, No. 247.

204.

Apollodorus, iii. 4. 3; Schol. on Homer, Iliad, ii. 494; Pausanias, ix. 10. 5; Homeric Hymn to Apollo, 300 sq. The writer of the Homeric hymn merely says that Apollo slew the Delphic dragon at a spring; but Pausanias (x. 6. 6) tells us that the beast guarded the oracle.

205.

Pausanias, x. 8. 9, x. 24. 7, with my notes; Ovid, Amores, i. 15. 35 sq.; Lucian, Jupiter tragoedus, 30; Nonnus, Dionys. iv. 309 sq.; Suidas, s.v. Κασταλία.

206.

W. H. Roscher, Lexikon d. griech. u. röm. Mythologie, ii. 830, 838.

207.

Euripides, Iphigenia in Tauris, 1245 sq., where the reading κατάχαλκος is clearly corrupt.

208.

Lucian, Bis accusatus, I. So the priest of the Clarian Apollo at Colophon drank of a secret spring before he uttered oracles in verse (Tacitus, Annals, ii. 54; Pliny, Nat. hist. ii. 232).

209.

Euripides, Iphigenia in Tauris, 1245 sqq.; Apollodorus, i. 4. I; Pausanias, x. 6. 6; Aelian, Var. hist. iii. i; Hyginus, Fabulae, 140; Schol. on Homer, Iliad, ii. 519; Schol. on Pindar, Pyth. Argument, p. 298, ed. Boeckh.

210.

Euripides, Hercules Furens, 395 sqq.; Apollodorus, ii. 5. II; Diodorus Siculus, iv. 26; Eratosthenes, Catasterism. 3; Schol. on Euripides, Hippolytus, 742; Schol. on Apollonius Rhodius, Argon, iv. 1396.

211.

A. B. Cook, “The European Sky-god,” Folklore, xv. (1904) p. 413.

212.

Ovid, Metam. i. 448 sqq.

213.

Clement of Alexandria, Protrept. i. I, p. 2, and ii. 34, p. 29, ed. Potter; Aristotle, Peplos, Frag. (Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum, ii. p. 189, No. 282, ed. C. Müller); John of Antioch, Frag. i. 20 (Frag. histor. Graec. iv. p. 539, ed. C. Müller); Jamblichus, De Pythagor. vit. x. 52; Schol. on Pindar, Pyth. Argum. p. 298, ed. Boeckh; Ovid, Metam. i. 445 sqq.; Hyginus, Fabulae, 140.

214.

Schol. on Pindar, l.c.; Censorinus, De die natali, 18. 6; compare Eustathius on Homer, Od. iii. 267, p. 1466. 29.

215.

Plutarch, De defectu oraculorum, 3, compared with id. 15; Aug. Mommsen, Delphika, pp. 211, 214; Th. Schreiber, Apollon Pythoktonos (Leipsic, 1879), pp. 32 sqq.

216.

Aelian, Var. hist. iii. I; Schol. on Pindar, l.c.

217.

On the original identity of the festivals see Th. Schreiber, Apollon Pythoktonus, pp. 37 sq.; A. B. Cook, in Folklore, xv. (1904) pp. 404 sq.

218.

The inference was drawn by Mr. A. B. Cook, whom I follow. See his article, “The European Sky-god,” Folk-lore, xv. (1904) pp. 412 sqq.

219.

See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, vol. i. p. 8.

220.

Aelian, Var. hist. iii. 1; Schol. on Pindar, Pyth. Argum. p. 298, ed. Boeckh.

221.

A. B. Cook, “The European Sky-god,” Folk-lore, xv. (1904) pp. 423 sq.

222.

Pausanias, ix. 3. 4. See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, vol. ii. p. 140.

223.

A. B. Cook, “The European Sky-god,” Folk-lore, xv. (1904) pp. 402 sqq.

224.

Plato, Republic, viii. p. 565 d e; Polybius, vii. 13; Pliny, Nat. hist. viii. 81; Varro, cited by Augustine, De civitate Dei, xviii. 17; Pausanias, vi. 8. 2, viii. 2. 3-6.

225.

Mary H. Kingsley, Travels in West Africa, pp. 536-543; T. J. Alldridge, The Sherbro and its Hinterland (London, 1901), pp. 153-159; compare R. H. Nassau, Fetichism in West Africa (London, 1904), pp. 200-203.

226.

T. J. Alldridge, op. cit. p. 154.

227.

A. Bastian, Die deutsche Expedition an der Loango-Küste, ii. 248.

228.

Apollodorus, iii. 5. 4; Strabo, vii. 7. 8, p. 326; Ovid, Metam. iv. 563-603; Hyginus, Fabulae, 6; Nicander, Theriaca, 607 sqq.

229.

A. van Gennep, Tabou et totémisme à Madagascar (Paris, 1904), p. 326.

230.

Dercylus, quoted by a scholiast on Euripides, Phoenissae, 7; Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum, ed. C. Müller, iv. 387. The writer rationalises the legend by representing the dragon as a Theban man of that name whom Cadmus slew. On the theory here suggested this Euhemeristic version of the story is substantially right.

231.

See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 268 sqq.

232.

David Leslie, Among the Zulus and Amatongas, Second Edition (Edinburgh, 1875), p. 213. Compare H. Callaway, The Religious System of the Amazulu, Part II., pp. 196, 211.

233.

See Adonis, Attis, Osiris, Second Edition, pp. 73 sqq.

234.

D. Livingstone, Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa, p. 615; Miss A. Werner, The Natives of British Central Africa (London, 1906), p. 64; L. Decle, Three Years in Savage Africa (London, 1898), p. 74; J. Roscoe, “The Bahima,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxvii. (1907) pp. 101 sq.; Major J. A. Meldon, “Notes on the Bahima,” Journal of the African Society, No. 22 (January, 1907), pp. 151-153; J. A. Chisholm, “Notes on the Manners and Customs of the Winamwanga and Wiwa,” Journal of the African Society, No. 36 (July, 1910), pp. 374, 375; P. Alois Hamberger, in Anthropos, v. (1910) p. 802.

235.

W. W. Skeat and C. O. Blagden, Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula (London, 1906), ii. 194, 197, 221, 227, 305.

236.

A. B. Ellis, The Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast, pp. 74 sq.

237.

This I learned from Professor F. von Luschan in the Anthropological Museum at Berlin.

238.

M. Delafosse, in La Nature, No. 1086 (March 24th, 1894), pp. 262-266; J. G. Frazer, “Statues of Three Kings of Dahomey,” Man, viii. (1908) pp. 130-132. King Behanzin, surnamed the Shark, is doubtless the King of Dahomey referred to by Professor von Luschan (see the preceding note).

239.

The statue was pointed out to me and explained by Professor F. von Luschan.

240.

A. B. Ellis, The Tshi-speaking Peoples of the Gold Coast, pp. 205 sq.

241.

2 Kings xviii. 4.

242.

W. Robertson Smith, “Animal Worship and Animal Tribes,” Journal of Philology, ix. (1880) pp. 99 sq. Professor T. K. Cheyne prefers to suppose that the brazen serpent and the brazen “sea” in the temple at Jerusalem were borrowed from Babylon and represented the great dragon, the impersonation of the primaeval watery chaos. See Encyclopaedia Biblica, s.v. “Nehushtan,” vol. i. coll. 3387. The two views are perhaps not wholly irreconcilable. See below, pp. 111 sq.

243.

Herodotus, viii. 41; Plutarch, Themistocles, 10; Aristophanes, Lysistrata, 758 sq., with the Scholium; Philostratus, Imagines, ii. 17. 6. Some said that there were two serpents ,Hesychius and Photius, Lexicon, s.v. οἰκουρὸν ὄφιν. For the identity of the serpent with Erichthonius, see Pausanias, i. 24. 7; Hyginus, Astronomica, ii. 13; Tertullian, De spectaculis, 9; compare Philostratus, Vit. Apoll. vii. 24; and for the identity of Erichthonius and Erechtheus, see Schol. on Homer, Iliad, ii. 547; Etymologicum magnum, p. 371, s.v. Ἐρεχθεύς. According to some, the upper part of Erichthonius was human and the lower part or only the feet serpentine. See Hyginus, Fabulae, 166; id., Astronomica, ii. 13; Schol. on Plato, Timaeus, p. 23 d; Etymologicum magnum, l.c.; Servius on Virgil, Georg. iii. 13. See further my notes on Pausanias i. 18. 2 and i. 26. 5, vol. ii. pp. 168 sqq., 330 sqq.

244.

Apollodorus, iii. 14. i; Aristophanes, Wasps, 438. Compare J. Tzetzes, Chiliades, v. 641.

245.

W. H. Roscher, Lexikon d. griech. und röm. Mythologie, ii. 1019. Compare Euripides, Ion, 1163 sqq.

246.

O. Immisch, in W. H. Roscher's Lexikon d. griech. und röm. Mythologie, ii. 1023.

247.

Apollodorus, iii. 12. 7; Diodorus Siculus, iv. 72; J. Tzetzes, Schol. on Lycophron, 110, 175, 451.

248.

Pausanias, i. 36. 1. Another version of the story was that Cychreus bred a snake which ravaged the island and was driven out by Eurylochus, after which Demeter received the creature at Eleusis as one of her attendants (Hesiod, quoted by Strabo, ix. 1. 9, p. 393).

249.

Stephanus Byzantius, s.v. Κυχρεῖος πάγος; Eustathius, Commentary on Dionysius, 507, in Geographi Graeci minores, ed. C. Müller, ii. 314.

250.

Hesychius, s.v. Ἐρεχθεύς; Athenagoras, Supplicatio pro Christianis, 1; [Plutarch], Vit. X. Orat. p. 843 b c; Corpus inscriptionum Atticarum, i. No. 387, iii. Nos. 276, 805; compare Pausanias, i. 26. 5.

251.

Apollodorus, iii. 14. 1; Herodotus, viii. 55; compare Pausanias, viii. 10. 4.

252.

See above, p. 73.

253.

Apollodorus, iii. 4. 1 sq.; Pausanias, ix. 12. 1 sq.; Schol. on Homer, Iliad, ii. 494; Hyginus, Fabulae, 178. The mark of the moon on the cow is mentioned only by Pausanias and Hyginus.

254.

Apollodorus, iii. 4. 2; Euripides, Phoenissae, 822 sq.; Pindar, Pyth. iii. 155 sqq.; Diodorus Siculus, v. 49. 1; Pausanias, iii. 18. 12, ix. 12. 3; Schol. on Homer, Iliad, ii. 494.

255.

Proclus, quoted by Photius, Bibliotheca, p. 321, ed. Bekker.

256.

Proclus, l.c.

257.

Pindar, Pyth. iii. 155 sqq.; Diodorus Siculus, v. 49. 1; Pausanias, ix. 12. 3; Schol. on Homer, Iliad, ii. 494.

258.

Schol. on Euripides, Phoenissae, 7 καὶ νῦν ἔτι ἐν τῇ Σαμοθρᾴκῃ ζητοῦσιν αὐτὴν [scil. Ἁρμονίαν] ἐν ταῖς ἑορταῖς. According to the Samothracian account, Cadmus in seeking Europa came to Samothrace, and there, having been initiated into the mysteries, married Harmonia (Diodorus Siculus, v. 48 sq.). It is probable, though it cannot be proved, that the legend was acted in the mystic rites.

259.

See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 133. Mr. A. B. Cook has suggested that the central scene on the eastern frieze of the Parthenon represents the king and queen of Athens about to take their places among the enthroned deities. See his article “Zeus, Jupiter, and the Oak,” Classical Review, xviii. (1904) p. 371. As the scenes on the frieze appear to have been copied from the Panathenaiac festival, it would seem, on Mr. Cook's hypothesis, that the sacred marriage of the King and Queen was celebrated on that occasion in presence of actors who played the parts of gods and goddesses. In this connexion it may not be amiss to remember that in the eastern gable of the Parthenon the pursuit of the moon by the sun was mythically represented by the horses of the sun emerging from the sea on the one side, and the horses of the moon plunging into it on the other.

260.

Schol. on Pindar, Olymp. iii. 35 (20).

261.

Compare Aug. Boeckh, on Pindar, l.c., Explicationes, p. 138; L. Ideler, Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie, i. 366 sq.; G. F. Unger, “Zeitrechnung der Griechen und Römer,” in Iwan Müller's Handbuch der classischen Altertumswissenschaft, i. 605 sq. All these writers recognise the octennial cycle at Olympia.

262.

K. O. Müller, Die Dorier,2 ii. 483; compare id. i. 254 sq.

263.

Pausanias, v. 1. 4.

264.

Aug. Boeckh, l.c.; A. Schmidt, Handbuch der griechischen Chronologie (Jena, 1888), pp. 50 sqq.; K. O. Müller, Die Dorier,2 i. 438; W. H. Roscher, Selene und Verwandtes, pp. 2 sq., 80 sq., 101.

265.

See Aug. Boeckh and L. Ideler, ll.cc. More recent writers would date it on the second full moon after the summer solstice, hence in August or the last days of July. See G. F. Unger, l.c.; E. F. Bischoff, “De fastis Graecorum antiquioribus,” Leipziger Studien zur classischen Philologie, vii. (1884) pp. 347 sq.; Aug. Mommsen, Über die Zeit der Olympien (Leipsic, 1891); and my note on Pausanias, v. 9. 3 (vol. iii. pp. 488 sq.).

266.

A. B. Cook, “The European Sky-God,” Folk-lore, xv. (1904) pp. 398-402.

267.

Rapp, in W. H. Roscher's Lexikon d. griech. und röm. Mythologie, i. 2005 sqq.

268.

Pausanias, v. 15. 3, with my note; Schol. on Pindar, Olymp. iii. 60.

269.

Pausanias, v. 11. 1.

270.

Pausanias, v. 16. 2 sqq.

271.

See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, vol. ii. p. 143.

272.

Pausanias, v. 16. 4.

273.

Many years after the theory in the text was printed (for the present volume has been long in the press) I accidentally learned that my friend Mr. F. M. Cornford, Fellow and Lecturer of Trinity College, Cambridge, had quite independently arrived at a similar conclusion with regard to the mythical and dramatic parts played by the Olympic victors, male and female, as representatives of the Sun and Moon, and I had the pleasure of hearing him expound the theory in a brilliant lecture delivered before the Classical Society of Cambridge, 28th February 1911. The coincidence of two independent enquirers in conclusions, which can hardly be called obvious, seems to furnish a certain confirmation of their truth. In Mr. Cornford's case the theory in question forms part of a more elaborate and comprehensive hypothesis as to the origin of the Olympic games, concerning which I must for the present suspend my judgment.

274.

Herodian, v. 6. 3-5.

275.

Clement of Alexandria, Protrept. ii. 34, p. 29, ed. Potter. The following account of funeral games is based on my note on Pausanias i. 44. 8 (vol. ii. pp. 549 sq.). Compare W. Ridgeway, The Origin of Tragedy (Cambridge, 1910), pp. 32 sqq.

276.

Clement of Alexandria, l.c.

277.

Pausanias, v. 13. 1 sq.

278.

Scholiast on Pindar, Olymp. i. 146.

279.

Varro, cited by Servius, on Virgil, Aen. iii. 67.

280.

F. Bonney, “On some Customs of the Aborigines of the River Darling,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xiii. (1884) pp. 134 sq.; Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, pp. 507, 509 sq.; (Sir) G. Grey, Journals of Two Expeditions of Discovery in North-West and Western Australia (London, 1841), ii. 332.

281.

Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits, vi. (Cambridge, 1908) pp. 135, 154.

282.

Hyginus, Fabulae, 74; Apollodorus, iii. 6. 4; Schol. on Pindar, Pyth., Introduction; Pausanias, ii. 15. 2 sq.; Clement of Alexandria, Protrept. ii. 34, p. 29, ed. Potter.

283.

Scholiast on Pindar, Isthm., Introduction, p. 514, ed. Boeckh; Pausanias, i. 44. 8; Apollodorus, iii. 4. 3; Zenobius, iv. 38; Clement of Alexandria, l.c.; J. Tzetzes, Scholia on Lycophron, 107, 229; Scholia on Euripides, Medea, 1284; Hyginus, Fabulae, 2.

284.

Clement of Alexandria, l.c.; Hyginus, Fabulae, 140.

285.

Homer, Iliad, xxiii. 255 sqq., 629 sqq., 651 sqq.

286.

Herodotus, vi. 38.

287.

Pausanias, iii. 14. 1.

288.

Plutarch, De sera numinis vindicta, 17.

289.

Thucydides, v. 10 sq.

290.

Plutarch, Timoleon, 39.

291.

Aulus Gellius, x. 18. 5 sq.

292.

Arrian, vii. 14. 10.

293.

Herodotus, i. 167.

294.

Plutarch, Aristides, 21; Strabo, ix. 2. 31, p. 412; Pausanias, ix. 2. 5 sq.

295.

Philostratus, Vit. Sophist. ii. 30; Heliodorus, Aethiopica, i. 17; compare Aristotle, Constitution of Athens, 58.

296.

Herodotus, v. 8.

297.

Livy, xxiii. 30. 15.

298.

Livy, xxxi. 50. 4.

299.

Livy, xxxix. 46. 2 sq.

300.

Census of India, 1901, vol. iii., The Andaman and Nicobar Islands, by Lieut.-Col. Sir Richard C. Temple (Calcutta, 1903), p. 209.

301.

Letter of the missionary Chevron, in Annales de la Propagation de la Foi, xv. (1843) pp. 40 sq.

302.

É. Aymonier, Voyage dans le Laos (Paris, 1895-1897), ii. 325 sq.; C. Bock, Temples and Elephants (London, 1884), p. 262.

303.

A. de Levchine, Description des hommes et des steppes des Kirghiz-Kazaks ou Kirghiz-Kaisaks (Paris, 1840), pp. 367 sq.; H. Vambery, Das Türkenvolk (Leipsic, 1885), p. 255; P. von Stenin, “Die Kirgisen des Kreises Saissanak im Gebiete von Ssemipalatinsk,” Globus, lxix. (1906) p. 228.

304.

T. de Pauly, Description ethnographique des peuples de la Russie (St. Petersburg, 1862), Peuples ouralo-altaïques, p. 29.

305.

Charlevoix, Histoire de la Nouvelle France (Paris, 1744), vi. 111.

306.

I. Goldziher, Muhammedanische Studien (Halle a. S., 1888-1890), ii. 328 sq. However, Prof. Goldziher believes that the festival is an ancient heathen one which has been subsequently grafted upon the tradition of the orthodox prophet Salih.

307.

J. Potocki, Voyage dans les steps d'Astrakhan et du Caucase (Paris, 1829), i. 275 sq.; Edmund Spencer, Travels in Circassia, Krim Tartary, etc. (London, 1836) ii. 399.

308.

G. Radde, Die Chews'uren und ihr Land (Cassel, 1878), pp. 95 sq.; Prince Eristow, “Die Pschawen und Chewsurier im Kaukasus,” Zeitschrift für allgemeine Erdkunde, Neue Folge, ii. (1857) p. 77.

309.

C. v. Hahn, “Religiöse Anschauungen und Totengedächtnisfeier der Chewsuren,” Globus, lxxvi. (1899) pp. 211 sq.

310.

N. v. Seidlitz, “Die Abchasen,” Globus, lxvi. (1894) pp. 42 sq.

311.

(Sir) John Rhys, Celtic Heathendom (London, 1888), pp. 409 sq.; H. d'Arbois de Jubainville, Cours de littérature celtique, vii. (Paris, 1895) pp. 309 sqq.; P. W. Joyce, Social History of Ancient Ireland (London, 1903), ii. 438 sqq. “The aenach or fair was an assembly of the people of every grade without distinction; it was the most common kind of large public meeting, and its main object was the celebration of games, athletic exercises, sports, and pastimes of all kinds” (P. W. Joyce, op. cit. ii. 438). The Irish name is Tailltiu, genitive Taillten, accusative and dative Tailltin (Sir J. Rhys, op. cit. p. 409 note 1).

312.

(Sir) John Rhys, Celtic Heathendom, p. 411; H. d'Arbois de Jubainville, Cours de littérature celtique, vii. 313 sqq.; P. W. Joyce, Social History of Ancient Ireland, ii. 434 sq., 441 sqq.

313.

P. W. Joyce, op. cit. ii. 435.

314.

P. W. Joyce, op. cit. ii. 434. Compare (Sir) J. Rhys, Celtic Heathendom, p. 411.

315.

H. d'Arbois de Jubainville, Cours de littérature celtique, vii. 313.

316.

H. d'Arbois de Jubainville, op. cit. vii. 310.

317.

P. W. Joyce, op. cit. ii. 389, 439.

318.

(Sir) J. Rhys, Celtic Heathendom, p. 410.

319.

(Sir) J. Rhys, Celtic Heathendom, pp. 411 sq., quoting the substance of a note by Thos. Hearne, in his edition of Robert of Gloucester's Chronicles (Oxford, 1724), p. 679. As to the derivation of the word see New English Dictionary (Oxford, 1888- ) and W. W. Skeat, Etymological Dictionary of the English Language (Oxford, 1910), s.v. “Lammas.”

320.

See above, p. 100.

321.

See The Golden Bough, Second Edition, ii. 459 sqq.

322.

See The Golden Bough, Second Edition, ii. 460, 463, 464 sq.

323.

See above, pp. 14 sqq., 21, 27, 33, 36 sq.

324.

See above, p. 98.

325.

See above, p. 93.

326.

Pausanias, v. 1. 4, v. 8. 1.

327.

Apollodorus, Bibliotheca, pp. 183-185 ed. R. Wagner (Epitoma, ii. 3-9); Diodorus Siculus, iv. 73; Hyginus, Fabulae, 84; Schol. on Pindar, Olymp. i. 114; Servius on Virgil, Georg. iii. 7. See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 299 sq.

328.

Strabo, vi. 3. 9, p. 284; K. O. Müller, Aeschylos Eumeniden (Göttingen, 1833), p. 144.

329.

Pausanias, vi. 21. 9-11.

330.

P. Jensen, Die Kosmologie der Babylonier (Strasburg, 1890), pp. 263 sqq.; id., Assyrisch-babylonische Mythen und Epen (Berlin, 1900), pp. 3 sqq.; M. Jastrow, The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 407 sqq.; L. W. King, Babylonian Religion and Mythology, pp. 53 sqq.; H. Zimmern, in E. Schrader's Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament (Berlin, 1902), pp. 488 sqq.; M. J. Lagrange, Études sur les religions sémitiques2 (Paris, 1905); pp. 366 sqq.

331.

P. Jensen, Die Kosmologie der Babylonier, pp. 304-306; H. Gunkel, Schöpfung und Chaos in Urzeit und Endzeit (Göttingen, 1895), pp. 114 sqq.; id., Genesis übersetzt und erklärt (Göttingen, 1901), pp. 107 sqq.; Encyclopaedia Biblica, s.v. “Creation,” i. coll. 938 sqq.; S. R. Driver, The Book of Genesis4 (London, 1905), pp. 27 sqq. The myth is clearly alluded to in several passages of Scripture, where the dragon of the sea is spoken of as Rahab or Leviathan. See Isaiah li. 9, “Art thou not it that cut Rahab in pieces, that pierced the dragon?”: id. xxvii. 1, “In that day the Lord with his sore and great and strong sword shall punish leviathan the swift serpent, and leviathan the crooked serpent; and he shall slay the dragon that is in the sea”: Job xxvi. 12, “He stirreth up the sea with his power, and by his understanding he smiteth through Rahab”: Psalm lxxxix. 10, “Thou hast broken Rahab in pieces as one that is slain”: Psalm lxxiv. 13 sq., “Thou didst divide the sea by thy strength: thou brakest the heads of the dragons in the waters. Thou brakest the heads of leviathan in pieces.” See further H. Gunkel, Schöpfung und Chaos, pp. 29 sqq.

332.

A. A. Macdonell, Vedic Mythology, pp. 58-60, 158 sq. Compare H. Oldenberg, Die Religion des Veda, pp. 134 sqq.

333.

See M. Winternitz, “Der Sarpabali, ein altindischer Schlangencult,” Mittheilungen der Anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien, xviii. (1888) pp. 44 sq.

334.

A. Kuhn, “Wodan,” Zeitschrift für deutsches Alterthum, v. (1845) pp. 484-488.

335.

P. Jensen, Die Kosmologie der Babylonier, pp. 315 sq.; H. Gunkel, Schöpfung und Chaos, p. 25; id., Genesis übersetzt und erklärt, pp. 115 sq.; M. Jastrow, The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 411 sq., 429 sq., 432 sq.; H. Zimmern, in Encyclopaedia Biblica, s.v. “Creation,” i. coll. 940 sq.; id., in E. Schrader's Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament,3 pp. 370 sq., 500 sq.; S. R. Driver, The Book of Genesis4 (London, 1905), p. 28.

336.

Virgil, Georgics, ii. 336-342.

337.

P. Jensen, Die Kosmologie der Babylonier, pp. 84 sqq.; M. Jastrow, The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 677 sqq.; H. Zimmern, in E. Schrader's Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament,3 pp. 371, 384 note 4, 402, 427, 515 sqq.; R. F. Harper, Babylonian and Assyrian Literature (New York, 1901), pp. 136, sq., 137, 140, 149; M. J. Lagrange, Études sur les religions sémitiques2 (Paris, 1905), pp. 285 sqq.

338.

L. W. King, Babylonian Religion and Mythology, pp. 88 sqq.

339.

See C. P. Tiele, Geschiedenis van den Godsdienst in de Oudheid, i. (Amsterdam, 1903) pp. 159 sq.; L. W. King, op. cit. p. 21; H. Zimmern. in E. Schrader's Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament,3 p. 399; M. Jastrow, Die Religion Babyloniens und Assyriens, i (Giessen, 1905) pp. 117 sqq.

340.

P. Jensen, op. cit. pp. 85 sqq.; M. Jastrow, The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 679; H. Zimmern, op. cit. p. 515; M. J. Lagrange, op. cit. p. 286.

341.

P. Jensen, op. cit. p. 87; M. Jastrow, The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 681; H. Zimmern, op. cit. pp. 402, 415; R. F. Harper, op. cit. p. 136.

342.

P. Jensen, Assyrisch-babylonische Mythen und Epen, p. 29; L. W. King, Babylonian Religion and Mythology, p. 74.

343.

This appears to be substantially the view of H. Zimmern (op. cit. p. 501) and of Karppe (referred to in Encyclopaedia Biblica, s.v. “Creation,” i. coll. 941 note 1).

344.

A. Moret, Du caractère religieux de la royauté Pharaonique (Paris, 1902), pp. 18 sqq., 33 sqq.

345.

Clement of Alexandria. Strom. v. 7. p. 671, ed. Potter.

346.

A. Erman, Die ägyptische Religion (Berlin, 1905), pp. 10, 25.

347.

John Parkinson (late Principal of the Mineral Survey of Southern Nigeria), “Southern Nigeria, the Lagos Province,” The Empire Review, vol. xv. May 1908, pp. 290 sq. The account in the text of the mystery surrounding the Awujale is taken from A. B. Ellis, The Yoruba-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast of West Africa (London, 1894), p. 170.

348.

M. Jastrow, The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 680; H. Zimmern, in E. Schrader's Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament,3 pp. 374, 515; C. Brockelmann, “Wesen und Ursprung des Eponymats in Assyrien,” Zeitschrift für Assyriologie, xvi. (1902) pp. 391 sq., 396 sq.

349.

Athenaeus, xiv. 44, p. 639 c; Dio Chrysostom, Or. iv. pp. 69 sq. (vol. i. p. 76, ed. L. Dindorf). Dio Chrysostom does not mention his authority, but it was probably either Berosus or Ctesias. The execution of the mock king is not noticed in the passage of Berosus cited by Athenaeus, probably because the mention of it was not germane to Athenaeus's purpose, which was simply to give a list of festivals at which masters waited on their servants. A passage of Macrobius (Saturn. iii. 7. 6) which has sometimes been interpreted as referring to this Babylonian custom (F. Liebrecht, in Philologus, xxii. 710; J. J. Bachofen, Die Sage von Tanaquil, p. 52, note 16) has in fact nothing to do with it. See A. B. Cook, in Classical Review, xvii. (1903) p. 412; id. in Folk-lore, xv. (1904) pp. 304, 384. In the passage of Dio Chrysostom ἐκρέμασαν should strictly mean “hanged,” but the verb was applied by the Greeks to the Roman punishment of crucifixion (Plutarch, Caesar, 2). It may have been extended to include impalement, which was often inflicted by the Assyrians, as we may see by the representations of it on the Assyrian monuments in the British Museum. See also R. F. Harper, Assyrian and Babylonian Literature, p. 41, with the plate facing p. 54. The proper word for impalement in Greek is ἀνασκολοπίζειν (Herodotus, iv. 202). Hanging was also an Oriental as well as Roman mode of punishment. The Hebrew word for it (חלה) seems unambiguous. See Esther, v. 14, vii. 9 sq.; Deuteronomy, xxi. 22 sq.; Joshua, viii. 29, x. 26; Livy, i. 26. 6.

350.

See above, pp. 21, 26 sqq.

351.

Bruno Meissner, “Zur Entstehungsgeschichte des Purimfestes,” Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft, I. (1896) pp. 296-301; H. Winckler, Altorientalische Forschungen, Zweite Reihe, Bd. ii. p. 345; C. Brockelmann, “Wesen und Ursprung des Eponymats in Assyrien,” Zeitschrift für Assyriologie, xvi. (1902) pp. 391 sq.

352.

Meantime I may refer the reader to The Golden Bough, Second Edition, ii. 254, iii. 151 sqq. As I have there pointed out (iii. 152 sq.) the identification of the months of the Syro-Macedonian calendar (that is, the ascertainment of their astronomical dates in the solar year) is a matter of some uncertainty, the dates appearing to have varied considerably in different places. The month Lous in particular is variously said to have corresponded in different places to July, August, September, and October. Until we have ascertained beyond the reach of doubt when Lous fell at Babylon in the time of Berosus, it would be premature to allow much weight to the seeming discrepancy in the dates of Zagmuk and the Sacaea. On the whole difficult question of the identification or dating of the months of the Syro-Macedonian calendar see L. Ideler, Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie, i. 393 sqq.; K. F. Hermann, “Über griechische Monatskunde,” Abhandlungen der histor.-philolog. Classe d. kön. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen, ii. (1843-44) pp. 68 sqq., 95, 109, 111 sqq.; H. F. Clinton, Fasti Hellenici, iii.2 351 sqq.; article “Calendarium,” in W. Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities,3 i. 339. The distinction between the dates of the Syro-Macedonian months, which differed in different places, and their order, which was the same in all places (Dius, Apellaeus, etc.), appears to have been overlooked by some of my former readers.

353.

P. Jensen, Die Kosmologie der Babylonier, p. 84; C. Brockelmann, “Wesen und Ursprung des Eponymats in Assyrien,” Zeitschrift für Assyriologie, xvi. (1902) p. 392. However, there is no mention of Zagmuk in Prof. R. F. Harper's translation of the inscription (Assyrian and Babylonian Literature, p. 87).

354.

C. Brockelmann, op. cit. pp. 389-401.

355.

H. Winckler, Geschichte Babyloniens und Assyriens (Leipsic, 1902), p. 212; R. F. Harper, Assyrian and Babylonian Literature, pp. xxxviii. sq., 206-216; E. Meyer, Geschichte des Altertums2, i. 2 (Stuttgart and Berlin, 1909), pp. 331 sq. It was the second, not the first, year of a king's reign which in later times at all events was named after him. For the explanation see C. Brockelmann, op. cit. pp. 397 sq.

356.

The eponymate in Assyria and elsewhere may have been the subject of superstitions which we do not yet understand. Perhaps the eponymous magistrate may have been deemed in a sense responsible for everything that happened in the year. Thus we are told that “in Manipur they have a noteworthy system of keeping count of the years. Each year is named after some man, who—for a consideration—undertakes to bear the fortune, good or bad, of the year. If the year be good, if there be no pestilence and a good harvest, he gets presents from all sorts of people, and I remember hearing that in 1898, when the cholera was at its worst, a deputation came to the Political Agent and asked him to punish the name-giver, as it was obvious that he was responsible for the epidemic. In former times he would have got into trouble” (T. C. Hodson, “The Native Tribes of Manipur,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxi. 1901, p. 302).

357.

C. Brockelmann, “Das Neujahrsfest der Jezîdîs,” Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft, lv. (1901) pp. 388-390.

358.

Letter of the missionary N. Baudin, dated 16th April 1875, in Missions Catholiques, vii. (1875) pp. 614-616, 627 sq.; Annales de la Propagation de la Foi, xlviii. (1876) pp. 66-76.

359.

U. Lisiansky, A Voyage Round the World in the Years 1803, 4, 5, and 6 (London, 1814), pp. 118 sq. The same ceremony seems to be more briefly described by the French voyager Freycinet, who says that after the principal idol had been carried in procession about the island for twenty-three days it was brought back to the temple, and that thereupon the king was not allowed to enter the precinct until he had parried a spear thrown at him by two men. See L. de Freycinet, Voyage autour du monde, vol. ii. Première Partie (Paris, 1829), pp. 596 sq.

360.

R. E. Dennett, Notes on the Folklore of the Fjort, with an introduction by Mary H. Kingsley (London, 1898), p. xxxii; id., At the Back of the Black Man's Mind (London, 1906), p. 120. Miss Kingsley in conversation called my attention to this particular custom, and informed me that she was personally acquainted with the chief, who possesses but declines to exercise the right of succession.

361.

The High History of the Holy Graal, translated from the French by Sebastian Evans (London, 1898), i. 200-203. I have to thank the translator, Mr. Sebastian Evans, for his kindness in indicating this passage to me.

362.

For a discussion of the legends which gather round Vikramaditya see Captain Wilford, “Vicramaditya and Salivahana,” Asiatic Researches, ix. (London, 1809) pp. 117 sqq.; Chr. Lassen, Indische Alterthumskunde, ii.2 752 sqq., 794 sqq.; E. T. Atkinson, The Himalayan Districts of the North-Western Provinces of India, ii. (Allahabad, 1884), pp. 410. sqq. Vikramaditya is commonly supposed to have lived in the first century b.c. and to have founded the Samvat era, which began with 57 b.c., and is now in use all over India. But according to Professor H. Oldenberg it is now certain that this Vikramaditya was a purely legendary personage (H. Oldenberg, Die Literatur des alten Indien, Stuttgart and Berlin, 1903, pp. 215 sq.).

363.

“Histoire des rois de l'Hindoustan après les Pandaras, traduite du texte hindoustani de Mîr Cher-i Alî Afsos, par M. l'abbé Bertrand,” Journal Asiatique, IVème Série, iii. (Paris, 1844) pp. 248-257. The story is told more briefly by Mrs. Postans, Cutch (London, 1839), pp. 21 sq. Compare Chr. Lassen, Indische Alterthumskunde, ii.2 798.

364.

A. V. Williams Jackson, “Notes from India, Second Series,” Journal of the American Oriental Society, xxiii. (1902) pp. 308, 316 sq. I have to thank my friend the Rev. Professor J. H. Moulton for referring me to Prof. Williams Jackson's paper.

365.

“Histoire des rois de l'Hindoustan,” Journal Asiatique, IVème Série, iii. (1844) pp. 239-243. The legend is told with modifications by Captain Wilford (“Vicramaditya and Salivahana,” Asiatic Researches, ix. London, 1809, pp. 148 sq.), Mrs. Postans (Cutch, London, 1839, pp. 18-20), and Prof. Williams Jackson (op. cit. pp. 314 sq.).

366.

The Bishop of Labuan, “Wild Tribes of Borneo,” Transactions of the Ethnological Society of London, New Series, ii. (1863) pp. 26 sq.

367.

Ch. Hose and W. McDougall, “The Relations between Men and Animals in Sarawak,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxi. (1901) pp. 197 sq.

368.

Ch. Hose and W. McDougall, op. cit. p. 193.

369.

Rev. E. H. Gomes, “Two Sea Dyak Legends,” Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, No. 41 (January 1904, Singapore), pp. 12-28; id., Seventeen Years among the Sea Dyaks of Borneo (London, 1911), pp. 278 sqq.

370.

A. B. Ellis, The Tshi-speaking Peoples of the Gold Coast (London, 1887), pp. 204-212.

371.

The type of story in question has been discussed by Mr. Andrew Lang in a well-known essay “Cupid, Psyche, and the Sun-Frog,” Custom and Myth (London, 1884), pp. 64-86. He rightly explains all such tales as based on savage taboos, but so far as I know he does not definitely connect them with totemism. For other examples of these tales told by savages see W. Lederbogen, “Duala Märchen,” Mittheilungen des Seminars für Orientalische Sprachen zu Berlin, v. (1902) Dritte Abtheilung, pp. 139-145 (the Duala tribe of Cameroons; in one tale the wife is a palm-rat, in the other a mpondo, a hard brown fruit as large as a coconut); R. H. Nassau, Fetichism in West Africa (London, 1904), pp. 351-358 (West Africa; wife a forest-rat); G. H. Smith, “Some Betsimisaraka Superstitions,” The Antananarivo Annual and Madagascar Magazine, No. 10 (Christmas, 1886), pp. 241 sq.; R. H. Codrington, The Melanesians, pp. 172, 397 sq. (Melanesia; wife a bird, husband an owl); A. F. van Spreeuwenberg, “Een blik op Minahassa,” Tijdschrift voor Neêrland's Indië, 1846, Erste deel, pp. 25-28 (the Bantiks of Celebes; wife a white dove); J. H. F. Kohlbrugge, “Die Tenggeresen, ein alter Javanischer Volksstaam,” Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië, iiii. (1901) pp. 97-99 (the Tenggeres of Java; wife a bird); J. Fanggidaej, “Rottineesche Verhalen,” Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië, lviii. (1905), pp. 430-436 (island of Rotti; husband a crocodile); J. Kubary, “Die Religion der Pelauer,” in A. Bastian's Allerlei aus Volkes- und Menschenkunde (Berlin, 1888), i. 60 sq. (Pelew Islands; wife a fish); A. R. McMahon, The Karens of the Golden Chersonese, pp. 248-250 (Karens of Burma; husband a tree-lizard); Landes, “Contes Tjames,” Cochinchine française, excursions et reconnaissances, No. 29 (Saigon, 1887), pp. 53 sqq. (Chams of Cochin-China; husband a coco-nut); A. Certeux and E. H. Carnoy, L'Algérie traditionnelle (Paris and Algiers, 1884), pp. 87-89 (Arabs of Algeria; wife a dove); J. G. Kohl, Kitschi-Gami (Bremen, 1858), i. 140-145 (Ojebway Indians; wife a beaver); Franz Boas and George Hunt, Kwakiutl Texts, ii. 322-330 (The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History) (Kwakiutl Indians; wife a salmon); J. R. Swanton, Haida Texts and Myths (Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin, No. 29, Washington, 1905), pp. 286 sq. (Haida Indians; wife a killer-whale); H. Rink, Tales and Traditions of the Eskimo, pp. 146 sq. (Esquimaux; wife a sea-fowl). The Bantik story is told to explain the origin of the people; the Tenggeres story is told to explain why it is forbidden to lift the lid of a basket in which rice is being boiled. The other stories referred to in this note are apparently told as fairy tales only, but we may conjecture that they too were related originally to explain a supposed relationship of human beings to animals or plants. I have already illustrated and explained this type of story in Totemism and Exogamy, vol. ii. pp. 55, 206, 308, 565-571, 589, iii. 60-64, 337 sq.

372.

The fable of Cupid and Psyche is only preserved in the Latin of Apuleius (Metamorph. iv. 28-vi. 24), but we cannot doubt that the original was Greek. For the story of Pururavas and Urvasi, see The Rigveda, x. 95 (Hymns of the Rigveda, translated by R. T. H. Griffith, vol. iv. Benares, 1892, pp. 304 sqq.); Satapatha Brahmana, translated by J. Eggeling, part v. pp. 68-74 (Sacred Books of the East, vol. xliv.); and the references in The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, vol. ii. p. 250, note 4. A clear trace of the bird-nature of Urvasi occurs in the Satapatha Brahmana (Part v. p. 70 of J. Eggeling's translation), where the sorrowing husband finds his lost wife among nymphs who are swimming about in the shape of swans or ducks on a lotus-covered lake. This has been already pointed out by Th. Benfey (Pantschatantra, i. 264). In English the type of tale is known as “Beauty and the Beast,” which ought to include the cases in which the wife, as well as those in which the husband, appears as an animal. On stories of this sort, especially in the folklore of civilised peoples, see Th. Benfey, Pantschatantra, i. 254 sqq.; W. R. S. Ralston, Introduction to F. A. von Schiefner's Tibetan Tales, pp. xxxvii.-xxxix.; A. Lang, Custom and Myth (London, 1884), pp. 64 sqq.; S. Baring-Gould, Curious Myths of the Middle Ages, pp. 561-578; E. Cosquin, Contes populaires de Lorraine, ii. 215-230; W. A. Clouston, Popular Tales and Fictions, i. 182-191; Miss M. Roalfe Cox, Introduction to Folklore (London, 1895) pp. 120-123.

373.

In the ruins of Raipoor, supposed to be the ancient Mandavie, coins are found bearing the image of an ass; and the legend of the transformation of Gandharva-Sena into an ass is told to explain their occurrence. The coins are called Gandharva pice. See Mrs. Postans, Cutch (London, 1839), pp. 17 sq., 22.

374.

E. T. Dalton, Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal, pp. 165 sq.

375.

T. C. Hodson, “The Native Tribes of Manipur,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxi. (1901) pp. 302, 304.

376.

See above, pp. 118 sq.

377.

See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, vol. ii. p. 4; Taboo and the Perils of the Soul, pp. 17 sqq.

378.

See Dr. Joseph Bautz, Die Hölle, im Anschluss an die Scholastik dargestellt2 (Mainz, 1905). Dr. Bautz holds that the damned burn in eternal darkness and eternal fire somewhere in the bowels of the earth. He is, let us hope in more senses than one, an extraordinary professor of theology at the University of Münster, and his book is published with the approbation of the Catholic Church.

379.

R. H. Elliot, Experiences of a Planter in the Jungles of Mysore (London, 1871), i. 95.

380.

Mrs. Postans, Cutch (London, 1839), p. 168.

381.

Mgr. Masson, in Annales de la Propagation de la Foi, xxiv. (1852) pp. 324 sq.

382.

H. R. Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes of the United States, ii. (Philadelphia, 1853), p. 68.

383.

F. de Azara, Voyages dans l'Amérique Méridionale, ii. 181.

384.

A. B. Ellis, The Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast, p. 127. The testimony of a soldier on such a point is peculiarly valuable.

385.

A. Thevet, Les Singularitez de la France Antarctique (Antwerp, 1558), pp. 74 sq.; id., Cosmographie universelle (Paris, 1575), p. 945 [979].

386.

My informant was the late Captain W. C. Robinson, formerly of the 2nd Bombay Europeans (Company's Service), afterwards resident at 15 Chesterton Hall Crescent, Cambridge. He learned the facts in the year 1853 from his friend Captain Gore, of the 29th Madras Native Infantry, who rescued some of the victims.

387.

Rev. J. Roscoe, The Baganda (London, 1911), p. 338.

388.

See above, pp. 42 sqq., 54 sqq.

389.

O. Dapper, Description de l'Afrique (Amsterdam, 1686), p. 312; H. Ling Roth, Great Benin, p. 43.

390.

R. Southey, History of Brazil, iii. 391 sq.

391.

Tacitus, Histor. ii. 49; Plutarch, Otho, 17.

392.

R. Lasch, “Rache als Selbstmordmotiv,” Globus, lxxiv. (1898) pp. 37-39.

393.

Father Martin, Jesuit missionary, in Lettres édifiantes et curieuses, Nouvelle Édition, xi. (Paris, 1781), pp. 246-248. The letter was written at Marava, in the mission of Madura, 8th November 1709. No doubt the English Government has long since done its best to suppress these practices.

394.

Seleucus, quoted by Athenaeus, iv. 42, p. 155 d e.

395.

Posidonius, quoted by Athenaeus, iv. 40, p. 154 b c.

396.

Euphorion of Chalcis, quoted by Athenaeus, iv. 40, p. 154 C; Eustathius on Homer, Odyssey, xviii. 46, p. 1837.

397.

Athenaeus, iv. 39, p. 153 e f, quoting Nicolaus Damascenus.

398.

Tertullian, De spectaculis, 12. The custom of sacrificing human beings in honour of the dead, which has been practised by many savage and barbarous peoples, was in later times so far mitigated at Rome that the destined victims were allowed to fight each other, which gave some of them a chance of surviving. This mitigation of human sacrifice is said to have been introduced by D. Junius Brutus in the third century b.c. (Livy, Epit. xvi.). It resembles the change which I suppose to have taken place at Nemi and other places, where, if I am right, kings were at first put to death inexorably at the end of a fixed period, but were afterwards permitted to defend themselves in single combat.

399.

Livy, ii. 5. 8, xxvi. 13. 15, xxviii. 29. 11; Polybius, i. 7. 12, xi. 30. 2; Th. Mommsen, Römisches Strafrecht (Leipsic, 1899), pp. 916 sqq.

400.

Hiera Sykaminos (Maharraka), the furthest point of the Roman dominion in southern Egypt, lies within the tropics. The empire did not reach this its extreme limit till after the age of Augustus. See Th. Mommsen, Römische Geschichte, v. 594 sq. Strabo speaks (xvii. 1. 48, p. 817) as if Syene, which was held by a Roman garrison of three cohorts, were within the tropics; but that is a mistake.

401.

For some evidence see J. H. Gray, China, i. 329 sqq.; H. Norman, The Peoples and Politics of the Far East (London, 1905), pp. 277 sq. On this subject the Rev. Dr. W. T. A. Barber, Headmaster of the Leys School, Cambridge, formerly a missionary in China, writes to me as follows (3rd February 1902):—“Undoubtedly the Eastern, through his belief in Fate, has comparatively little fear of death. I have sometimes seen the Chinese in great fear; but, on the other hand, I have saved at least a hundred lives of people who had swallowed opium out of spite against some one else, the idea being, first, the trouble given by minions of the law to the survivor; second, that the dead would gain a vantage ground by becoming a ghost, and thus able to plague his enemy in the flesh. Probably blind anger has more to do with it than either of these causes. But the particular mode would not ordinarily occur to a Western. I am bound to say that in many cases the patient was ready enough to take my medicines, but mostly it was the friends who were most eager, and exceedingly rarely did I receive thanks from the rescued.”

402.

J. H. Gray (Archdeacon of Hong-kong), China (London, 1878), ii. 306.

403.

The particulars in the text are taken, with Lord Avebury's kind permission, from a letter addressed to him by Mr. M. W. Lampson of the Foreign Office. See Note A at the end of the volume. Speaking of capital punishment in China, Professor E. H. Parker says: “It is popularly stated that substitutes can be bought for Taels 50, and most certainly this statement is more than true, so far as the price of human life is concerned; but it is quite another question whether the gaolers and judges can always be bribed” (E. H. Parker, Professor of Chinese at the Owens College, Manchester, China Past and Present, London, 1903, pp. 378 sq.). However, from his personal enquiries Professor Parker is convinced that in such matters the local mandarin can do what he pleases, provided that he observes the form of law and gives no offence to his superiors.

404.

My friend, the late Sir Francis Galton, mentioned in conversation a phrase which described the fear of death as “the Western (or European) malady,” but he did not remember where he had met with it. He wrote to me (18th October 1902) that “our fear of death is presumably much greater than that of the barbarians who were our far-back ancestors.”

405.

See above, pp. 23, 49 sqq., 52 sq.

406.

See above, pp. 113 sqq.

407.

E. Aymonier, Notice sur le Cambodge (Paris, 1875), p. 61; J. Moura, Le Royaume du Cambodge (Paris, 1883), i. 327 sq. For the connexion of the temporary king's family with the royal house, see E. Aymonier, op. cit. pp. 36 sq.

408.

De la Loubère, Du royaume de Siam (Amsterdam, 1691), i. 56 sq.; Turpin, “History of Siam,” in Pinkerton's Voyages and Travels, ix. 581 sq.; Mgr. Brugière, in Annales de l'Association de la Propagation de la Foi, v. (1831) pp. 188 sq.; Pallegoix, Description du royaume Thai ou Siam (Paris, 1854), i. 250; A. Bastian, Die Völker des östlichen Asien, iii. 305-309, 526-528. Bowring (Siam, i. 158 sq.) copies, as usual, from Pallegoix. For a description of the ceremony as observed at the present day, see E. Young, The Kingdom of the Yellow Robe (Westminster, 1898), pp. 210 sq. The representative of the king no longer enjoys his old privilege of seizing any goods that are exposed for sale along the line of the procession. According to Mr. Young, the ceremony is generally held about the middle of May, and no one is supposed to plough or sow till it is over. According to Loubère the title of the temporary king was Oc-ya Kaou, or Lord of the Rice, and the office was regarded as fatal, or at least calamitous “funeste”) to him.

409.

Lieut.-Col. James Low, “On the Laws of Muung Thai or Siam,” Journal of the Indian Archipelago, i. (Singapore, 1847) p. 339; A. Bastian, Die Völker des östlichen Asien, iii. 98, 314, 526 sq.

410.

E. Young, The Kingdom of the Yellow Robe, pp. 212-217. The writer tells us that though the Minister for Agriculture still officiates at the Ploughing Festival, he no longer presides at the Swinging Festival; a different nobleman is chosen every year to superintend the latter.

411.

Ed. Chavannes, Documents sur les Tou-Kiue (Turcs) Occidentaux (St. Petersburg, 1903), p. 133, note. The documents collected in this volume are translated from the Chinese.

412.

C. B. Klunzinger, Bilder aus Oberägypten der Wüste und dem Rothen Meere (Stuttgart, 1877), pp. 180 sq.

413.

Taboo and the Perils of the Soul, p. 243. For evidence of a practice of burning divine personages, see Adonis, Attis, Osiris, Second Edition, pp. 84 sqq., 91 sqq., 139 sqq.

414.

Budgett Meakin, The Moors (London, 1902), pp. 312 sq.; E. Aubin, Le Maroc d'aujourd'hui (Paris, 1904), pp. 283-287. According to the latter of these writers the flight of the mock sultan takes place the day after his meeting with the real sultan. The account in the text embodies some notes which were kindly furnished me by Dr. E. Westermarck.