Footnotes (continued 2)

415.

R. Carew, Survey of Cornwall (London, 1811), p. 322. I do not know what the writer means by “little Easter Sunday.” The ceremony has often been described by subsequent writers, but they seem all to copy, directly or indirectly, from Carew, who says that the custom had been yearly observed in past times and was only of late days discontinued. His Survey of Cornwall was first printed in 1602. I have to thank Mr. G. M. Trevelyan, formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, for directing my attention to this interesting survival of what was doubtless a very ancient custom.

416.

J. W. Boers, “Oud volksgebruik in het Rijk van Jambi,” Tijdschrift voor Neêrlands Indië, 1840, dl. i. pp. 372 sqq.

417.

Panjab Notes and Queries, i. p. 86, § 674 (May 1884).

418.

Aeneas Sylvius, Opera (Bâle, 1571), pp. 409 sq.; J. Boemus, Mores, leges, et ritus omnium gentium (Lyons, 1541), pp. 241 sq.; J. Grimm, Deutsche Rechtsalterthümer, p. 253. According to Grimm, the cow and mare stood beside the prince, not the peasant. The Carinthian ceremony is the subject of an elaborate German dissertation by Dr. Emil Goldmann (Die Einführung der deutschen Herzogsgeschlechter Kärntens in den Slovenischen Stammesverband, ein Beitrag zur Rechts- und Kulturgeschichte, Breslau, 1903).

419.

E. Young, The Kingdom of the Yellow Robe, p. 211.

420.

Lasicius, “De diis Samagitarum caeterorumque Sarmatarum,” in Respublica sive status regni Poloniae, Lituaniae, Prussiae, Livoniae, etc. (Elzevir, 1627), pp. 306 sq.; id., edited by W. Mannhardt in Magazin herausgegeben von der Lettisch-Literarischen Gesellschaft, xiv. 91 sq.; J. G. Kohl, Die deutsch-russischen Ostseeprovinzen (Dresden and Leipsic, 1841), ii. 27. There, are, however, other occasions when superstition requires a person to stand on one foot. At Toku-toku, in Fiji, the grave-digger who turns the first sod has to stand on one leg, leaning on his digging-stick (Rev. Lorimer Fison, in a letter to the author, dated August 26, 1898). Among the Angoni of British Central Africa, when the corpse of a chief is being burned, his heir stands beside the blazing pyre on one leg with his shield in his hand; and three days later he again stands on one leg before the assembled people when they proclaim him chief. See R. Sutherland Rattray, Some Folk-lore Stories and Songs in Chinyanja (London, 1907), pp. 100, 101.

421.

E. Young, The Kingdom of the Yellow Robe, p. 212.

422.

J. G. Kohl, Die deutsch-russischen Ostseeprovinzen, ii. 25. With regard to swinging as a magical or religious rite, see Note B at the end of the volume. For other charms to make the crops grow tall by leaping, letting the hair hang loose, and so forth, see The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, i. 135 sqq.

423.

Macrobius, Saturn. v. 19. 13.

424.

See Taboo and the Perils of the Soul, pp. 225 sqq.

425.

Sir John Malcolm, History of Persia (London, 1815), i. 527 sq. I am indebted to my friend Mr. W. Crooke for calling my attention to this passage.

426.

Captain John Stevens, The History of Persia (London, 1715), pp. 356 sq. I have to thank Mr. W. Crooke for his kindness in copying out this passage and sending it to me. I have not seen the original. An Irish legend relates how the abbot Eimine Ban and forty-nine of his monks sacrificed themselves by a voluntary death to save Bran úa Faeláin, King of Leinster, and forty-nine Leinster chiefs, from a pestilence which was then desolating Leinster. They were sacrificed in batches of seven a day for a week, the abbot himself perishing after the last batch on the last day of the week. But it is not said that the abbot enjoyed regal dignity during the seven days. See C. Plummer, “Cáin Eimíne Báin,” Ériu, the Journal of the School of Irish Learning, Dublin. vol. iv. part i. (1908) pp. 39-46. The legend was pointed out to me by Professor Kuno Meyer.

427.

“Ynglinga Saga,” 29, in The Heimskringla or Chronicle of the Kings of Norway, translated from the Icelandic of Snorro Sturleson, by S. Laing (London, 1844), i. 239 sq.; H. M. Chadwick, The Cult of Othin (London, 1899), pp. 4, 27. I have already cited the tradition as evidence of a nine years' tenure of the kingship in Sweden. See above, p. 57, with note 2.

428.

Herodotus, vii. 197; Apollodorus, i. 9. 1 sq.; Schol. on Aristophanes, Clouds, 257; J. Tzetzes, Schol. on Lycophron, 21, 229; Schol. on Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica, ii. 653; Eustathius, on Homer, Iliad, vii. 86, p. 667; id., on Odyssey, v. 339, p. 1543; Pausanias, i. 44. 7, ix. 34. 7; Zenobius, iv. 38; Plutarch, De superstitione, 5; Hyginus, Fab. 1-5; id., Astronomica, ii. 20; Servius, on Virgil, Aen. v. 241. The story is told or alluded to by these writers with some variations of detail. In piecing their accounts together I have chosen the features which seemed to be the most archaic. According to Pherecydes, one of the oldest writers on Greek legendary history, Phrixus offered himself as a voluntary victim when the crops were perishing (Schol. on Pindar, Pyth. iv. 288). On the whole subject see K. O. Müller, Orchomenus und die Minyer,2 pp. 156, 171.

429.

Plato, Minos, p. 315 c.

430.

Plutarch, Quaest. Graec. 38; Antoninus Liberalis, Transform. 10; Ovid, Metam. iv. 1 sqq.

431.

Pausanias, ix. 34. 5 sqq.; Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica, iii. 265 sq.; Hellanicus, cited by the Scholiast on Apollonius, l.c. Apollodorus speaks of Athamas as reigning over Boeotia (Bibliotheca, i. 9. 1); Tzetzes calls him king of Thebes (Schol. on Lycophron, 21).

432.

The old Scholiast on Apollonius Rhodius (Argon. ii. 653) tells us that down to his time it was customary for one of the descendants of Athamas to enter the town-hall and sacrifice to Laphystian Zeus. K. O. Müller sees in this custom a mitigation of the ancient rule—instead of being themselves sacrificed, the scions of royalty were now permitted to offer sacrifice (Orchomenus und die Minyer,2 p. 158). But this need not have been so. The obligation to serve as victims in certain circumstances lay only on the eldest male of each generation in the direct line; the sacrificers may have been younger brothers or more remote relations of the destined victims. It may be observed that in a dynasty of which the eldest males were regularly sacrificed, the kings, if they were not themselves the victims, must always have been younger sons.

433.

See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, vol. i. p. 310.

434.

I have followed K. O. Müller (Orchomenus und die Minyer,2 pp. 160, 166 sq.) in regarding the ram which saved Phrixus as a mythical expression for the substitution of a ram for a human victim. He points out that a ram was the proper victim to sacrifice to Trophonius (Pausanias, ix. 39. 6), whose very ancient worship was practised at Lebadea not far from Orchomenus. The principle of vicarious sacrifices was familiar enough to the Greeks, as K. O. Müller does not fail to indicate. At Potniae, near Thebes, goats were substituted as victims instead of boys in the sacrifices offered to Dionysus (Pausanias, ix. 8. 2). Once when an oracle commanded that a girl should be sacrificed to Munychian Artemis in order to stay a plague or famine, a goat dressed up as a girl was sacrificed instead (Eustathius on Homer, Iliad, ii. 732, p. 331; Apostolius, vii. 10; Paroemiogr. Graeci, ed. Leutsch et Schneidewin, ii. 402; Suidas, s.v. Ἔμβαρος). At Salamis in Cyprus a man was annually sacrificed to Aphrodite and afterwards to Diomede, but in later times an ox was substituted (Porphyry, De abstinentia, ii. 54). At Laodicea in Syria a deer took the place of a maiden as the victim yearly offered to Athena (Porphyry, op. cit. ii. 56). Since human sacrifices have been forbidden by the Dutch Government in Borneo, the Barito and other Dyak tribes of that island have kept cattle for the sole purpose of sacrificing them instead of human beings at the close of mourning and at other religious ceremonies. See A. W. Nieuwenhuis, Quer durch Borneo, ii. (Leyden, 1907), p. 127.

435.

Philo of Byblus, quoted by Eusebius, Praeparatio Evangelii, i. 10. 29 sq.

436.

2 Kings iii. 27.

437.

On this subject see Dr. G. F. Moore, s.v. “Molech, Moloch,” Encyclopaedia Biblica, iii. 3183 sqq.; C. P. Tiele, Geschichte der Religion im Altertum, i. (Gotha, 1896) pp. 240-244.

438.

Porphyry, De abstinentia, ii. 56.

439.

Plato, Minos, p. 315 c.

440.

Plutarch, Regum et imperatorum apophthegmata, Gelon I.

441.

Diodorus Siculus, xx. 14. Compare Clitarchus, cited by Suidas, s.v. σαρδάνιος γέλως, and by the Scholiast on Plato, Republic, p. 337 a; J. Selden, De dis Syris (Leipsic, 1668), pp. 169 sq.

442.

Plutarch, De superstitione, 13. Egyptian mothers were glad and proud when their children were devoured by the holy crocodiles. See Aelian, De natura animalium, x. 21; Maximus Tyrius, Dissert. viii. 5; Josephus, Contra Apion. ii. 7.

443.

Tertullian, Apologeticus, 6. Compare Justin, xviii. 6. 12; Ennius, cited by Festus, s.v. “Puelli,” pp. 248, 249, ed. C. O. Müller; Augustine, De civitate Dei, vii. 19 and 26.

444.

“Every abomination to the Lord, which he hateth, have they done unto their gods; for even their sons and their daughters do they burn in the fire to their gods,” Deuteronomy xii. 31. Here and in what follows I quote the Revised English Version.

445.

Deuteronomy xviii. 9-12.

446.

Leviticus xviii. 21.

447.

Psalms cvi. 35-38.

448.

2 Kings xvii. 16, 17.

449.

“And they have built the high places of Topheth, which is in the valley of the son of Hinnom, to burn their sons and their daughters in the fire,” Jeremiah vii. 31; “And have built the high places of Baal, to burn their sons in the fire for burnt offerings unto Baal,” id. xix. 5; “And they built the high places of Baal, which are in the valley of the son of Hinnom, to cause their sons and their daughters to pass through the fire unto Molech,” id. xxxii. 35; “Moreover thou hast taken thy sons and thy daughters, whom thou hast borne unto me, and these hast thou sacrificed unto them to be devoured. Were thy whoredoms a small matter, that thou hast slain my children, and delivered them up, in causing them to pass through the fire unto them?” Ezekiel xvi. 20 sq.; compare xx. 26, 31. A comparison of these passages shews that the expression “to cause to pass through the fire,” so often employed in this connexion in Scripture, meant to burn the children in the fire. Some have attempted to interpret the words in a milder sense. See J. Spencer, De legibus Hebraeorum (The Hague, 1686), i. 288 sqq.

450.

2 Chronicles xxviii. 3. In the corresponding passage of 2 Kings (xvi. 3) it is said that Ahaz “made his son to pass through the fire.”

451.

2 Chronicles xxxiii. 6; compare 2 Kings xxi. 6.

452.

2 Kings xxiii. 10.

453.

Jerome on Jeremiah vii. 31, quoted in Winer's Biblisches Realwôrterbuch,2 s.v. “Thopeth.”

454.

The Tel El-Amarna tablets prove that “the prae-Israelitish inhabitants of Canaan were closely akin to the Hebrews, and that they spoke substantially the same language” (S. R. Driver, in Authority and Archaeology, Sacred and Profane, edited by D. G. Hogarth (London, 1899), p. 76).

455.

2 Kings xvii. 31. The identification of Sepharvaim is uncertain. See Encyclopaedia Biblica, iv. 4371 sq.

456.

Micah vi. 6-8.

457.

Ezekiel xx. 25, 26, 31.

458.

Exodus xiii. 1 sq.

459.

Exodus xiii. 12.

460.

Exodus xxxiv. 19. In the Authorised Version the passage runs thus: “All that openeth the matrix is mine; and every firstling among thy cattle, whether ox or sheep, that is male.”

461.

Exodus xxii. 29 sq. The Authorised Version has “the first of thy ripe fruits" instead of "the abundance of thy fruits.”

462.

Numbers xviii. 17 sq. Elsewhere, however, we read: “All the firstling males that are born of thy herd and of thy flock thou shalt sanctify unto the Lord thy God: thou shalt do no work with the firstling of thine ox, nor shear the firstling of thy flock. Thou shalt eat it before the Lord thy God year by year in the place which the Lord shall choose, thou and thy household,” Deuteronomy xv. 19 sq. Compare Deuteronomy xii. 6 sq., 17 sq. To reconcile this ordinance with the other we must suppose that the flesh was divided between the Levite and the owner of the animal. But perhaps the rule in Deuteronomy may represent the old custom which obtained before the rise of the priestly caste. Prof. S. R. Driver inclines to the latter view (Commentary on Deuteronomy, p. 187).

463.

Exodus xiii. 13, xxxiv. 20.

464.

Numbers xviii. 15 sq. Compare Numbers iii. 46-51; Exodus xiii. 13, xxxiv. 20.

465.

Exodus xi.-xiii. 16; Numbers iii. 13, viii. 17. While many points in this strange story remain obscure, the reason which moved the Israelites of old to splash the blood of lambs on the doorposts of their houses at the Passover may perhaps have been not very different from that which induces the Sea Dyaks of Borneo to do much the same thing at the present day. “When there is any great epidemic in the country—when cholera or smallpox is killing its hundreds on all sides—one often notices little offerings of food hung on the walls and from the ceiling, animals killed in sacrifice, and blood splashed on the posts of the houses. When one asks why all this is done, they say they do it in the hope that when the evil spirit, who is thirsting for human lives, comes along and sees the offerings they have made and the animals killed in sacrifice, he will be satisfied with these things, and not take the lives of any of the people living in the Dyak village house” (E. H. Gomes, Seventeen Years among the Sea Dyaks of Borneo, London, 1911, p. 201). Similarly in Western Africa, when a pestilence or an attack of enemies is expected, it is customary to sacrifice sheep and goats and smear their blood on the gateways of the village (Miss Mary H. Kingsley, Travels in West Africa, p. 454, compare p. 45). In Peru, when an Indian hut is cleansed and whitewashed, the blood of a llama is always sprinkled on the doorway and internal walls in order to keep out the evil spirit (Col. Church, cited by E. J. Payne, History of the New World called America, i. 394, note 2). For more evidence of the custom of pouring or smearing blood on the threshold, lintel, and side-posts of doors, see Ph. Paulitschke, Ethnographie Nordost-Afrikas, die geistige Cultur der Danâkil, Galla und Somâl (Berlin, 1896), pp. 38, 48; J. Goldziher, Muhamedanische Studien, ii. 329; S. J. Curtiss, Primitive Semitic Religion To-day, pp. 181-193, 227 sq.; H. C. Trumbull, The Threshold Covenant (New York, 1896), pp. 4 sq., 8 sq., 26-28, 66-68. Perhaps the original intention of the custom was to avert evil influence, especially evil spirits, from the door.

466.

Genesis xxii. 1-13.

467.

See for example Father Baudin, in Missions Catholiques, xvi. (1894) p. 333; A. B. Ellis, The Yoruba-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast, pp. 105 sq.

468.

W. E. Maxwell, “The Folklore of the Malays,” Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, No. 7 (June 1881), p. 14; W. W. Skeat, Malay Magic, p. 112. The bird in question is thought to be the goat-sucker or night-jar.

469.

2 Kings iii. 27.

470.

See above, pp. 166, 167.

471.

As to the redemption of the firstborn among modern Jews, see L. Löw, Die Lebensalter in der jüdischen Literatur (Szegedin, 1875), pp. 110-118; Budgett Meakin, The Moors (London, 1902), pp. 440 sq.

472.

J. Wellhausen, Prolegomena zur Geschichte Israels,3 p. 90; W. Robertson Smith, Religion of the Semites,2 p. 464. On the other hand, when I published the foregoing discussion in the second edition of my book, I was not aware that the conclusion reached in it had been anticipated by Prof. Th. Nöldeke, who has drawn the same inference from the same evidence. See Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft, xlii. (1888) p. 483. I am happy to find myself in agreement with so eminent an authority on Semitic antiquity.

473.

R. Brough Smyth, Aborigines of Victoria, ii. 311. In the Luritcha tribe of central Australia “young children are sometimes killed and eaten, and it is not an infrequent custom, when a child is in weak health, to kill a younger and healthy one and then to feed the weakling on its flesh, the idea being that this will give the weak child the strength of the stronger one” (Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, p. 475). The practice seems to have been common among the Australian aborigines. See W. E. Stanbridge, quoted by R. Brough Smyth, op. cit. i. 52; A. W. Howitt, Native Tribes of South-East Australia, pp. 749, 750.

474.

G. Scriviner, in E. Curr's The Australian Race, ii. 182.

475.

A. W. Howitt, Native Tribes of South-East Australia, p. 750.

476.

S. Gason, in E. Curr's The Australian Race, ii. 119.

477.

Father Mazzuconi, in Annales de la Propagation de la Foi, xxvii. (1855) pp. 368 sq.

478.

J. J. M. de Groot, Religious System of China, ii. 679, iv. 364.

479.

J. J. M. de Groot, op. cit. iv. 365. On these Chinese reports Prof. de Groot remarks (op. cit. iv. 366): “Quite at a loss, however, we are to explain that eating of firstborn sons by their own nearest kinsfolk, absolutely inconsistent as it is with a primary law of tribal life in general, which imperiously demands that the tribe should make itself strong in male cognates, but not indulge in self-destruction by killing its natural defenders. We feel, therefore, strongly inclined to believe the statement fabulous.” Such scepticism implies an opinion of the good sense and foresight of savages which is far from being justified by the facts. Many savage tribes have “indulged in self-destruction” by killing a large proportion of their children, both male and female. See below, pp. 196 sq.

480.

W. Crooke, Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India, ii. 169.

481.

H. A. Rose, “Unlucky Children,” Folklore, xiii. (1902) p. 63; id., in Indian Antiquary, xxxi. (1902) pp. 162 sq. Mr. Rose is Superintendent of Ethnography in the Punjaub. The authorities cited by him are Moore's Hindu Infanticide, pp. 198 sq., and Sherring's Hindu Tribes and Castes, iii. p. 66.

482.

Captain Philip Maud, “Exploration in the Southern Borderland of Abyssinia,” The Geographical Journal, xxiii. (1904) pp. 567 sq.

483.

Exodus iv. 24-26.

484.

Captain C. H. Stigand, To Abyssinia through an Unknown Land (London, 1910), pp. 234 sq.

485.

J. Roscoe, “Further Notes on the Manners and Customs of the Baganda,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxii. (1902) p. 30. Mr. Roscoe informs me that a similar custom prevails also in Koki and Bunyoro.

486.

J. L. Krapf, Travels, Researches, and Missionary Labours during an Eighteen Years' Residence in Eastern Africa (London, 1860), pp. 69 sq. Dr. Krapf, who reports the custom at second hand, thinks that the existence of the pillar may be doubted, but that the rest of the story harmonises well enough with African superstition.

487.

J. Macdonald, Light in Africa2 (London, 1890), p. 156. In the text I have embodied some fuller explanations and particulars which my friend the Rev. Mr. Macdonald was good enough to send me in a letter dated September 16th, 1899. Among the tribes with which Mr. Macdonald is best acquainted the custom is obsolete and lives only in tradition; formerly it was universally practised.

488.

F. J. Mone, Geschichte des Heidenthums im nördlichen Europa (Leipsic and Darmstadt, 1822-1823), i. 119.

489.

Vallancey, Collectanea de rebus Hibernicis, vol. iii. (Dublin, 1786) p. 457; D. Nutt, The Voyage of Bran, ii. 149-151, 304 sq.; P. W. Joyce, Social History of Ancient Ireland, i. 275 sq., 281-284. The authority for the tradition is the Dinnschenchas or Dinnsenchus, a document compiled in the eleventh and twelfth centuries out of older materials. Mr. Joyce discredits the tradition of human sacrifice.

490.

Fr. Boas, in “Fourth Annual Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada,” Report of the British Association for 1888, p. 242; id., in Fifth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada, p. 52 (separate reprint from the Report of the British Association for 1889).

491.

Fr. Boas, in Fifth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada, p. 46 (separate reprint from the Report of the British Association for 1889).

492.

W. Strachey, Historie of travaile into Virginia Britannia (Hakluyt Society, London, 1849), p. 84.

493.

J. Bricknell, The Natural History of North Carolina (Dublin, 1737), pp. 342 sq. I have taken the liberty of altering slightly the writer's somewhat eccentric punctuation.

494.

See above, p. 162.

495.

A. de Herrera, The General History of the Vast Continent and Islands of America, translated by Capt. John Stevens (London, 1725-6), iv. 347 sq. Compare J. de Acosta, Natural and Moral History of the Indies (Hakluyt Society, London, 1880), ii. 344.

496.

Fr. Xeres, Relation véridique de la conquête du Perou et de la Province de Cuzco nommée Nouvelle-Castille (in H. Ternaux-Compans's Voyages, relations et mémoires, etc., Paris, 1837), p. 53.

497.

Juan de Velasco, Histoire du royaume de Quito, i. (Paris, 1840) p. 106 (forming vol. xviii. of H. Ternaux-Compans's Voyages, relations et mémoires, etc.).

498.

A. R. Wallace, Narrative of Travels on the Amazon and Rio Negro (London, 1889), p. 355.

499.

W. Barbrooke Grubb, An Unknown People in an Unknown Land (London, 1911), p. 233.

500.

Festus, De verborum significatione, s.vv. “Mamertini,” “Sacrani,” and “Ver sacrum,” pp. 158, 370, 371, 379, ed. C. O. Müller; Servius on Virgil, Aen. vii. 796; Nonius Marcellus, s.v. “ver sacrum,” p. 522 (p. 610, ed. Quicherat); Varro, Rerum rusticarum, iii. 16. 29; Dionysius Halicarnasensis, Antiquit. Rom. i. 16 and 23 sq., ii. 1. 2.

501.

Strabo, v. 4. 2 and 12; Pliny, Nat. hist. iii. 110; Festus, De verborum significatione, s.v. “Irpini,” ed. C. O. Müller, p. 106. It is worthy of note that the three swarms which afterwards developed into the Piceni, the Samnites, and the Hirpini were said to have been guided by a woodpecker, a bull, and a wolf respectively, of which the woodpecker (picus) and the wolf (hirpus) gave their names to the Piceni and the Hirpini. The tradition may perhaps preserve a trace of totemism, but in the absence of clearer evidence it would be rash to assume that it does so. The woodpecker was sacred among the Latins, and a woodpecker as well as a wolf is said to have fed the twins Romulus and Remus (Plutarch, Quaest. Rom. 21; Ovid, Fasti, iii. 37 sq.). Does this legend point to the existence of a wolf-clan and a woodpecker-clan at Rome? There was perhaps a similar conjunction of wolf and woodpecker at Soracte, for the woodpecker is spoken of as the bird of Feronia (“picus Feronius,” Festus, s.v. “Oscines,” p. 197, ed. C. O. Müller), a goddess in whose sanctuary at Soracte certain men went by the name of Soranian Wolves (Servius, on Virgil, Aen. xi. 785; Pliny, Nat. hist. vii. 19; Strabo, v. 2. 9). These “Soranian Wolves” will meet us again later on.

502.

Livy, xxii. 9 sq.; Plutarch, Fabius Maximus, 4.

503.

Livy, xxxiv. 44.

504.

Dionysius Halicarnasensis, Antiquit. Rom. i. 24.

505.

Schwegler thought it hardly open to question that the “sacred spring” was a substitute for an original custom of human sacrifice (Römische Geschichte, i. 240 sq.). The inference is denied on insufficient grounds by R. von Ihering (Vorgeschichte der Indoeuropäer, pp. 309 sqq.).

506.

Dionysius Halicarnasensis, Antiquit. Rom. i. 16. 1. Rhegium in Italy was founded by Chalcidian colonists, who in obedience to the Delphic Oracle had been dedicated as a tithe-offering to Apollo on account of a dearth (Strabo, vi. 1. 6, p. 257). Justin speaks of the Gauls sending out three hundred thousand men, “as it were a sacred spring,” to seek a new home (Justin, xxiv. 4. 1).

507.

The Australian aborigines resort to infanticide to keep down the number of a family. But “the number is kept down, not with any idea at all of regulating the food supply, so far as the adults are concerned, but simply from the point of view that, if the mother is suckling one child, she cannot properly provide food for another, quite apart from the question of the trouble of carrying two children about. An Australian native never looks far enough ahead to consider what will be the effect on the food supply in future years if he allows a particular child to live; what affects him is simply the question of how it will interfere with the work of his wife so far as their own camp is concerned” (Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, p. 264).

508.

See above, pp. 57, 160 sq.

509.

Above, p. 185.

510.

Father Baudin, “Le Fétichisme,” Missions Catholiques, xvi. (1884) p. 259.

511.

The Laws of Manu, ix. 8, p. 329, G. Bühler's translation (Sacred Books of the East, vol. xxv.). On this Hindoo doctrine of reincarnation, its logical consequences and its analogies in other parts of the world, see J. von Negelein, “Eine Quelle der indischen Seelenwanderungvorstellung,” Archiv für Religionswissenschaft, vi. (1903) pp. 320-333. Compare E. S. Hartland, The Legend of Perseus, i. 218 sq.; id., Primitive Paternity (London, 1909-1910), ii. 196 sqq.

512.

H. A. [J. A.] Rose, “Unlucky and Lucky Children, and some Birth Superstitions,” Indian Antiquary, xxxi. (1902) p. 516; id., in Folklore, xiii. (1902) pp. 278 sq. As to the Khatris, see D. C. J. Ibbetson, Outlines of Panjab Ethnography, pp. 295 sq.; H. H. Risley, The Tribes and Castes of Bengal, i. 478 sqq.; W. Crooke, The Tribes and Castes of the North-western Provinces and Oudh, iii. 264 sqq.

513.

The same suggestion has been made by Dr. E. Westermarck (The Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, i. (London, 1906) pp. 460 sq.). Some years ago, before the publication of his book and while the present volume was still in proof, Dr. Westermarck and I in conversation discovered that we had independently arrived at the same conjectural explanation of the custom of killing the firstborn.

514.

Capt. J. Cook, Voyages (London, 1809), i. 225 sq.; Capt. J. Wilson, Missionary Voyage to the Southern Pacific Ocean (London, 1799), pp. 327, 330, 333; W. Ellis, Polynesian Researches,2 iii. 99-101; J. A. Mourenhout, Voyages aux îles du Grand Océan, ii. 13 sq.; Mathias G. ——, Lettres sur les Îles Marquises (Paris, 1843), pp. 103 sq.; H. Hale, United States Exploring Expedition, Ethnography and Philology (Philadelphia, 1846), p. 34.

515.

W. Ellis, Polynesian Researches,2 i. 251-253.

516.

J. E. Erskine, Journal of a Cruise among the Islands of the Western Pacific (London, 1853), p. 233.

517.

J. Williams, Narrative of Missionary Enterprises in the South Sea Islands (London, 1836), pp. 117 sq.

518.

J. Campbell, Travels in South Africa, Second Journey (London, 1822), ii. 276.

519.

Hesiod, Theogony, 137 sqq., 453 sqq., 886 sqq.; Apollodorus, Bibliotheca, i. 1-3.

520.

Above, pp. 179 sq. Traces of a custom of sacrificing the children instead of the father may perhaps be found in the legends that Menoeceus, son of Creon, died to save Thebes, and that one or more of the daughters of Erechtheus perished to save Athens. See Euripides, Phoenissae, 889 sqq.; Apollodorus, iii. 6. 7, iii. 15. 4; Schol. on Aristides, Panathen. p. 113, ed. Dindorf; Cicero, Tuscul., i. 48. 116; id., De natura deorum, iii. 19. 50; W. H. Roscher, Lexikon d. griech. und röm. Mythologie, i. 1298 sq., ii. 2794 sq.

521.

See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, vol. ii. pp. 269 sqq.

522.

See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, vol. ii. p. 283. The Oedipus legend would conform still more closely to custom if we could suppose that marriage with a mother was formerly allowed in cases where the king had neither a sister nor a stepmother, by marrying whom he could otherwise legalise his claim to the throne.

523.

Examples of this custom are collected by me in a note on Pausanias, i. 7. 1 (vol. ii. p. 85). For other instances see V. Noel, “Île de Madagascar, recherches sur les Sakkalava,” Bulletin de la Société de Géographie (Paris), Deuxième Série, xx. (Paris, 1843) pp. 63 sq. (among the Sakkalavas of Madagascar); V. L. Cameron, Across Africa (London, 1877), ii. 70, 149; J. Roscoe, “Further Notes on the Manners and Customs of the Baganda,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxii. (1902) p. 27 (among the Baganda of Central Africa); J. G. Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, ii. 523, 538 (among the Banyoro and Bahima); J. Dos Santos, “Eastern Ethiopia,” in G. McCall Theal's Records of South-Eastern Africa, vii. 191 (as to the kings of Sofala in eastern Africa). But Dos Santos's statement is doubted by Dr. McCall Theal (op. cit. p. 395).

524.

This explanation of the custom was anticipated by McLennan: “Another rule of chiefly succession, which has been mentioned, that which gave the chiefship to a sister's son, appears to have been nullified in some cases by an extraordinary but effective expedient—by the chief, that is, marrying his own sister” (The Patriarchal Theory, based on the Papers of the late John Ferguson McLennan, edited and completed by Donald McLennan (London, 1885), p. 95).

525.

Compare Cicero, De natura deorum, ii. 26. 66; [Plutarch], De vita et poesi Homeri, ii. 96; Lactantius, Divin. Inst. i. 10; Firmicus Maternus, De errore profanarum religionum, xii. 4.

526.

Porphyry, De abstinentia, ii. 54.

527.

See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 292 sqq.

528.

See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 269 sqq.

529.

Men and women of the Khlysti sect in Russia abhor marriage; and in the sect of the Skoptsi or Eunuchs the devotees mutilate themselves. See Sir D. Mackenzie Wallace, Russia. (London [1877]), p. 302. As to collective suicide, see above, pp. 43 sqq.

530.

Above, p. 191.

531.

Father Picarda, “Autour de Mandéra, notes sur l'Ouzigowa, l'Oukwéré et l'Oudoe (Zanguebar),” Missions Catholiques, xviii. (1886) p. 284.

532.

The Strange Adventures of Andrew Battell (Hakluyt Society, 1901), pp. 32, 84 sq.

533.

F. de Azara, Voyages dans l'Amérique Méridionale (Paris, 1809), ii. 115-117. The writer affirms that the custom was universally established among all the women of the Mbaya nation, as well as among the women of other Indian nations.

534.

R. Southey, History of Brazil, iii. (London, 1819) p. 385.

535.

W. Barbrooke Grubb, An Unknown People in an Unknown Land (London, 1911), p. 233.

536.

Hugh Goldie, Calabar and its Mission, new edition with additional chapters by the Rev. John Taylor Dean (Edinburgh and London, 1901), pp. 34 sq., 37 sq. The preface to the original edition of this work is dated 1890. By this time the tribal suicide is probably complete.

537.

See above, pp. 21, 23, 26 sq.

538.

See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 410 sqq.

539.

J. T. Nieuwenhuisen en H. C. B. von Rosenberg, “Verslag omtrent het eiland Nias,” Verhandelingen van het Batav. Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen, xxx. (1863) p. 85; H. von Rosenberg, Der Malayische Archipel, p. 160; L. N. H. A. Chatelin, “Godsdienst en bijgeloof der Niassers,” Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde, xxvi. (1880) pp. 142 sq.; H. Sundermann, “Die Insel Nias und die Mission daselbst,” Allgemeine Missions-Zeitschrift, xi. (1884) p. 445; E. Modigliani, Un Viaggio a Nías, pp. 277, 479 sq.; id., L'Isola delle Donne (Milan, 1894), p. 195.

540.

Ch. Wilkes, Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition (London, 1845), iv. 453; United States Exploring Expedition, Ethnography and Philology, by H. Hale (Philadelphia, 1846), p. 203.

541.

Brasseur de Bourbourg, Histoire des nations civilisées du Mexique et de l'Amérique-Centrale, ii. 574.

542.

D. G. Brinton, Myths of the New World2 (New York, 1876), pp. 270 sq.

543.

Relations des Jésuites, 1636, p. 130 (Canadian reprint, Quebec, 1858).

544.

A. Bastian, Die Voelker des oestlichen Asien, iv. 386.

545.

Servius on Virgil, Aen. iv. 685; Cicero, In Verr. ii. 5. 45; K. F. Hermann, Lehrbuch der griechischen Privatalterthümer, ed. H. Blümner, p. 362, note 1.

546.

J. Harland and T. T. Wilkinson, Lancashire Folk-lore (London, 1882), pp. 7 sq.

547.

The Travels of the Jesuits in Ethiopia, collected and historically digested by F. Balthazar Tellez (London, 1710), p. 198.

548.

Ph. Paulitschke, Ethnographie Nordost-Afrikas, die geistige Cultur der Danâkil, Galla und Somâl (Berlin, 1896), p. 28.

549.

This account I received from my friend the Rev. J. Roscoe in a letter dated Mengo, Uganda, April 27, 1900. See his “Further Notes on the Manners and Customs of the Baganda,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxii. (1902) pp. 42, 45 sq., where, however, the account is in some points not quite so explicit.

550.

J. Dos Santos, “Eastern Ethiopia,” in G. McCall Theal's Records of South-eastern Africa, vii. 196 sq.

551.

See above, p. 35.

552.

See Taboo and the Perils of the Soul, pp. 423 sqq.

553.

See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, i. 362 sqq.

554.

A. Grandidier, “Madagascar,” Bull. de la Société de Géographie (Paris), VIème Série, iii. (1872) pp. 402 sq.

555.

Nicolaus Damascenus, quoted by Stobaeus, Florilegium, cxxiii. 12 (Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum, ed. C. Müller, iii. 463). The Issedones of Scythia used to gild the skulls of their dead fathers and offer great sacrifices to them annually (Herodotus, iv. 26); they also used the skulls as drinking-cups (Mela, ii. 1. 9). The Boii of Cisalpine Gaul cut off the head of a Roman general whom they had defeated, and having gilded the scalp they used it as a sacred vessel for the pouring of libations, and the priests drank out of it (Livy, xxiii. 24. 12).

556.

Sir H. Johnston, The Uganda Protectorate (London, 1902), ii. 828.

557.

Missionary Holley, “Étude sur les Egbas,” Missions Catholiques, xiii. (1881) p. 353. The writer speaks of “le roi d'Alakei,” but this is probably a mistake or a misprint. As to the Alake or king of Abeokuta, see Sir William Macgregor, “Lagos, Abeokuta, and the Alake,” Journal of the African Society, No. xii. (July, 1904) pp. 471 sq. Some years ago the Alake visited England and I had the honour of being presented to his Majesty by Sir William Macgregor at Cambridge.

558.

F. T. Valdez, Six Years of a Traveller's Life in Western Africa, ii. 161 sq.

559.

Missionary Holley, in Annales de la Propagation de la Foi, liv. (1882) p. 87. The “King of Ake” mentioned by the writer is the Alake or king of Abeokuta; for Ake is the principal quarter of Abeokuta, and Alake means “Lord of Ake.” See Sir William Macgregor, l.c.

560.

Extracted from a letter of Mr. Harold G. Parsons, dated Lagos, September 28th, 1903, and addressed to Mr. Theodore A. Cooke of 54 Oakley Street, Chelsea, London, who was so kind as to send me the letter with leave to make use of it. “It is usual for great chiefs to report or announce their succession to the Oni of Ife, or to the Alafin of Oyo, the intimation being accompanied by a present” (Sir W. Macgregor, l.c.).

561.

See above, pp. 23, 26 sq. Dr. E. Westermarck has suggested as an alternative to the theory in the text, “that the new king is supposed to inherit, not the predecessor's soul, but his divinity or holiness, which is looked upon in the light of a mysterious entity, temporarily seated in the ruling sovereign, but separable from him and transferable to another individual.” See his article, “The Killing of the Divine King,” Man, viii. (1908) pp. 22-24. There is a good deal to be said in favour of Dr. Westermarck's theory, which is supported in particular by the sanctity attributed to the regalia. But on the whole I see no sufficient reason to abandon the view adopted in the text, and I am confirmed in it by the Shilluk evidence, which was unknown to Dr. Westermarck when he propounded his theory.

562.

See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, i. 1 sqq., ii. 378 sqq.

563.

See above, pp. 21 sq., 27 sq.

564.

See above, pp. 47 sq.

565.

Fr. Panzer, Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie (Munich, 1848-1855), i. 235 sq.; W. Mannhardt, Baumkultus (Berlin, 1875), pp. 320 sq. In some villages of Lower Bavaria one of the Pfingstl's comrades carries “the May,” which is a young birch-tree wreathed and decorated. Another name for this Whitsuntide masker, both in Lower and Upper Bavaria, is the Water-bird. Sometimes he carries a straw effigy of a monstrous bird with a long neck and a wooden beak, which is thrown into the water instead of the bearer. The wooden beak is afterwards nailed to the ridge of a barn, which it is supposed to protect against lightning and fire for a whole year, till the next Pfingstl makes his appearance. See Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern, i. 375 sq., 1003 sq. In Silesia the Whitsuntide mummer, called the Rauchfiess or Raupfiess, sometimes stands in a leafy arbour, which is mounted on a cart and drawn about the village by four or six lads. They collect gifts at the houses and finally throw the cart and the Rauchfiess into a shallow pool outside the village. This is called “driving out the Rauchfiess.” The custom used to be associated with the driving out of the cattle at Whitsuntide to pasture on the dewy grass, which was thought to make the cows yield plenty of milk. The herdsman who was the last to drive out his beasts on the morning of the day became the Rauchfiess in the afternoon. See P. Drechsler, Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien, i. (Leipsic, 1903), pp. 117-123.

566.

E. Meier, Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben (Stuttgart, 1852), pp. 409-419; W. Mannhardt, Baumkultus, pp. 349 sq.

567.

E. Sommer, Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus Sachsen und Thüringen (Halle, 1846), pp. 154 sq.; W. Mannhardt, Baumkultus, pp. 335 sq.

568.

W. Mannhardt, Baumkultus, p. 336.

569.

Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen (Prague, n.d., preface dated 1861), p. 61; W. Mannhardt, Baumkultus, pp. 336 sq.

570.

Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen, p. 263; W. Mannhardt, Baumkultus, p. 343.

571.

Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen, pp. 269 sq.

572.

The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 86 sq.

573.

Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen, pp. 264 sq.; W. Mannhardt, Baumkultus, pp. 353 sq.

574.

See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 73 sqq.

575.

See pp. 208, 210.

576.

The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, i. 247 sqq., 272 sqq.

577.

See above, p. 208.

578.

Ovid, Fasti, iii. 271.

579.

See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 308 sqq.

580.

See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, i. 20.

581.

Caesar, Bell. Gall. vi. 16; Adam of Bremen, Descriptio Insularum Aquilonis, 27 (Migne's Patrologia Latina, cxlvi. col. 644); Olaus Magnus, De gentium septrionalium variis conditionibus, iii. 7; J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 i. 35 sqq.; F. J. Mone, Geschichte des nordischen Heidenthums, i. 69, 119, 120, 149, 187 sq.

582.

H. J. Tendeloo, “Verklaring van het zoogenaamd Oud-Alfoersch Teekenschrift,” Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap, xxxvi. (1892) pp. 338 sq.

583.

Sir H. Johnston, The Uganda Protectorate (London, 1902), ii. 719 sq. The writer describes the ceremony from the testimony of an eye-witness.

584.

J. G. Bourke, Snake Dance of the Moquis of Arizona, pp. 196 sq.

585.

Euripides, Iphigenia in Taur. 1458 sqq.

586.

J. T. Nieuwenhuisen en H. C. B. von Rosenberg, “Verslag omtrent het eiland Nias,” Verhandelingen van het Batav. Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen, xxx. (1863) p. 43; E. Modigliani, Un Viaggio a Nias (Milan, 1890), pp. 282 sq.

587.

J. A. Dubois, Mæurs, institutions et cérémonies des peuples de l'Inde (Paris, 1825), i. 151 sq.

588.

E. Thurston, Castes and Tribes of Southern India (Madras, 1909), iv. 437, quoting Mr. A. R. Loftus-Tottenham.

589.

G. Turner, Samoa, pp. 31 sq.; compare pp. 38, 58, 59, 69 sq., 72.

590.

Porphyry, De abstinentia, ii. 55, citing Manetho as his authority.

591.

“The Rudhirádhyáyă, or sanguinary chapter,” translated from the Calica Puran by W. C. Blaquiere, in Asiatick Researches, v. 376 (8vo ed., London, 1807).

592.

E. T. Dalton, Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal (Calcutta, 1872), p. 281.

593.

E. T. Dalton, op. cit. pp. 258 sq.

594.

Mgr. Bruguière, in Annales de l'Association de la Propagation de la Foi, v. (1831) p. 201.

595.

B. C. A. J. van Dinter, “Eenige geographische en ethnographische aanteekeningen betreffende het eiland Siaoe,” Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde, xli. (1899) p. 379.

596.

Ch. Hose and W. McDougall, “The Relations between Men and Animals in Sarawak,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxi. (1901) p. 208.

597.

W. G. Aston, Shinto (London, 1905). pp. 56 sq.

598.

A. C. Kruijt, “Eenige ethnografische aanteekeningen omtrent de Toboengkoe en de Tomori,” Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap, xliv. (1900) p. 222.

599.

E. Thurston, “Deformity and Mutilation,” Madras Government Museum, Bulletin, vol. iv. No. 3 (Madras, 1903), pp. 193-196. As to the custom of sacrificing joints of fingers, see my note on Pausanias, viii. 34. 2, vol. iv. pp. 354 sqq. To the evidence there adduced add P. J. de Smet, Western Missions and Missionaries (New York, 1863), p. 135; G. B. Grinnell, Blackfoot Lodge Tales, pp. 194, 258; A. d'Orbigny, L'Homme américain, ii. 24; J. Williams, Narrative of Missionary Enterprises in the South Sea Islands, pp. 470 sq.; J. Mathew, Eaglehawk and Crow (London and Melbourne, 1899), p. 120; A. W. Howitt, Native Tribes of South-East Australia, pp. 746 sq.; L. Degrandpré, Voyage à la côte occidentale d'Afrique (Paris, 1801), ii. 93 sq.; Dudley Kidd, The Essential Kaffir, pp. 203, 262 sq.; G. W. Stow, Native Races of South Africa (London, 1905), pp. 129, 152; Lettres édifiantes et curieuses, Nouvelle Édition, ix. 369, xii. 371; Annales de la Propagation de la Foi, xiii. (1841) p. 20; id., xiv. (1842) pp. 68, 192; id., xvii. (1845) pp. 12, 13; id., xviii. (1846) p. 6; id., xxiii. (1851) p. 314; id., xxxii. (1860) pp. 95 sq.; Indian Antiquary, xxiv. (1895) p. 303; Missions Catholiques, xxix. (1897) p. 90; Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, xxxii. (1900) p. 81. The objects of this mutilation were various. In ancient Athens it was customary to cut off the hand of a suicide and bury it apart from his body (Aeschines, Contra Ctesiph. § 244, p. 193, ed. F. Franke), perhaps to prevent his ghost from attacking the living.

600.

Basil C. Thomson, Savage Island (London, 1902), pp. 92 sq.

601.

E. Thurston, Ethnographic Notes in Southern India (Madras, 1906), p. 390.

602.

J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 ii. 645; K. Haupt, Sagenbuch der Lausitz, ii. 58; Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen, pp. 86 sq.; id., Das festliche Jahr, pp. 77 sq.; Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern, iii. 958 sq.; Sepp, Die Religion der alten Deutschen (Munich, 1890), pp. 67 sq.; W. Müller, Beiträge zur Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren (Vienna and Olmutz, 1893), pp. 258, 353. The fourth Sunday in Lent is also known as Mid-Lent, because it falls in the middle of Lent, or as Laetare from the first word of the liturgy for that day. In the Roman calendar it is the Sunday of the Rose (Domenica rosae), because on that day the Pope consecrates a golden rose, which he presents to some royal lady. In one German village of Transylvania the Carrying out of Death takes place on Ascension Day. See below, pp. 248 sq.

603.

G. Targioni-Tozzetti, Saggio di novelline, canti ed usanze popolari della Ciociaria (Palermo, 1891), pp. 89-95. At Palermo an effigy of the Carnival (Nannu) was burnt at midnight on Shrove Tuesday 1878. See G. Pitrè, Usi e costumi, credenze e pregiudizi del popolo siciliano, i. 117-119; G. Trede, Das Heidentum in der römischen Kirche, iii. 11, note.

604.

A. de Nino, Usi e costumi abruzzesi, ii. 198-200. The writer omits to mention the date of these celebrations. No doubt it is either Shrove Tuesday or Ash Wednesday. Compare G. Finamore, Credenze, usi e costumi abruzzesi (Palermo, 1890), p. 111. In some parts of Piedmont an effigy of Carnival is burnt on the evening of Shrove Tuesday; in others they set fire to tall poplar trees, which, stript of their branches and surmounted by banners, have been set up the day before in public places. These trees go by the name of Scarli. See G. di Giovanni, Usi, credenze e pregiudizi del Canavese (Palermo, 1889), pp. 161, 164 sq. For other accounts of the ceremony of the death of the Carnival, represented either by a puppet or a living person, in Italy and Sicily, see G. Pitrè, Usi e costumi, credenze e pregiudizi del popolo siciliano, i. 96-100; G. Amalfi, Tradizioni ed usi nella Penisola Sorrentina (Palermo, 1890), pp. 40, 42. It has been rightly observed by Pitrè (op. cit. p. 96), that the personification of the Carnival is doubtless the lineal descendant of some mythical personage of remote Greek and Roman antiquity.

605.

R. Wünsch, Das Frühlingsfest der Insel Malta (Leipsic, 1902), pp. 29 sq., quoting Ciantar's supplements to Abelas's Malta illustrata.

606.

J. S. Campion, On Foot in Spain (London, 1879), pp. 291-295.

607.

A. de Nore, Coutumes, mythes et traditions des provinces de France (Paris and Lyons, 1846), pp. 37 sq. The name Caramantran is thought to be compounded of carême entrant, “Lent entering.” It is said that the effigy of Caramantran is sometimes burnt (E. Cortet, Essai sur les fêtes religieuses, Paris, 1867, p. 107).

608.

L. Pineau, Folk-lore du Poitou (Paris, 1892), p. 493.

609.

A. Meyrac, Traditions, légendes et contes des Ardennes (Charleville, 1890), p. 63. According to the writer, the custom of burning an effigy of Shrove Tuesday or the Carnival is pretty general in France.

610.

Ch. Beauquier, Les Mois en Franche-Comté (Paris, 1900), p. 30. In Beauce and Perche the burning or burial of Shrove Tuesday used to be represented in effigy, but the custom has now disappeared. See F. Chapiseau, Le Folk-lore de la Beauce et du Perche (Paris, 1902), i. 320 sq.

611.

J. Lecœur, Esquisses du Bocage Normand (Condé-sur-Noireau, 1883-1887), ii. 148-150.

612.

Madame Octave Feuillet, Quelques années de ma vie5 (Paris, 1895), pp. 59-61.

613.

P. Sébillot, Coutumes populaires de la Haute-Bretagne (Paris, 1886), pp. 227 sq.

614.

A. de Nore, Coutumes, mythes et traditions des Provinces de France, p. 206.

615.

P. Sébillot, Le Folk-lore de France, ii. (Paris, 1905) p. 170.

616.

P. Sébillot, l.c.

617.

J. L. M. Nogues, Les Mœurs d'autrefois en Saintonge et en Aunis (Saintes, 1891), p. 60. As to the trial and condemnation of the Carnival on Ash Wednesday in France, see further Bérenger-Féraud, Superstitions et survivances, iv. 52 sq.

618.

T. F. Thiselton Dyer, British Popular Customs (London, 1876), p. 93.

619.

See above, p. 209.

620.

E. Meier, Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben, p. 371.

621.

J. Haltrich, Zur Volkskunde der Siebenbürger Sachsen (Vienna, 1885), pp. 284 sq.

622.

K. von Leoprechting, Aus dem Lechrain, pp. 162 sqq.; W. Mannhardt, Baumkultus, p. 411.

623.

E. Meier, Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben, p. 374; compare A. Birlinger, Volksthümliches aus Schwaben (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1861-1862), ii. pp. 54 sq., § 71.

624.

E. Meier, op. cit. p. 372.

625.

E. Meier, op. cit. p. 373.

626.

E. Meier, op. cit. pp. 373, 374.

627.

A. Kuhn, Sagen, Gebräuche und Märchen aus Westfalen (Leipsic, 1859), ii. p. 130, § 393.

628.

Folk-lore, vi. (1895) p. 206.

629.

F. J. Wiedemann, Aus dem inneren und äusseren Leben der Ehsten (St. Petersburg, 1876), p. 353.

630.

E. Meier, op. cit. p. 374.

631.

H. Pröhle, Harzbilder (Leipsic, 1855), p. 54.

632.

Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern, iii. 958.

633.

J. Boemus, Omnium gentium mores, leges, et ritus (Paris, 1538), p. 83.

634.

Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern, iii. 958.

635.

J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 ii. 639 sq.; W. Mannhardt, Baumkultus, p. 412.

636.

Sepp, Die Religion der alten Deutschen (Munich, 1876), p. 67.

637.

Fr. Kauffmann, Balder (Strasburg, 1902), p. 283.

638.

Aug. Witzschel, Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen (Vienna, 1878), p. 193.

639.

A. Witzschel, op. cit. p. 199; J. A. E. Köhler, Volksbrauch, Aberglauben, Sagen und andre alte Überlieferungen im Voigtlande (Leipsic, 1867), pp. 171 sq.

640.

Fr. Kauffmann, Balder (Strasburg, 1902), p. 283 note, quoting J. K. Zeumer, Laetare vulgo Todten Sonntag (Jena, 1701), pp. 20 sqq.; J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 ii. 640 sq. The words of the song are given as “So treiben wir den todten auss,” but this must be a mistake for “So treiben wir den Tod hinaus,” as the line is given by P. Drechsler (Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien, i. 66). In the passage quoted the effigy is spoken of as “mortis larva.”

641.

Zacharias Schneider, Leipziger Chronik, iv. 143, cited by K. Schwenk, Die Mythologie der Slaven (Frankfort, 1853), pp. 217 sq., and Fr. Kauffmann, Balder, pp. 284 sq.

642.

P. Drechsler, Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien, i. 65-71. Compare A. Peter, Volksthümliches aus Österreichisch-Schlesien (Troppau, 1865-1867), ii. 281 sq.

643.

F. Tetzner, “Die Tschechen und Mährer in Schlesien,” Globus, lxxviii. (1900) p. 340.

644.

J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 ii. 642.

645.

Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen, pp. 90 sq.

646.

Ibid. p. 91.

647.

W. Müller, Beiträge zur Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren (Vienna and Olmütz, 1893), pp. 353-355.

648.

J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 ii. 644; K. Haupt, Sagenbuch der Lausitz (Leipsic, 1862-1863), ii. 55; P. Drechsler, Sitte, Branch und Volksglaube in Schlesien, i. 70 sq.

649.

J. Grimm, op. cit. ii. 640, 643; P. Drechsler, op. cit. i. 70. See also above, p. 236.

650.

Th. Vernaleken, Mythen und Bräuche des Volkes in Österreich (Vienna, 1859), pp. 294 sq.; Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen, p. 90.

651.

See above, p. 236.

652.

See above, pp. 234, 235, 236, 237.

653.

Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, Das festliche Jahr (Leipsic, 1863), p. 80.

654.

W. R. S. Ralston, Songs of the Russian People (London, 1872), p. 211.

655.

Ibid. p. 210.

656.

J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 ii. 652; H. Usener, "Italische Mythen," Rheinisches Museum, N.F., xxx. (1875) pp. 191 sq.

657.

G. Pitrè, Spettacoli e feste popolari siciliane (Palermo, 1881), pp. 207 sq., id., Usi e costumi, credenze e pregiudizi del popolo siciliano, i. 107 sq.

658.

Archivio per lo studio delle tradizioni popolari, iv. (1885) pp. 294 sq.

659.

H. Usener, op. cit. p. 193.

660.

Vincenzo Dorsa, La Tradizione greco-latina negli usi e nelle credenze popolari della Calabria citeriore (Cosenza, 1884), pp. 43 sq.

661.

E. Martinengo-Cesaresco, in The Academy, No. 671, March 14, 1885, p. 188.

662.

Laisnel de la Salle, Croyances et légendes du centre de la France (Paris, 1875), i. 43 sq.

663.

J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 ii. 652; H. Usener, “Italische Mythen,” Rheinisches Museum, N.F., xxx. (1875) pp. 191 sq.

664.

E. Hoffmann-Krayer, “Fruchtbarkeitsriten im schweizerischen Volksbrauch,” Schweizerisches Archiv für Volkskunde, xi. (1903) p. 239.

665.

H. von Wlislocki, Volksglaube und religiöser Brauch der Zigeuner (Münster i. W., 1891), pp. 145 sq.

666.

E. Cortet, Essai sur les fêtes religieuses (Paris, 1867), pp. 107 sq.; Laisnel de la Salle, Croyances et légendes du centre de la France, i. 45 sq. A similar custom appears to be observed in Minorca. See Globus, lix. (1891) pp. 279, 280.

667.

A. de Nino, Usi e costumi abruzzesi, ii. 203-205 (Florence, 1881); G. Finamore, Credenze, usi e costumi abruzzesi (Palermo, 1890), pp. 112, 114.

668.

G. Amalfi, Tradizioni ed usi nella Penisola Sorrentina (Palermo, 1890), p. 41.

669.

Lucy E. Broadwood, in Folk-lore, iv. (1893) p. 390.

670.

Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen, pp. 89 sq.; W. Mannhardt, Baumkultus, p. 156. This custom has been already referred to. See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 73 sq.

671.

P. Drechsler, Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien, i. 71 sqq.; Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, Das festliche Jahr, p. 82; Philo vom Walde, Schlesien in Sage und Brauch (Berlin, n.d., preface dated 1883), p. 122.

672.

A. Witzschel, Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen, pp. 192 sq.; compare pp. 297 sqq.

673.

J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 ii. 643 sq.; K. Haupt, Sagenbuch der Lausitz, ii. 54 sq.; W. Mannhardt, Baumkultus, pp. 412 sq.; W. R. S. Ralston, Songs of the Russian People, p. 211.

674.

J. Grimm, op. cit. ii. 644; K. Haupt, op. cit. ii. 55.

675.

J. K. Schuller, Das Todaustragen und der Muorlef, ein Beitrag zur Kunde sächsischer Sitte und Sage in Siebenbürgen (Hermannstadt, 1861), pp. 4 sq. The description of this ceremony by Miss E. Gerard (The Land beyond the Forest, ii. 47-49) is plainly borrowed from Mr. Schuller's little work.

676.

W. Müller, Beiträge zur Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren (Vienna and Olmütz, 1893), pp. 258 sq.

677.

P. 247.

678.

This is also the view taken of the custom by W. Mannhardt, Baumkultus, p. 419.

679.

Th. Vernaleken, Mythen und Bräuche des Volkes in Österreich, pp. 293 sq.

680.

Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, Das festliche Jahr, p. 82.

681.

Philo vom Walde, Schlesien in Sage und Brauch, p. 122; P. Drechsler, Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien, i. 74.

682.

See above, p. 236.

683.

See above, pp. 239 sq.

684.

See above, p. 236.

685.

Above, p. 246.

686.

Above, p. 246.

687.

See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 73 sqq.

688.

Above, p. 246, and J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 ii. 644; Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen, pp. 87 sq.

689.

Above, p. 246.

690.

See above, pp. 250 sq.

691.

See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 45 sqq.

692.

Above, pp. 234, 235, 240, 248, 250; and J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 ii. 643.

693.

Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen, p. 88. Sometimes the effigy of Death (without a tree) is carried round by boys who collect gratuities (J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 ii. 644).

694.

Above, p. 208.

695.

Above, p. 231.

696.

F. J. Wiedemann, Aus dem inneren und äusseren Leben der Ehsten, p. 353; Holzmayer, “Osiliana,” in Verhandlungen der gelehrten Estnischen Gesellschaft zu Dorpat, vii. Heft 2, pp. 10 sq.; W. Mannhardt, Baumkultus, pp. 407 sq.

697.

W. Mannhardt, Baumkultus, pp. 417-421.

698.

Olaus Magnus, De gentium septentrionalium variis conditionibus, xv. 8 sq. In Le Temps, No. 15,669, May 11, 1902, p. 2, there is a description of this ceremony as it used to be performed in Stockholm. The description seems to be borrowed from Olaus Magnus.

699.

J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 ii. 637-639; Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern, iv. 2, pp. 357 sq. See also E. Krause, “Das Sommertags-Fest in Heidelberg,” Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, 1895, p. (145); A. Dieterich, “Sommertag,” Archiv für Religionswissenschaft, viii. (1905) Beiheft, pp. 82 sqq.

700.

Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern, i. 369 sq.

701.

Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern, ii. 259 sq.; F. Panzer, Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie, i. pp. 253-256; K. von Leoprechting, Aus dem Lechrain, pp. 167 sq. A dialogue in verse between representatives of Winter and Summer is spoken at Hartlieb in Silesia, near Breslau. See Zeitschrift des Vereins für Volkskunde, iii. (1893) pp. 226-228.

702.

Th. Vernaleken, Mythen und Bräuche des Völkes in Österreich, pp. 297 sq.

703.

R. Andree, Braunschweiger Volkskunde (Brunswick, 1896), p. 250.

704.

W. Müller, Beiträge zur Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren, pp. 430-436.

705.

W. Müller, op. cit. p. 259.

706.

J. Train, Historical and Statistical Account of the Isle of Man (Douglas, Isle of Man, 1845), ii. 118-120. It has been suggested that the name Maceboard may be a corruption of May-sports.

707.

Fr. Boas, “The Central Eskimo,” Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology (Washington, 1888), p. 605. The account of this custom given by Captain J. S. Mutch is as follows: “The people take a long rope, the ends of which are tied together. They arrange themselves so that those born during the summer stand close to the water, and those born in the winter stand inland; and then they pull at the rope to see whether summer or winter is the stronger. If winter should win, there will be plenty of food; if summer should win, there will be a bad winter.” See Fr. Boas, “The Eskimo of Baffin Land and Hudson Bay,” Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, xv. (1901) pp. 140 sq. At Memphis in Egypt there were two statues in front of the temple of Hephaestus (Ptah), of which the more northern was popularly called Summer and the more southern Winter. The people worshipped the image of Summer and execrated the image of Winter. It has been suggested that the two statues represented Osiris and Typhon, the good and the bad god. See Herodotus, ii. 121, with the notes of Bähr and Wiedemann.

708.

Relations des Jésuites, 1636, p. 38 (Canadian reprint, Quebec, 1858).

709.

H. Herzog, Schweizerische Volksfeste, Sitten und Gebräuche (Aurau, 1884), pp. 164-166; W. Mannhardt, Baumkultus, pp. 498 sq.

710.

Letter to me of Dr. J. S. Black, dated Lauriston Cottage, Wimbledon Common, 28th May, 1903. In a subsequent letter (dated 9th June, 1903) Dr. Black enclosed some bibliographical references to the custom which were kindly furnished to him by Professor P. Schmiedel of Zurich, who speaks of the effigy as a representative of Winter. It is not expressly so called by H. Herzog and W. Mannhardt. See the preceding note.

711.

W. R. S. Ralston, Songs of the Russian People, p. 221.

712.

W. R. S. Ralston, Songs of the Russian People, p. 241.

713.

W. R. S. Ralston, op. cit. pp. 243 sq.; W. Mannhardt, Baumkultus, p. 414.

714.

W. Mannhardt, Baumkultus, pp. 414 sq.; W. R. S. Ralston, op. cit. p. 244.

715.

W. R. S. Ralston, op. cit. p. 245; W. Mannhardt, Baumkultus, p. 416.

716.

W. Mannhardt, l.c.; W. R. S. Ralston, l.c.

717.

J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 ii. 644.

718.

J. G. von Hahn, Albanesische Studien (Jena, 1854), i. 160.

719.

R. C. Temple, in Indian Antiquary, xi. (1882) pp. 297 sq.

720.

See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 84 sqq.

721.

See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 45 sqq.

722.

When the Kurnai of Victoria saw the Aurora Australis, which corresponds to the Northern Streamers of Europe, they exchanged wives for the day and swung the severed hand of a dead man towards it, shouting, “Send it away! do not let it burn us up!” See A. W. Howitt, “On some Australian Beliefs,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xiii. (1884) p. 189; id., Native Tribes of South-East Australia, pp. 276 sq., 430.

723.

See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, i. 242 sq.

724.

Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, pp. 4 sq., 170.

725.

Spencer and Gillen, op. cit. p. 170. For a description of some of these ceremonies see The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, i. 85 sqq.

726.

Lord Avebury, Origin of Civilisation,5 pp. 378 sq.; compare id., Prehistoric Times,5 p. 561.

727.

De Guignes, Voyages à Peking, Manille et l'Île de France, iii. (Paris, 1808) pp. 114 sq.

728.

Above, pp. 156 sq.

729.

B. F. Matthes, Einige Eigenthumlichkeiten in den Festen und Gewohnheiten der Makassaren und Buginesen (Leyden, 1884), p. 1; id., “Over de âdá's of gewoonten der Makassaren en Boegineezen,” Verslagen en Mededeelingen der koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen, Afdeeling Letterkunde, Derde Reeks, Tweede Deel (Amsterdam, 1885), pp. 169 sq.

730.

H. A. Oldfield, Sketches from Nipal (London, 1880), ii. 351.

731.

Spenser St. John, Life in the Forests of the Far East,2 i. 194 sq.

732.

Ch. Brooke, Ten Years in Sarawak, ii. 226 sq.

733.

J. S. G. Gramberg, “De Troeboekvisscherij,” Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde, xxiv. (1887) pp. 314 sq.

734.

E. Petitot, Monographie des Dènè-Dindjiè (Paris, 1876), p. 38. The same ceremony is performed, oddly enough, to procure the death of an enemy.

735.

Hamilton's “Account of the East Indies,” in Pinkerton's Voyages and Travels, viii. 360 sq. In general we are merely told that these Indian devotees swing on hooks in fulfilment of a vow or to obtain some favour of a deity. See Duarte Barbosa, Description of the Coasts of East Africa and Malabar in the beginning of the Sixteenth Century, translated by the Hon. H. E. J. Stanley (Hakluyt Society, London, 1866), pp. 95 sq.; Gaspar Balbi's “Voyage to Pegu,” in Pinkerton's Voyages and Travels, ix. 398; Sonnerat, Voyage aux Indes orientales et à la Chine, i. 244; S. Mateer, The Land of Charity, p. 220; W. W. Hunter, Annals of Rural Bengal,5 p. 463; North Indian Notes and Queries, i. p. 76, § 511.

736.

V. Ball, Jungle Life in India (London, 1880), p. 232.

737.

W. W. Hunter, Annals of Rural Bengal5 (London, 1872), p. 463.

738.

G. W. Leitner, The Languages and Races of Dardistan (Lahore, 1878), p. 12.

739.

Sarat Chandra Mitra, “Notes on two Behari Pastimes,” Journal of the Anthropological Society of Bombay, iii. 95 sq.

740.

H. H. Wilson, “The Religious Festivals of the Hindus,” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, ix. (1848) p. 98. Compare E. T. Dalton, Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal, p. 314; Monier Williams, Religious Life and Thought in India, p. 137; W. Crooke, “The Legends of Krishna,” Folk-lore, xi. (1900) pp. 21 sqq.

741.

The Hymns of the Rigveda, vii. 87. 5 (vol. iii. p. 108 of R. T. H. Griffith's translation, Benares, 1891); H. Oldenberg, Die Religion des Veda, pp. 444 sq.

742.

J. G. Kohl, Die deutsch-russischen Ostseeprovinzen (Dresden and Leipsic, 1841), ii. 268 sqq.

743.

L. v. Schroeder, “Lihgo (Refrain der lettischen Sonnwendlieder),” Mitteilungen der Anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien, xxxii. (1902) pp. 1-11.

744.

S. W. Tromp, “Uit de Salasila van Koetei,” Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië, xxxvii. (1888) pp. 87-89.

745.

J. Perham, “Manangism in Borneo,” Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, No. 19 (Singapore, 1887), pp. 97 sq.; E. H. Gomes, Seventeen Years among the Sea Dyaks of Borneo (London, 1911), pp. 169, 170, 171; H. Ling Roth, The Natives of Sarawak and British North Borneo, i. 279.

746.

C. Bock, The Head-hunters of Borneo (London, 1881), pp. 110-112.

747.

Hyginus, Astronomica, ii. 4, pp. 34 sqq., ed. Bunte; id., Fabulae, 130; Servius and Probus on Virgil, Georg. ii. 389; Festus, s.v. “Oscillantes,” p. 194, ed. C. O. Müller; Athenaeus, xiv. 10, p. 618 e f; Pollux, iv. 55; Hesychius, s.vv. Ἀλῆτις and Αἰώρα; Etymologicum magnum, s.v. Αἰώρα, p. 42. 3; Schol. on Homer, Iliad, xxii. 29. The story of the murder of Icarius is told by a scholiast on Lucian (Dial. meretr. vii. 4) to explain the origin of a different festival (Rheinisches Museum, N.F., xxv. (1870) pp. 557 sqq.; Scholia in Lucianum, ed. H. Rabe, p. 280). As to the swinging festival at Athens see O. Jahn, Archäologische Beiträge, pp. 324 sq.; Daremberg et Saglio, Dictionnaire des antiquités grecques et romaines, s.v. “Aiora”; Miss J. E. Harrison, in Mythology and Monuments of Ancient Athens, by Mrs. Verrall and Miss J. E. Harrison, pp. xxxix. sqq.

748.

Servius on Virgil, Aen. xii. 603: “Et Varro ait: Suspendiosis quibus iusta fieri ius non sit, suspensis oscillis veluti per imitationem mortis parentari.”

749.

Servius on Virgil, Georg. ii. 389; id., on Aen. vi. 741.

750.

Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, pp. 505 sq.

751.

Festus, s.v. “Oscillantes,” p. 194, ed. C. O. Müller. This festival and its origin are also alluded to in a passage of one of the manuscripts of Servius (on Virgil, Georg. ii. 389), which is printed by Lion in his edition of Servius (vol. ii. 254, note), but not by Thilo and Hagen in their large critical edition of the old Virgilian commentator. “In Schol. Bob. p. 256 we are told that there was a reminiscence of the fact that, the bodies of Latinus and Aeneas being undiscoverable, their animae were sought in the air” (G. E. M. Marindin, s.v. “Oscilla,” W. Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities,3 ii. 304).

752.

Hyginus, Fab. 130.

753.

Probus on Virgil, Georg. ii. 385.

754.

Virgil, Georg. ii. 388 sqq.

755.

See above, p. 157.

756.

W. G. Clark, Peloponnesus (London, 1858), p. 274.

757.

J. T. Bent, The Cyclades (London, 1885), p. 5.

758.

J. T. Bent, quoted by Miss J. E. Harrison, Mythology and Monuments of Ancient Athens, p. xliii.

759.

Vincenzo Dorsa, La Tradizione greco-latina negli usi e nelle credenze popolari della Calabria Citeriore (Cosenza, 1884), p. 36. In one village the custom is observed on Ascension Day instead of at Christmas.

760.

Valdés, Los Majos de Cadiz, extract sent to me in the original Spanish by Mr. W. Moss, of 21 Abbey Grove, Bolton, March 23rd, 1907.

761.

E. Doutté, Magie et religion dans l'Afrique du nord (Algiers, 1908), pp. 580 sq.

762.

W. W. Rockhill, “Notes on some of the Laws, Customs, and Superstitions of Korea,” American Anthropologist, iv. (1891) pp. 185 sq.

763.

Pausanias, v. 1. 4.

764.

Pausanias, vi. 20. 9.

765.

Taboo and the Perils of the Soul, pp. 88 sq.

766.

J. L. van Hasselt, “Aanteekeningen aangaande de gewoonten der Papoeas in de Dorebaai, ten opzichte van zwangerschap en geboorte,” Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde, xliii. (1901) p. 566.

767.

J. H. Letteboer, “Eenige aanteekeningen omtrent de gebruiken bij zwangerschap en geboorte onder de Savuneezen,” Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap, xlvi. (1902) p. 45.