Volume 2 — CONTENTS OF VOL. II. (continued 5)

From these causes, we are led to the consideration of those effects produced in hilly countries, by the waters in common use. Nor are we deceived in our expectation as to the results naturally arising from so forcible an agent. We find throughout the hilly country, that, exclusive of the diminutive features attached, all over the world, to the various classes of mountaineers, there is an additional tendency to departure from the ordinary bulk of the natives in the adjacent low lands, obviously induced by the diet, and most especially by the waters in use. It is remarkable that in Tomar, the back part of Chittrah, and Ramghur, where the immense extent of low woods almost debars population, and where the Hill people, known by the name of Dhangahs, subsist principally on rice, wild fruits, and, occasionally, a little game, and where they drink of water such as has just been described, collected either in small pools, or in artificial tanks, the inhabitants are extremely stinted in their growth, are squalid, troubled with wens, half devoured with a kind of scurvy, herpetic eruption, and appear even at a very early age to lose their vigor. They have, besides, a peculiar kind of opthalmia, 277partly induced by an excessive passion for liquor, there distilled in large quantities, and by their exposure to a damp, impregnated atmosphere; while in their huts, their whole happiness seems to consist of an intense fumigation, chiefly from green-wood, such as would wholly suffocate one not habituated from his birth to so admirable an imitation of the fumes of Tartarus.

The difference between these haggard objects, and the inhabitants of the plains from which the mountains take their rise, requires no comment. It most forcibly arrests the traveller’s attention, causing him to doubt whether, within the short interval of perhaps six or seven miles, he may believe his senses, which pourtray to him a change from vigorous and personable manhood, to a decrepid, hideous, and dwarfish, state: more resemblant of the Weird Sisters than our imaginations can conceive, or than our best comedians can represent.

Some tanks, dug by the more charitable persons of property, are on a very extensive scale, covering perhaps ten or twelve acres. Many of these are of great antiquity, and have been very deep, perhaps thirty feet, but, by the growth of vegetable matter, added to the heavy bodies of sand and dust that nearly darken the air in the dry season, of which much falls into the waters, their depth is considerably reduced: 278in some, various shoals appear, indicating the accumulation of rubbish, and in a manner reproaching those who use the element with indolence and ingratitude. In such places fish abound, and grow to an astonishing size, sometimes affording excellent angling, but their flavor does not correspond with their looks; for the most part they are intolerably muddy. The quantity of weeds, the shoals, and various posts being generally sunk in different parts of the tank, armed with tenter-hooks, for the purpose of preventing poachers from robbing the stock, are insuperable bars to the use of nets. Boats are not in use in such places, and there seems to be no attention in any respect to any thing relating to such waters, except that the shecarries, or native sportsmen, exercise much ingenuity and skill in their depredations among the wild geese, wild ducks, teal, widgeons, &c., with which all the waters of India are profusely stocked during the winter months; when every unfrequented puddle is covered with wild fowl, which often alight during the dark nights on waters situated in the very hearts of cities, in which sometimes tanks are seen of such size, as to secure the birds, when collected near the centre, from the reach of small shot. This, though not to be classed with daily occurrences, is by no means singular.

By far the greater number of tanks, especially 279those by the road-side, or contiguous to cities and populous towns, are walled in with masonry. In such case, they have at one, or more sides, either a long slope, or a flight of steps of excellent masonry; some, indeed, have both, the former being intended for the use of cattle, which are either suffered to drink there, or are employed to carry large leather bags of water for the use of the inhabitants. Owing to the great force of the periodical rains, and to the swelling of the soil during the season of excessive moisture, the masonry is generally burst in various places, and for the most part either sinks, or is prostrated into the tank. As no credit would follow the repairs of such breaches, they are left to their fate.

A due attention to the proper proportion of base, so as to give a substantial talus both within and without the walls, added to the precaution of leaving vents for the free discharge of the springs, or the super-abundant fluid, into the tank, would most assuredly counteract so destructive a weakness as now generally exists. I cannot call to mind, at this time, any very old masonry that has not succombed thereto, excepting the great bund, or dyke, at Juanpore; which, according to tradition, was built about fifteen hundred years ago, and having been made of a very obdurate kind of kunkur, found in those parts, blended with excellent lime, probably burnt from the same stones, appears now a complete 280mass of rock, capable of resisting the ravages of all time to come. This bund, which bears all the venerable marks of antiquity, was originally thrown up to limit the Goomty; a fine river that rises in the Peelabeet country, and, washing Lucknow, the capital of Oude, passes through the city of Juanpore under a very lofty bridge, built on strong piers, terminating in gothic arches. The want of due breadth in the arches occasions the waters to rise during the rainy season to an immense height, creating a fall of which that at London Bridge, at its worst, is indeed but a poor epitome! The distance between the top of the bridge and the water below it, in the dry season, is something less than sixty feet; yet it is on record, and in the memory of many inhabitants of Juanpore, that the river has been so full as to run over the bridge, which is flat from one end to the other, lying level between two high banks, distant about three hundred and twenty yards.

Formerly, when the waters were high, they used, according to the tradition alluded to, to over-run the country on the left bank; forming an immense inundation throughout the country lying east of Juanpore, and extending down towards the fertile plains of Gazypore. The hollow, or low land, by which they penetrated, was about two miles in width; therefore the bund was built to a suitable extent: it is now about 281two miles and a half long; in most parts, about thirty feet broad at the top, and double that width at the base. Its height varies from ten to twenty feet. The record states it to have proved effectual in resisting the inundation, which, however, on account of the bund being at right angles with the river, so as to occupy a favorable position, and cut off the torrent, continued to flow annually as far as its base. In time, the sediment deposited by the water thus rendered stagnant, filled up the hollow, raising its surface as high as the other parts of the river’s boundary, and creating a soil peculiarly valuable, now chiefly occupied by indigo planters. The insalubrity occasioned by the many swamps left by the inundation, was at the same time averted, and the dread entertained that the Goomty would, in time, force a new channel for the entire body of its stream, removed. Large tracts, before of little value, acquired a deep staple of soil, which, at this date, yields sugar, indigo, wheat, barley, &c., in abundance and perfection.

The rage for digging tanks, has, I apprehend, in a certain measure, subsided; for we find little of that very absurd ostentation now prevalent, which must have actuated to such immense works, rendered useless by their too great number, or carried to an excess in regard to their measurement. It would be, perhaps, difficult 282to ascribe to any other motive than that of unparalleled vanity, why a man should have dug near seventy tanks, all nearly contiguous, on a plain not many miles distant from the military station of Burragong, in the district of Sircar Sarung, situate between the Gunduc and the Gogra. The population did not require more than one tank; especially as a stream of tolerably good water passes within a few hundred yards of the site of these offsprings of ostentation. The inhabitants tell various stories as to the person who lavished his money in this empty manner; and, (which would, no doubt, vex the real prodigal to his very heart,) the modern narrators differ widely even as to the name and rank of the individual!

With respect to seraies, we may, at least, praise the convenience they afford, without bestowing much admiration on the charity of their founders. Some of these are very extensive, covering, perhaps, six or eight acres. They generally consist of a quadrangle, built across the road, which passes under two lofty arched gateways, having battlements, or turrets, over them. The gates open to an extent sufficient to allow any laden elephant, however stupendous, to pass freely. They are made of strong wood, well bound with iron, and studded with iron spikes, of which the points are on the outside; for the purpose of preventing elephants from 283forcing them by pressure. The surrounding walls of the quadrangle are generally about fourteen feet in height, and from two to four in thickness, according either to the antiquity of the building, or to the parsimony of the builder. They are lined all around with a shed, built on pillars, and divided by mats, &c., into various apartments, all sheltered from the sun and rain by means of doors, &c., of bamboos, mats, grass, &c., as the country may afford; or, eventually, a part is built up with thin brick, or with mud.

In the central parts of the seray there are generally some shops, ranged on each side of the road, and one building appropriated to the cutwal, or superintendant of the place; whose office is, properly, to regulate all matters, and to see that travellers are duty accommodated; that the bytearahs, or cooks, dress their victuals, and that the chokey-dars take due charge of the goods consigned to their care. All this, however, is done in a slovenly way; the greatest impositions are often practised; and the itinerant journies on from one scene of thievish combination to another.

Although a seray may be built near to a river, or to some sufficient stream, yet there is invariably a well, ordinarily lined with circular tiles, or masonry, in the area. The water is drawn from such wells, for the most part, by means of 284a truck-pulley, suspended between the limbs of a forked bough cut for the purpose, and having a wooden pin through it as an axle. Each person draws his own water, and for that purpose carries a line, generally about twenty feet long. Few indeed travel, even on foot, without a lootah, or brass water-vessel; of which there are various sizes, from a pint, to half a gallon; a tully, or flat brass plate, with a border about an inch high, nearly perpendicular; and a cuttorah, or metal cup. Some even carry their daikçhees, or metal boilers; though, in general, they purchase for a farthing, or, at the utmost, for a halfpenny, a new earthen pot, capable of holding perhaps three quarts, or a gallon, with a lid of the same, in which, if they do not intend to employ the people of the seray, they dress their own victuals; leaving the crockery, which no one else will use, it being considered as polluted.

The water of wells in the seraies, or in populous towns, is certainly far fresher and better than is to be had, in general, from small rivers. But much will depend on the soil, the lining of the well, its depth, and, indeed, on its width. A quick draught necessarily insures a plentiful flow, and prevents corruption from any impurity that may casually fall in from above. At a certain depth there is usually found a stratum of sand; this is remarkably fine, and, in some places, retains 285such a large portion of fluid as to become a perfect quicksand. In many parts, and especially in the Ramghur district, which, on an average, may be a thousand feet or more above the level country, this sub-stratum presents a most serious difficulty in the sinking of wells.

Of this I experienced two instances in my own practice, which gave me much trouble. Having to sink a well in the corner of a garden, and wishing to avoid the expence and delay attendant on masonry, I cut a square shaft, and went on admirably until I came to a tremulous body of sand. Never having met with a quicksand at such a depth, then about twenty-four feet from the surface, and on so elevated a table land, there being no hills nearer than two miles, and those being separated by deep vallies, in which were running streams, I was somewhat disconcerted. I felt the whole of the difficulty, but necessity urged me to proceed. The well was to be lined with logs of about seven feet long, and about eight inches diameter; they were notched at each end, so that two, being placed parallel at five feet distance, and two others being laid over their ends, the four made a quadrangle, which, by means of the notches, came nearly to a level, and locked very firmly into each other. Having prepared abundance of these logs, I commenced my operations, by affixing a pulley over the well for the purpose of lowering them down to a 286laborer who stood on a board slung from four stakes at the brink of the shaft; for he could not stand on the sand, which, when the surface was broken, instantly became loose and liquid. The four first logs were scarcely placed before their own weight began to sink them, scarcely allowing time to put on four others before they disappeared. I perceived my error, and immediately had the other logs all wrapped round with straw-rope of about an inch in diameter; whereby they became more buoyant, and resisted the liquescence of the sand more powerfully, by their encrease of diameter. As a foundation, I pinned the four first, forming the primary layer, strongly at their several corners; so that they made a fixed frame. The work now went on merrily, but it was with the utmost difficulty I could supply the logs fast enough, the sand removed by their admission rose so very rapidly. Being determined to overcome the difficulty, I let down full twenty rounds of logs, equal to about seventeen feet, when I had the pleasure to see no more would sink: the sand was excavated, and I found, that, although in one or two places intervals of two or three inches had taken place, yet, on the whole, I was able to boast of better success than I expected. By degrees, I got the logs settled in their places, (a work of serious labor,) and always had water enough for every culinary purpose, but not for a large garden, which required ample irrigation 287daily during the hot season; further, a quantity was indispensably requisite for wetting the tatties, or frames applied during that season to the doors and windows, to keep my house cool.

My well appeared full of water up to the top of the quicksand, but it was a perfect deception: the sand filled up the shaft in the course of three or four days, though emptied to the very bottom, which was a hard red clay.

Finding that more expence was incurred by the perpetual necessity for sending men down to empty out the sand, I resolved to adopt the old custom of lining the well with masonry; and having got all clear to the bed of clay, into which I sunk a stout frame, near a foot and a half deep, I went on with spirit for a whole day, in which near two yards of wall were built up: but, during the night, the balers went to sleep, and I found the whole immersed in the morning. As the sand and water were emptied, the draft was so great as to wash the lime from between the bricks, and I was compelled to take all out again. It then occurred to me to have bricks made in the form of the frustum of a pyramid, so as to fit exactly in a circle of two feet and a half in diameter internally, and of four feet externally. These were laid on the frame, which I now buried a full yard in the clay: between the bricks I put abundance of dry lime, rubbing them close together, and, with the clay, all the 288interval between the masonry and the wooden frame was filled up. Two workmen were employed all night; one in the well, who ladled the water from the four corners into a bucket, which the other raised to the surface: none worthy of notice got within the circular masonry, and I had the satisfaction, in about a week, to see the whole completed. Sufficient water found its way through the crevices, to keep me supplied, and the sand gave so little trouble, that, during a whole year that I occupied the premises, no clearance was necessary.

This digression may appear irrelevant to the subject; but I could not forbear giving the fact a place here, as it possibly may prove an useful guide to others who may be under similar disadvantages. It is curious, that a very large well, of about twelve feet diameter, was commenced at the same time by a brother officer, within a hundred yards of mine, which went on admirably, and was finished in a very short time. He had no quicksand opposed to his labors; on the contrary, his great difficulty lay in cutting through two strata of rock, from which only a few dribblets appeared while the well was lining with masonry; but, so soon as the rainy season set in, those rocks prevented the descent of the moisture, which, being by them directed to the well, rushed in such a violent manner against the masonry, as to force out many stones: 289creating a fissure which, in a few weeks, proved fatal to the whole of the work. A handsome well, with a rich spring issuing from a gravelly bottom, was thus ruined, and the station was again subjected to much inconvenience for what we often had in too liberal abundance.

The natives throughout India have a great respect for such persons as plant mango topes (or woods). These are, in general, managed with great care, the trees being set at regular distances each way, forming parallel vistas both lengthwise and breadthwise: the width of which are equal each way, and varying from twenty to forty feet. When first planted, they are well enclosed with a ditch and bank, sufficient to prevent cattle from doing mischief to the young trees, which are also watered at intervals during the dry season, generally through the means of a well, dug at the expence of the planter on one side of the tope. If the proprietor be rich, the well is usually large, lined with masonry, and furnished with cisterns of the same, or of hewn stone, so that cattle may be refreshed in numbers; two pillars of masonry, or of substantial wood, are erected; each supporting the end of a timber, stretching across the well at about five feet above the brink. On this timber, a shieve of wood is fixed, with one or more grooves for the reception of the cord used in drawing water.

290The first-fruits of plantations are, with few exceptions, considered as appertaining to the tutelary deity of the planter, and are tendered to him as offerings on the part of the tope. The priests who officiate on these august occasions, commonly find means to save the sacred character of their invisible patron from any suspicion of gluttony, by taking upon themselves the troublesome office of proxy, on this and every occasion wherein mastication is needful.

On many of the great roads, such as that leading from Benares to the upper stations, we find very large wells, conveniently situated near some shelter, though, perhaps, distant from any town: occasionally, a hut or two may be erected in the vicinity, for the residence of a bunneah, (or kind of chandler,) or for a vender of spirits. Some of these wells are furnished with various sets of pillars and shieves, very substantial in their construction; so as to bear the weight of a leather bag, formed by stitching the edges of a whole hide, trimmed of its superfluous angles, &c., to an iron hoop of about a foot and a half in diameter: by means of two arched irons, rivetted at their crossing in the middle by a swivel and loop, the bag, or moot, is managed in the same way as a bucket in Europe. Many of these moots are capable of containing, at least, half a hogshead. They retain the water more steadily in ascending, than any vessel 291whose sides are fixed and firm; and, as they are drawn into a cistern, or over a bed made hollow for their reception, above the brink of the well, no great exertion is required in emptying them; the waters discharging voluntarily when the moot is suffered, by the slackening of the rope, to touch the bottom of the bed, or cistern.

It may reasonably be inferred, that such a weight of water as may be contained in an ordinary ox or cow hide, though of small growth, must be more than manual strength could well manage; especially as the pulley is extremely small, rarely more than six or seven inches in diameter, nearly as much in width, and moving on a rude piece of wood for an axis; of which, probably, nearly half has been lost by the excessive friction so unfinished, and ill proportioned, a piece of machinery must occasion. Not one in a thousand ever is lubricated, but the hole in the shieve is generally adequate to the admission of an axis treble the size of that in use; whence the pulley must jump from one inequality to another; creating, at every such transition, a check of some consequence to that power whence it derives its motion.

To draw water by means of the moot, two men and a pair oxen are requisite: the size of the moot being proportioned to the bulk of the cattle, which are yoked in the ordinary manner, drawing by means of the rope fastened round 292the centre of the yoke, and passing between them. The strength of the oxen is aided very considerably, by the path they follow being on a declivity; so that, in proceeding from the well, as they draw up the moot, they descend a talus, or slope, of which the angle may vary from fifteen to twenty-five degrees: the driver frequently seats himself on the yoke, to encrease the weight acting in opposition to the moot.

The quantity of earth derived from the shaft of the well, rarely suffices to give the talus sufficient slope, therefore, one half the length of the bullock’s track (which is regulated by the length of the rope, and may usually measure about twenty-five yards) is sunk in the ground, and the height near the well raised with the proceeds of the excavation. This ensures a sufficient addition to the energies of the cattle in descending: which they do with great effect, when goaded by the driver. Arriving at the bottom of the slope, or when the moot is raised above the surface of the well, the cattle stop, and the man in attendance at the brink draws the moot over the bed, or cistern, which is made to project over about one-third of the well.

Some of the wells seen at the sides of the great roads, measure fifteen or sixteen feet in diameter, and have slopes cut out of the soil, lined on each side with masonry, that lead to an opening in the well’s circumference, near to the 293ordinary level of the water; which, in the dry season, is generally within very narrow limits. Near the opening, we sometimes see an iron ladle fastened by means of a chain. This convenience is, for the most part, held sacred, and he would, in those parts, be considered a consummate villain, that would pilfer one from its place of security. But, from many obvious marks of violence, we must suppose that there are men so depraved as to steal these chains and ladles, when necessity may press them to take advantage of a fair opportunity.

We should naturally conclude, that wells founded on such a principle, in a climate where excessive heats prevail for three months, at least, would be invaluable. But they really are little used; their surfaces are, in general, covered with duck-weed, and they rarely are deficient of an ample colony of frogs. Where huts are built near them, their waters being rather less stagnant, are, of course, more wholesome, as well as more palatable: the encampment of a regiment in their neighbourhood soon sweetens them.

Some are rendered foul by their containing fish. It would be difficult to account for fish being there, unless they fall with the heavy showers attendant upon those violent squalls called north-westers, during the hot season, when multitudes of small fry have been occasionally 294found, even on the tops of houses, in various parts of the country. Some assert that many have been found alive: I have seen some lying dead; once, in particular, near Allahabad, after a very heavy shower of rain. It does not appear possible, that, even if sucked up by a water-spout, and immediately returned with the rain, they could survive the rapidity of the ascent, and the force with which they fall.

It is remarkable, that only three kinds of fish are ever seen in wells; viz. the solee, which, in a great measure, resembles our pike, and is equally ravenous; the gurrye, or mud-fish, very similar in form to our miller’s thumb; and the singnee, or bayonet-fish, so called from its having three terrible spines in its dorsal and lateral fins, the wounds made by which are, generally, very severe. This fish has a purplish skin, without scales, is thin like a substantial pork knife, and has a broad flat head. Like the gurrye, it is found only among mud and slime, wherein it works very nimbly. Both species can live a long while in moist mud; as is proved by their being found in recent puddles, where water had formerly been dried up. It is remarkable, that both the gurrye and the singnee are very sweet eating, and are never muddy; the latter in particular.

If we except those small streams that come down from mountains containing ores, which 295must, of course, impregnate the waters in those parts, the catalogue of mineral springs, as yet discovered in Bengal, and the subordinate stations under that presidency, will be found very confined indeed. Possibly, numbers may exist that are not generally known; and this I am the more apt to believe, from having myself discovered one within a few yards of the road on the west bank of the Mahana, a small river which rises among the hills near the Catcumsandy-pass in the Ramghur district. The river being much swelled by heavy rains, I was compelled to wait until it subsided sufficiently to admit of my being conveyed over on a raft made of pots.

The mineral water above mentioned would, very probably, have escaped my notice, had I not been attracted by a nauseous smell, and the black greasy appearance of the soil whence it issued. The flavor was soapy, but strongly sulphuric; and a slight scum, which appeared to rise with the spring, was peculiarly acrid. I do not believe it was ever analyzed, but should conjecture it to have proceeded from a bed composed of sulphur and bitumen; especially as coals are found within that district.

There is a very remarkable hot-spring at a place call Seetah-Coon, within three miles of the fort of Monghyr. This, it appears, has been known for ages, it is about twelve or fourteen 296feet square, and may be from seven to eight feet deep in the middle: that, however, must be taken as a computation; the sides being of masonry, shelving in greatly, and the bottom not remarkably clear of weeds, &c. The water is very hot: it was with great difficulty I could keep my finger immersed during the time I counted one hundred and five; and that, too, rather hastily, it being for a wager. My finger, far from being the better for my curiosity, was slightly blistered. I have seen an egg moderately poached at this spring, and have heard that one was boiled in it; but, I apprehend, not to any degree of firmness.

The most complete proof that a large portion of caloric is contained in this spring, may be collected from the melancholy fact, of an artillery soldier, who, in the year 1777, attempting to swim across, was scalded in such a manner as to expire shortly after being taken out.

The natives, who judge by appearances, and, probably, are guided in this particular from the encreased quantity of vapour that appears during the winter to rise from the spring, affirm, that the water is then considerably hotter than at any other season. The fallacy of such an opinion is easily detected, and has, indeed, been proved: several gentlemen have been at the trouble of keeping a register of its daily variations, which were found to be extremely 297small. I could not assert myself to be correct in stating its average degree of heat, having mislaid my memoranda on that head; but, to the best of my memory, the temperature lay between 140° and 160° of Fahrenheit.

This well, of which the waters are considered remarkably wholesome, stands on the borders of a small plantation of (I believe mango) trees; near to three or four other wells, of which the waters are cold, and have not any distinguishing quality. The redundant water from the hot well affords a stream, whose section may be equal to thirty square inches; it passes into a large marsh, of at least twenty acres, close to the plantation, where it nourishes a great variety of aquatic plants, that appear to grow with more than ordinary vigor.

The same negligence in regard to botany and natural history, which appears to operate throughout India, (if we except the labours of a few zealous individuals, among whom, Captain T. Hardwicke, of the Bengal Artillery; Dr. Roxburgh, Superintendant of the Botanic Garden at Calcutta; Dr. Bruce, formerly Physician to the Nabob of Oude; and Dr. William Hunter, of the Bengal Medical Department; are the most conspicuous,) seems to operate against enquiry into various important matters relating to the mineral waters; which, I doubt not, would be found in abundance, were either 298the cost of research so moderate as to permit active individuals to explore the vast regions whose very boundaries are, as yet, scarcely known; or, were the Government of India to defray the expence of a few capable men, whose time should be wholly devoted to an enquiry into whatever might appertain to botany, mineralogy, natural history, and the various branches of knowledge on which chemistry and physic depend. The disbursement could not be felt; while, not only would the world at large be benefitted, but, possibly, some new articles of trade, or for manufacture, might be discovered; whereby even the Company itself would derive those solid advantages to which, on most occasions, they direct the attention of their servants.

Such has been the negligence shewn in regard to the hot well at Monghyr, that, although it stands within two miles of the Ganges, is not more than three miles from the Fort of Monghyr, (a grand depôt for stores, garrisoned by upwards of two thousand invalids,) and is in the direct track from Calcutta to the upper provinces; nay, although the waters of this well are sent for from all parts of the country, and form, frequently, a part of the stock of persons, especially ladies, going to sea; for which purpose it is bottled in very large quantities; yet, strange to tell, its properties 299have never been duly analyzed. I have been in company with various medical men, who differed as to its basis; some asserting it to be chalybeate, others considering it as impregnated with soda, while some, I know not why, declared it to possess no particular impregnation, nor any active principle.

It must be evident, that, in a country whose soil is subject to be parched during so many months in the year, heavy fogs and miasma must abound; consequently, during the four months following the cessation of the annual rains, it frequently happens that the atmosphere is laden with mists and vapors until a very late hour in the day. In great cities, the bad effects of these are not so perceptible, on account of the general fumigation which takes place during the evenings, when the bulk of the inhabitants, as if by general consent, kindle fires for the purpose of cooking their victuals; of which they rarely eat at an earlier hour than six or seven o’clock; the cold remains of the repast being put by for the morning’s meal. This fortuitous circumstance tends to purify the air, and obviates a large portion of those evils to which the villages, which stand more exposed in the midst of the marshy tracts, are imminently subject. In such, it is common to find a very large portion of the inhabitants annually laid up 300with intermittents of a very obstinate description, but from which they are rescued by their moderation in regard to diet, and by a few medicinal simples every where common, and whose application is sufficiently understood. Great numbers are, however, swept off by the disease itself, or by the obstructions it generally creates. Those obstructions are ever to be dreaded, even though a perfect cure should apparently have taken place. It is by no means uncommon to see persons, especially Europeans, who have, to appearance, been cured of Jungle, or Hill-fevers, as they are locally designated, and which correspond exactly with our Marsh-fever, laid up at either the full or change of the moon, or, possibly, at both, for years after.

Many have affected to doubt the planetary influence on the human constitution, but, to me, there appears every reason to accredit the opinion. I have seen so many instances, among my own most intimate friends, as well as a thousand ordinary cases among soldiers, camp-followers, villagers, &c., that my mind was fully made up on the subject long before I had the opportunity of perusing the treatise of Dr. Francis Balfour, of the Bengal Medical Establishment; from which I offer to the consideration of my readers the following interesting extracts.

301OF THE PAROXYSMS OF FEVERS.

‘In Bengal, there is no reason to doubt that the human frame is affected by the influence connected with the relative situations of the sun and moon. In certain states of health and vigor, this influence has not power to shew itself by any obvious effects; and, in such cases, its existence is often not acknowledged. But, in certain states of debility and disease, it is able to manifest itself by exciting febrile paroxysms; and the propensity, or aptitude, of the constitution to be affected with febrile paroxysms in such cases, may be denominated the paroxysmal disposition.’

OF PERFECT TYPES.

‘Febrile paroxysms universally discover a tendency to appear, and to disappear, in coincidence with those positions of the sun and moon that regulate the rising and falling of the tides. The diurnal and nocturnal encrease of sol-lunar power acting on constitutions, in which the propensity of the paroxysmal disposition is complete and perfect, produces paroxysms every twelve hours, in coincidence with the periods of the tides; and constitute types which, on account of this regular coincide, I denominate perfect.’

OF IMPERFECT TYPES.

‘The diurnal and nocturnal encrease of sol-lunar power acting on constitutions in which 302the propensity to paroxysm is incomplete, or imperfect, has power only to produce paroxysms in coincidence with every second, third, or fourth, period of the tides, or others, more remote; constituting types, which, on account of this irregular coincidence, I have called imperfect.’

Doctor Balfour states, in a note, that, ‘In several cases of the plague, recorded by Dr. Patrick Russell, the febrile paroxysms returned obviously every four hours, in coincidence with the periods of the tides; and his predecessor and relation, the author of ’The Natural History of Aleppo,‘ asserts positively, that the generality of the fevers there, and, indeed, in almost all acute cases, are subject to exacerbations once or twice in twenty-four hours.’

In Cordiner’s Description of Ceylon, I find the following passage:—‘Medical men have discovered this swelling’ (viz. the elephantiasis) ‘to be an effect of fever, which returns on the patients monthly.’ (Vol. I. page 182.)

The natives, generally in the first instance, have recourse to the bit-noben or kala-neemuk, (i.e. black-salt,) a solution of which, though certainly very disgusting, on account of its taste, strongly reminding us of the scent of gun washings, or of rotten eggs, proves an excellent cathartic, and, if duly persisted in, rarely fails to rid the patient of an immense quantity of 303bile. That being effected, a strong decoction of cherrettah, a root about the size of slender birch twigs, but of a redder color, and possessing some of the properties of Peruvian bark, is frequently taken. But, the best medicine in the catalogue of Indian simples certainly is the lotah, or kaut-kullaigee, which is the kernel taken from the pod of a creeping kind of cow-itch. This kernel is extremely bitter, and possesses all the virtues of the bark; but with this advantage, that, in lieu of binding, it commonly proves very mildly aperient when taken to the amount of two or three nuts daily. I have often given it, with great success, during the paroxysms of an ague; having previously cleared the stomach and intestines by suitable means, such as ipecacuanha and calomel.

That we are absolutely in a state of ignorance regarding the medical properties of various plants, highly appreciated by the natives, cannot be denied; we must not, however, yield an implicit belief to the many marvellous stories related throughout Hindostan, of the extraordinary cures performed by their aid: many disproofs of such fables are publicly extant, and teach us to view the objects so highly extolled through the medium of a minifying glass; thereby to reduce their virtues to the proper standard of estimation. So fully was that learned, and zealous president of the Asiatic 304Society, Sir William Jones, impressed with an opinion of our overlooking many of the most valuable of nature’s vegetable productions, that, shortly after the formation of that excellent institution, he expressed a wish, an earnest one, indeed, for early framing a code of the botany of Hindostan in particular; and, in a short address to the society, urged, that a ‘Treatise on the Plants of India’ should be diligently and carefully drawn up. In that address, Sir William says, ‘Some hundreds of plants which are yet imperfectly known to European botanists, and, with the virtues of which we are wholly unacquainted, grow wild on the plains, and in the forests, of India. The ‘Amarcosh,’ an excellent vocabulary of the Sanscrit language, contains, in one chapter, the names of about three hundred medicinal vegetables; the ‘Medini’ may comprize as many more; and the ‘Dravyabidana,’ or, ‘Dictionary of Natural Productions,’ includes, I believe, a far greater number; the properties of which are distinctly related in medical tracts of approved authority.’

Here I must beg leave to enter my protest against the too ready acceptance of what the books above quoted may tender to our medical repositories; and that for the following reason; namely, although the natives may be sufficiently acquainted with certain properties of certain plants, yet, owing to a total ignorance of pathology, 305phisiology, nosology, and especially of the circulation of the blood, and of chemistry as applicable to analysis and synthesis, it is utterly impossible they should be able to act except by rote, and according to their ideas of specifics; whereby the virtues of the medicines in question are supposed to be applicable to all the stages, not only of the same, but of various diseases, totally opposite in their natures. It surely cannot require to be pointed out, how uncertain the results must be under such circumstances, even when each simple is administered separately, and with a patient attention to its operation: but, when we take into account the known fact, that, on most occasions where the native Huckeems, or Hakeems, prescribe, they rely greatly upon compounds of herbs and minerals; each having its virtues recorded in some popular distich, to dispute which would be considered an open avowal of consummate ignorance; I say, under such circumstances, we may fairly, and, in duty to ourselves should, hesitate to receive information from so impure a source. It is not my intention to depreciate the merits of many simples in use among the natives: I argue against their competency to estimate them; but, at the same time, entertain no doubt that their several books may lead us to the greatest advantages, by giving hints, which, being properly, but 306guardedly followed up, should enrich our catalogue of valuable remedies. This cannot be done in a few days, nor even in a few years: whenever it may be effected, I doubt not that the memory of that president, whose life was devoted to the service, not only of his existing fellow-creatures, but of posterity also, will be duly venerated. The Botanic Gardens established at the several Presidencies, under the care of medical gentlemen, duly qualified, offer the means of putting much assertion to the tests of chemistry, and of time: the former have not, as yet, been properly resorted to, and the latter has not run its due course, to enable the philosophical world to decide with precision.

In the first volume of the Asiatic Researches, the late Matthew Leslie, Esq. very sensibly observed, that ‘there are in our Indian provinces many animals, and many hundreds of medicinal plants, which have either not been described at all, or, what is worse, ill described, by the naturalists of Europe.’ In this remark there is much truth; but a certain portion of the very extensive meaning of Mr. Leslie, who was, assuredly, a man of considerable abilities, and who had much opportunity for research, will be received with caution, from the consideration of his avowed partiality towards native physicians; who, as I have just stated, are by no means competent to guide us through the mazes of 307botanical research. The state of medicine throughout India, (I mean among the natives,) is not such as to induce the belief that we shall obtain any valuable information among the Huckeems; of whom, full ninety-nine in the hundred are self-taught, as well as self-sufficient. What, then, is to be expected among persons thus practising a profession, to which the old adage of ‘ars longa, vita brevis’ so admirably applies, when we see not even one didactic page to which they can resort; no public institution where knowledge is either bestowed or received; no liberal, enlightened, patron, under whose auspices genius may be enabled to penetrate into the mines of science? This being the fact, shall we refrain from smiling at those of our countrymen who, quitting the aid and guidance of their well-informed medical friends, resort to such quacks, whose reputation they thus unjustly raise among the gaping crowd, and who have the art to propagate the most unbounded reliance on their nostrums? That, here and there, a simple of peculiar efficacy may be in use among such persons, I shall not deny; but must appeal to our more enlightened medical societies, whether, in the hands of an ignorant man, brought up in vanity, and regardless of the minutiæ of physical causes and of physical effects, even the most simple medicine can be safely entrusted? The greatest part of the 308burlesque is, that these highly renowned physicians, to a man, rely upon proper conjunctions of the planets, lucky hours, &c., not only for the culling, but for the mixing, and administration of their medicines, without regard to those critical moments of which our silly disciples of Hippocrates and Galen are so very watchful!

We must, however, do the natives the justice to allow, that the refrigerating principle lately adopted by some of our leading physicians, owes its origin solely to the ancient practice of the Brahmans, or Hindu priests; of whom the generality affect to be deeply versed in pharmacy. I believe, that, if taken in time, few fevers would be found to degenerate into typhus, and that very seldom any determination towards the liver from acute cases would occur, were the refrigerating course to be adopted. Often have I known my servants, when attacked with fever, to drink cold water in abundance, and to apply wet cloths to their heads, with great success; the former has generally lowered the pulse considerably, by throwing out a strong perspiration, while the latter has given immediate local relief.

Were it not that cast (i.e. sect) opposes a formidable barrier to the more extensive practice of European physicians among the natives in general, the native doctors would speedily be consigned to their merited contempt: but such 309are the prejudices arising from religious tenets, among the Hindus in particular, that, even when at the last extremity, many would rather die than suffer any medicine prepared, or perhaps of which the liquid part had been barely touched, by one not of their own cast, to enter their mouths! Where such infatuation prevails, ignorance will maintain her empire, until, by the gradual abolition of vulgar errors, the light of science, and of reason, may begin to glimmer among the people at large. It will not suffice, that a few skilful European professors should be seen, and be admired, by a grateful few: that has already happened; but the dread of religious anathema, and of domestic excommunication, are too forcibly opposed to such weak demonstrations. Unhappily, we aimed at a reform, in this particular, at that very point to which it should have had only a remote tendency: we peremptorily attacked the very existence of full a tenth of the whole population, that is, of the Brahmans, or Hindu priests; and we excited, among the people at large, suspicions such as have given scope to our enemies for inculcating, that we are intent on subjecting their minds, as well as their bodies.

From this dilemma, I understand, with pleasure, we are gradually extricating ourselves; by withdrawing those noxious publications, which, in a moment of unguarded zeal, we had allowed 310our clergy to introduce to the notice of the people of Hindostan. With respect to the motive, that is out of the question: I am not considering the merits of one religion opposed to another, but simply the fact, as it relates to our political connection with the East, and the diffusion of true philosophy over that vast region. Nor am I here censuring the measure in a religious sense; though, on reference to history, and to my own experience of the dispositions of the Hindus, I feel surprized that fanaticism should have been allowed to meddle with a country over which we, in truth, have not an efficient control, and among a race whose tenets are by no means obnoxious to humanity; among whom apostacy is a mortal sin, who disclaim all interference with the doctrines of other sects, and who have most amply proved their title, at least to toleration, if not to protection.

I have said, that we began at the wrong end; and this surely will appear to be the case when the matter is properly understood. In lieu of attacking that which carries with it no offence against ourselves, and instead of endeavoring to force upon them our creed, we should have studied to render the natives acquainted with whatever could tend to their worldly comfort, and to the removal of errors often pregnant with destruction. Let us suppose, for instance, that, in various parts of the 311country, the Company were to establish schools, where youths of every description might be instructed in the mathematics, botany, chemistry, surgery, pharmacy, agriculture, mechanics, &c.; and that valuable premiums should, at certain periods, be presented to such as might merit the distinction. The obvious consequence would be, that, in due time, an infinity of absurdities would vanish, and that, in proportion as science should expand among them, the superior circles would begin to estimate our value as an enlightened people. They would then look up to us as their superiors; in lieu of rating us, as they now do, very low indeed on the scale of degradation. Such a system would not only give an effectual shake to the basis of priest-craft, but cause all the literary stores, and the natural productions of the soil, to be laid open to our examination: then, indeed, our medical men might enjoy a high reputation in every quarter of the East, and the world might be benefitted, both by the correction of many errors, and by the acquisition of most important novelties in medicine, and in the various arts on which commerce is dependant. Then should we have no occasion to goad the Hindus towards Christianity: they would thirst for knowledge, and pant to be rid of those fetters imposed upon their minds by their artful clergy.

312I have heard it said ‘the natives have no disposition for the sciences.’ This is imposing a cruel sentence on a hundred millions of people! Allow it to be true; and look back to the state of Britain while under the control, in a certain measure, of the Druids; who are now well ascertained to have been the same, in their days, as the Brahmans of Bengal, &c., are at this time. Who can fail to admire the change? Who could suppose it possible that such a change could have been effected among a people, who, if we are to give credit to Cæsar, and to other authorities, were completely barbarous, and ‘who shewed no disposition for the sciences?’ In opposition to so absurd, and so malicious an assertion, let me state a few facts. When Mr. Reuben Burrow was in India, as head of the mathematical department, he was solicited by several of the natives to instruct them in astronomy, algebra, &c. Unhappily, although possessing pre-eminent talents, Mr. Burrow was not exactly calculated to conciliate the good will, nor to excite the admiration, of persons who did not, like himself, blaze at the spark of science: in fact, he partook greatly of the character of the celebrated Doctor Samuel Johnson, and might be termed ‘a mathematical Hottentot!’

This important deficiency of suavity caused the natives to quit; indeed, it tended to disgust those of his countrymen who, being compelled 313by their avocations to attend his lectures, were subjected to his caprices and gross manners. However, one native, of mediocre opulence, was not to be scared by what appeared a trifle, when compared with the acquirements he hoped to possess: he bent to the storm, and, by unremitting application, speedily rendered himself competent to converse with Mr. Burrow on his usual topic. In time, the student became a favorite, and was allowed to attend his preceptor when the latter was deputed on a survey of considerable extent, and to measure a degree of latitude in the western districts. Such was the progress made by this native under the auspices of Mr. Burrow, that, in a few years, he qualified himself to instruct others in the ordinary courses of the higher mathematics. What became of him I know not; but apprehend that many others must have derived some little benefit from his learning: unless, indeed, his priests found a pretext for upholding him as unworthy of imitation, and threatened to place all who might consider him to be thus ‘civilized,’ or improved, under the bar of ecclesiastical censure. When I say ‘civilized,’ it is in deference to a British divine, who has been pleased to represent the people of Bengal in such terms as might lead persons who never visited India to set them down for a cruel, barbarous, ignorant, vindictive, senseless, and sanguinary race; whose civilization is 314‘devoutly to be wished.’ How far they merit such a character, may be understood from their forbearing to massacre all the Europeans in India; a work that might be effected by only one in thousands of their population striking the deadly blow!

Setting whatever relates to religion apart, and viewing our intercourse with India as a matter merely of meum and tuum, it is self-evident, that to whatever extent we may instruct the natives to analyze the produce of their soil, and to present it to us in a marketable shape, so much must Britain be benefitted by the extension of her commerce, and by the possession of a territory whose value would be thereby proportionally raised. This is said with the view to encourage the researches of our medical men; who, from their general knowledge of chemistry, and perhaps of botany, are certainly best qualified to pursue them with national effect. Under the present very limitted establishment of physicians and surgeons, as well as from the præter nihil benefits derived from the Botanical Garden, when seen in this point of view, we are not authorized to be very sanguine in our hopes that any important advantages will result in that direction. While the Company can barely afford a surgeon and two assistants to a regiment of 2000 men, it is not to be supposed they could form such establishments of the above description, as might 315give us a thorough command over the mineral and vegetable productions of their territory, or tend to create a spirit of enquiry among the natives.

The want of printed books is, in every country, a great evil; but, in India, is a drawback of great moment. There, all books, all proclamations, (except such as we print at Calcutta, &c.,) all newspapers, &c., &c., are manuscripts. It is not to be imagined how few volumes are to be seen even of this kind. We should suppose that, where provisions, lodging, cloathing, fuel, &c., are so remarkably cheap, learning would become general: the reverse is, however, the case; not one in five hundred can read, or write, even indifferently. There are abundance of little day-schools to which children may be sent at a very trifling expence; but there they learn very little. Generally, a bed of sand serves for paper, and a finger, or a piece of stick, for pen and ink; consequently, no traces of any instruction remain for the future consideration of the pupil. The more affluent, and the more zealous, ordinarily provide their children with a board, about a foot long, and nine or ten inches wide, which, being painted black, and varnished, becomes an admirable tablet, whereon the young folks are enabled to write their lessons with a reed pen; the ink being generally chalk and water. To 316these, though certainly more perfect than the former mode, the same objection exists; namely, that they want stability, and that the lesson is no sooner repeated by rote, and written much in the same manner, than it is forgotten, at least it never again obtrudes on the eye; since, in order to make way for further instruction, it is necessarily expunged.

The koits, or scribes, and the láláhs, or accountants, (though the latter often confine their occupations to merely reading or transcribing,) are nearly the same among the lower classes, especially where the Naugry character is in question, that the moonshies are among the superior orders, who, almost invariably, use the Persian language and character, in all public, as well as in private, matters. So far, indeed, is this carried, that Persian is held to be both the language of the Court, and of the Law.

As those who study the Persian are aided by moonshies, so are such persons as would acquire the Naugry character necessitated to employ koits, or láláhs, for that purpose. The wages of these may be from two to five rupees per month; but, in some families, the servants contribute to the extent of a few annas, or, eventually, as far as a rupee, in the aggregate; in consideration of which douceur, the láláh commonly writes letters for them to their friends, and explains the answers, &c. Such servants as 317have the charge of money to be disbursed on master’s account, commonly take care to be on good terms with this cullum-burdar (i.e. quill-driver); who, as has been said of compadores, generally taxes all items he knows to be overcharged, by a small deduction in his own favor.

Persons of this class often keep little schools, such as have been described, and then are designated gooroos; a term implying that kind of respect we entertain for pastors in general.

If we contemplate the extreme inattention prevalent throughout Hindostan, respecting literary attainments, and the great cunning practised by the priesthood, in their sedulous endeavors to prevent the natives from receiving the least information regarding philosophy in general, it must appear surprizing that so much has been done by the artizans of Bengal towards the adaptation of their labors to the convenience of the British residents. Our admiration of these people cannot but be heightened, from the circumstance of particular trades being confined to particular casts, or sects; for though we may, possibly, at first view, consider that to be an advantage, inasmuch as it should seem to perpetuate knowledge in an hereditary line, those who have resided in the East fully know that no such heir-loom ability is to be found: on the other hand, we immediately recognize the bar raised against genius; which, when to be found 318within the cast, may struggle for ever under some base, forbidding, and loathsome degradation; or, if it should start in another sect, cannot adopt its native intention, but must resign in favor of some other pursuit, perhaps requiring no genius; or, eventually, one of a very different bent. Once a carpenter, always a carpenter; once a swine-herd, always a swine-herd!

The evil effects attendant upon the useful arts in general, from such a system, are certainly great, but by no means to be compared with the degradations, and consequent imbecility, inseparable from the total suppression of every thing tending to excite emulation. When we see an hereditary priesthood, and that, too, by no means remarkable for the paucity of its members, we cannot but picture to ourselves the arrogance thus privileged in the whole of that tribe, and the humiliation which marks the actions, as well as the sentiments, of all who do not stand within the hallowed pale. Such a contrast can exist only while one party can deceive, and while the other deems accusation to be nothing less than blasphemy; therefore we cannot be mistaken regarding the only means of correction: to wit, a knowledge of the world, and of its inhabitants; or what we, in other terms, call learning. Pour but a little of this into the minds of a certain number; satisfy them that morality in Europe, and morality in Asia, are the same 319thing; that ‘whether we do our duties in a black skin, or in a white one,’ matters not; that men were born to aid each other, and not to be made the slaves of party, sect, or color; and, that he who knows most regarding the works of the Creator, is most likely to have a proper sense of his bounty. Convince the natives of India, or of any other nation, that such is the truth, and that you practise, while you teach, the doctrines of Christianity, and nothing will, in the end, be able to stand against so formidable an attack. But if we proceed, as has been too rashly done, to attempt a schism among them by mere declamation, or by means of creeds and parables in which they have no belief, (merely because they know no better,) our object will be either mistaken, or designedly misrepresented; and we shall experience in Asia all those penalties that formerly awaited the avowal of Lutheranism in Europe! In brief; convince the natives that their priests are fools and knaves, and that poverty, disgrace, and even disease, are the consequences of a mistaken bigotry, and the whole country will prostrate itself at your feet!

Waving every other objection, and resting solely on the very inadequate means of instruction afforded by parents to their children, through the medium of koits, láláhs, and gooroos, it seems probable that, unless some effectual reform 320may take place, the natives of India are likely to remain in darkness, ad infinitum. This is the more to be regretted, when we consider how willing they are to follow such means as may be offered them, provided those means may not oppose established principles, nor be contrary to their ideas of sanctity and benevolence. Nor can we but repine at such infatuations among a race whose intellectual qualities, whatever may be said by ignorant or designing men, are at least on a par with those of Europeans. That they are perverted, will not be denied; but, that they are naturally imperfect, needs little proof indeed! Set some dozens, or scores, of our youths to bellow in unison, (with all the ennui attendant upon monotonous rote,) any particular passages from the Scripture, day after day, and year after year; and, after some seasons, search among them for Newtons, Lockes, Blackstones, and Solons! The result need not be told!

In recommending to those of my readers who may be intent upon acquiring a knowledge of the language, (by which I mean not only the Bengallee, and the Hindui, both of which may be considered vernacular, but the Persian also,) to purchase such translations as may be extant of the works of Indian authors, I am far from being partial to their contents, and disclaim the idea of affording any thing more than exercise in translation 321when I do so; for there appears to me a great disposition to trifle, or to the hyperbole, in all I have ever seen. By means of such translations, the originals may be more readily understood, whereby the study may be rendered both brief and pleasing; provided proper attention be paid to all material points, and that, in reading the translation, the student does not indulge in the erroneous opinion that he is making himself master of the original. Almost every book written in the East is the production of some court sycophant: a few have resulted from the labors of men who, being disposed to meditation, have committed their reveries to paper; and, a very small portion have displayed such scintillations of ability, as leave us to regret they were either not better educated, so as to enlighten their countrymen, or that they were not born in those parts of the world where their talents might have been fostered, and duly appreciated. With regard to ethics, numbers have amused themselves, to all appearance, more from ostentation than from ‘being virtuous over-much.’ The facility with which scraps from the Koran, (i.e. the Bible of the Mahomedans,) may be set forth in glowing terms, in a language rich in expression, has, no doubt, induced many a very tolerable lay-man to annoy his neighbours, by the repetition of page after page of the most tiresome tautologies, 322whereon his fame has been built: of this description abundance exist, all alike unworthy of review.

I have always thought the poets of India to be particularly happy in those little tales which convey a moral, though a very worldly one, under some alluring allegory. From this, however, I exempt the celebrated Heetopades, translated by Mr. Wilkins. This, by general consent, is allowed to be the store from whence Pilpay’s Fables have been taken; but the original can never appear in competition with their offspring; for, while the latter are interesting, and afford a very rich treat, by their apt application to the affairs of life, the former are heavy, dull, tedious, and of a most motley character; the subject is generally forced, and spun out into all the varieties garrulity could invent!

The Asiatic student may find, in the several works of Gilchrist, Baillie, F. Gladwin, Sir. W. Jones, Sir William Ousely, Richardson, and Wilkins, abundance of instruction in the several languages most current in Hindostan; the Asiatic Researches will give him a considerable insight into a number of interesting and important matters relating to the natural history of the East, the manners, and the climate under consideration; while, by means of Colebrooke’s Digest of the Hindu Laws, and Rousseau’s 323Dictionary of Mahomedan Law, he may become very generally acquainted with that important branch of knowledge. With respect to the politics of the country, they have been so much canvassed, that various treatises on that topic are to be had: unfortunately, all are either devoted to partial considerations, or written to serve a party!

In almost every country, whereof the inhabitants are either considered by their neighbours, or deem themselves to be, civilized, the records of the state, the several libraries, whether scholastic, traditionary, scientific, or amusing only, are open to the inspection of persons of all nations; and, above all, the sacred institutions are subject to visitation, and even to research. In India, no such recreation or benefit is ever afforded to the inquisitive traveller, who may remain, for years, within a stone’s-throw of what, to him, would appear an invaluable treasure, without his being able to obtain the smallest indulgence in aid of his pursuits. Whatever may be the complaints against our continental neighbours on the score of persecution, we must give them credit for the most ample toleration of the million of visitors who intrude on their several cabinets, libraries, &c.; some, from the most laudable motives, others, actuated by the mere desire of seeing all that is to be seen, without, in the least, regarding those 324points by which the philosophic eye is naturally attracted. Though so heavy a charge lies against the Hindus, on account of their strict rejection of our countrymen, in general, when application has been made for information on particular points, it must be allowed, that they doubtless have, in a few instances, been more explicit, and furnished information on particular topics, which, to us, has proved extremely interesting.

In truth, we have no exclusive right of complaint; for all nations, and all sects, except their own, have been equally subject to denial; or, when indulged, have been compelled to perform some ceremonies obnoxious to their faith, or to their persons. Whether this be absolutely necessary, or has been devised solely with the intention of deterring the curious, may not be difficult to determine; thus much we know, that, in order to obtain admission to a knowledge of certain forms, or to the perusal of certain records, various operations, amounting nearly to apostacy, though no recantation be made, must be performed.

There is room to doubt whether any true accounts of the antiquity of the Seek College at Benares, and of the migrations of the Hindus from the countries bordering on Palestine, actually exists: many persons, of considerable talents, and of great erudition, are disposed to 325treat the whole of what has been delivered to us, with so much solemnity, by the Pundits, or learned Brahmans, as a deception, intended to ridicule our curiosity, and to repress, or at least to divert, it from the true course. Circumstances may be adduced in support of this hypothesis; and we cannot but regard the manner in which the Pundits arrogate to themselves the whole knowledge of their history, which is carefully concealed from a large portion even of the Brahmans, as a circumstantial proof of our having been designedly led astray, both by a fictitious record, and by a well concerted fable, invented for the occasion: this may be aptly compared to the whale and the tub. Fortunately, no material point appears to rest on the antiquity, or otherwise, of the Hindu mythology, or the records of the Seeks, regarding the origin of that people; though it would perhaps be found, that their true exposition might tend to afford many proofs in favor of the mission of our Saviour.

When the immense extent of territory we hold in India is considered, and, that perhaps no country in the world offers greater facilities, not only for literary correspondence, but for the researches of naturalists, the conveyance of gross articles, and the manufacture of raw materials, which every where abound, we cannot but lament the want of such institutions as might 326enable us to turn such important advantages to the immediate benefit of Great Britain, on the most unbounded scale. We are absolutely ignorant of a million of facts now included, either directly, or by affinity, in our endless catalogue of desiderata, which need not remain in that disgraceful list, provided due means were taken to correct our errors, and to extend our resources. During the dry season, or at least for four months in the year, scarce a part of the country opposes the progress of a traveller; unless through those immense wildernesses already described. It may, on the whole, be said, that one half the country is passable at all seasons by land; though the progress will doubtless be slow, and difficult, during the heavy falls of rain. Intercourse is never at a stand. The dawk, or post, proceeds at all seasons; and is rarely more than two days longer on its way from Calcutta to the upper provinces, than at the favorable time of the year. Bridges and ferries are found on all the great roads; whereby regiments have occasionally marched on emergency with such despatch, as could scarcely have been exceeded even during the hot season.

The communication with Europe, overland, has been established, during peaceable times, for full twenty years; but it was not until about twelve years ago, that the public have been permitted 327to avail themselves of so essential a means of correspondence at fixed rates, and under particular regulations. Prior to that period, the Company used to receive, and to despatch, packets overland, in which occasional indulgences were granted to favored individuals. I abstract this from the very old custom of sending intelligence, on sudden occasions, by the despatch of some confidential person to or from India. The utility of some permanent and certain conveyance for letters from a quarter daily becoming more opulent, and more important, cannot be doubted; were it only for the purpose of transmitting bills of exchange payable after sight, the notices of bankruptcies, the information of intended consignments, the state of the markets, &c., such a systematic communication must be invaluable to the several merchants. To the Government it is of the highest importance! Many complain of the heavy rates of postage overland, and others of the severe restrictions; but such complaints are ill founded: the expence of the posts is very heavy, and it is indispensably necessary for Government to hold a severe check over whatever intercourse might lead to mischief.

The tables of postage, and of bangy carriage, contained in the Directory, will enable the reader to judge how far the charges are from being exorbitant: he will not fail to recollect, 328that the sums paid in Britain are very trifling, owing to the immense intercourse subsisting between the several parts of the kingdom, far beyond what exists in any part of India. Bath is the same distance from London that the cantonments of Berhampore are from Calcutta, viz. 106 miles: the former pays 8d. postage, the latter 4 annas, which is about the same sum: the other charges are considerably cheaper; viz. Allahabad, which is full five hundred miles from Calcutta, pays only 7 annas (about 13½d.); but this is on the great road, while the other is scarcely to be considered a thoroughfare, compared with what it was before the new road was cut through the Ramghur district to Chunar.

With the exception of such parts as may be infested by tigers, the post seldom or never fails of arriving within an hour of its appointed time; except, as has been observed, when the waters are out; in which case, many circuitous roads must be followed, whereby the way is considerably lengthened in the aggregate. Taking the average, a hundred miles per day may be run over by the dawk, or post, in fair weather. Each mail-bag is conveyed by an hirkarah, (or runner,) who is attended by one or two doog-doogy-wallahs, or drummers, who keep up a kind of ‘long-roll,’ as they pass any suspicious place. Ordinarily, two mosaulchees, or link-bearers, accompany each dawk; and, where 329tigers are known to commit depredations, one or two teerin-dauzes, or archers, are supplied, under the intention of protecting the party. But such puny aid is of no avail; for the onset of the tiger is too sudden, and too discomfiting, to allow any effort of consequence to be timously adopted: the very act of seizure is a death-blow, from which I never heard of any recovery; provided the unhappy victim were not so particularly situated as to prevent it from decidedly taking effect.

Here it may be needful to explain, that a tiger invariably strikes his prey with the fore paw, in so forcible a manner as often to fracture the skull; which, generally, is the object aimed at: many oxen have had their cheek bones shivered by the contusion. It sometimes happens, that the marks of one or two claws are to be seen, but they are generally en passant, and by no means the result of primary intention. The wrist of a tiger being often nearly two feet in circumference, may give some idea of the violence with which the coup de grace falls on the head of a human being! The mosauls, or flambeaux, are intended to intimidate the tigers, as are also the doog-doogies, but experience has shewn that, when hungry, tigers are not to be restrained by any such device: indeed, instances have occurred of the mosaulchees themselves 330being carried off. It would, nevertheless, be presumptuous to judge from such partial data, that many tigers are not deterred by the noise and fire accompanying the letter-carriers; on the contrary, there should rather seem a probability, that many young tigers, or such grown ones as may not be hungry, nor be attended by cubs, are frequently intimidated from those attacks they would make but for these precautions. A residence of two years at Hazary-Bang, the station for a battalion in the Ramghur district, enabled me to form a fair estimate of the dangers to which the dawk, and travellers in general, were subject. During some seasons, the roads were scarcely to be considered passable; day after day, for nearly a fortnight in succession, some of the dawk people were carried off, either at Goomeah, Kannachitty, Katcumsandy, or Dungaie; four passes in that country, all famous for the exploits of these enemies to the human race!

So few valuables are ever sent by the post, that thieves never attempt any depredations on the letter-bags. Hoondiés (i.e. banker’s drafts) would be of no use whatever to them; and as bank notes are not in general currency, no object is held out for enterprize of that description. Nor do the dawk-bangies, or parcel-dawks, offer any substantial inducement; for, even if any plate, or watches, or trinkets, were to be sent by 331such a conveyance, the want of a market, and the impossibility of confiding in any village jeweller, would render the act both hazardous and unavailing. Hence, the dawk generally proceeds in perfect safety, throughout every part of the country; while the bangies maybe considered equally secure; except, indeed, in some parts of the dominions of the Nabob Vizier of Oude, where a lawless uncontrolled banditti subject every passenger to contribution: this evil is fortunately on the decline, in consequence of our having assumed the reins of government.

It has frequently been asked why, in a country so completely under our control, we did not establish mails, similar to those in use throughout England. Before this can be effected, an immense revolution must take place, not only in the minds of the natives, but in the features of the country. At present, there appears no desire on the part of the inhabitants to communicate by land, farther than may be necessary for the purpose of attending hauts, (markets,) maylahs, (fairs,) or for the resort to certain places of worship, &c. For such purposes, a pedestrian trip suffices; or, at the utmost, a poney, worth only a few shillings, is either borrowed or hired. The contact of various casts, or sects, being considered a pollution, it is not to be supposed that a Hindu would like to be pent up, for hours 332together, with a Mahomedan, who makes no scruple of killing and eating a cow: or that the Mussulman would, in his turn, feel comfortable under similar circumstances, with a British kaufur, (unbeliever,) who, besides his condemnation of the prophet, makes no scruple of devouring ham and bacon wholesale! Admitting that all parties should be agreed to associate within the body of a stage-coach, still there would not exist intercourse sufficient to support the expences, in a quarter where horses are so dear, and where the necessary repairs could not, in case of accident, be promptly effected. Then, again, the roads must be suitably made, at an enormous expence, and be afterwards supported by heavy disbursements, or by a contribution of labor on the part of the land-holders, by no means agreeable to their feelings. All this may, in time, pass under a complete metamorphosis: the produce of the country will be more generally estimable; the people will relax greatly from the vigorous attention now paid to religious tenets; and, as their prejudices may give way to their true interests, will extend their speculations without fear or restriction. Those who may then inhabit India, will see roads, mails, and inns; whereas, at present, there are only pathways and runners, but no inns. There are, to be sure, seraies and choultries, for the accommodation of travellers, but these are mostly going 333fast to decay; and, at the best, can be viewed only as shelter for men and cattle; goods being usually left exposed to the weather. The bytearens, or female cooks, who ply, in more than one capacity, at such places, and who, on receiving money before-hand, buy and cook such victuals as may be ordered, or the place may afford, cannot be considered otherwise than as menials, and not to be classed with our inn-keepers; no, nor even with the poorest village retailer, ‘Lysunst to del in T, Koffy, and Tibaky!’

There is, however, a wide field for practical improvement; as may be fully understood from the following statement. The dawk rarely travels at a less expence than twenty-five rupees per month, for each stage of eight miles (four cosses) on the average. This sum is absorbed by a moonshy at each chokey, or relief at the end of a stage, who pretends to be very scrupulous in regard to ascertaining that all the parcels are right, but who, as I have repeatedly witnessed, is more intent on receiving little presents of ottah, (meal,) spices, &c., sent to him from the neighbouring villages, in return for letters conveyed by the dawk-hirkarahs, who are sometimes laden pretty heavily with such contributions. I speak from what I have been an eye-witness to repeatedly; as to hear-say, much more might be asserted. It appears to me that the 334above sum would carry on the system with double the speed, and double the efficiency. In lieu of sending off four, five, and six, men with the dawks, let a horseman convey the bags for about twelve miles, on an allowance of fifteen rupees per month for man and horse; and, during the rainy season, when the roads are deep, let a fresh horse be allowed for the several returns, instead of causing the same man and horse to return with the counter-dawks. On the above allowance a very good steed might be kept, the celerity of the dawk would be greatly encreased, and there would be no occasion for moonshies, except at such chokies as might be upon diverging roads, where it would be necessary to have the proper parcels sorted out, and delivered to the various branch-dawks.

Travelling in a palanquin by dawk, (i.e. post,) is effected much in the same manner as the despatch of the dawks. Bearers are stationed at the several stages, for the purpose of relief; each station, in general, supplying eight bearers, and a bangy, in all nine men, together with one or two mosaulchies for night stages. The expence of travelling in this manner will depend greatly on the distance: if only a short journey is to be made, such as may be compassed within eight or ten hours, nothing more is needful than to send on a set, or two, of bearers, who then receive their daily hire of four annas (8d.) each, 335while out from home; or, if there should exist the means of so doing, a hirkarah, (or messenger,) may be despatched to collect bearers at the several stages. In this manner, the relays may be properly supplied, and the cost will not amount to more than a rupee for three miles; equal to ten-pence a mile; whereas, in the ordinary mode of having bearers laid by the post-master, each mile will cost full one rupee, (i.e. 2s. 6d.,) besides various little disbursements by way of buxees, or presents, to every set of bearers in the journey: these may be fairly estimated at two rupees for every set, or relief, which, if the distances run by each should average ten miles, will be about twenty rupees (£2. 10s.) for every hundred miles. The ordinary rate of this kind of conveyance may be rated at four miles per hour during the cold season, three and a half during the hot season, and from two to three during the rains, provided the waters are not much out: otherwise, no estimate can be formed. The above includes stops.

The establishment of dawk-bangies for the conveyance of parcels, at rates in proportion to their weights respectively, has produced considerable convenience to those who reside at a distance from the Presidency. Until this plan was adopted, few could send small articles, such as trinkets, &c., to the Presidency, but 336under favor of some individual who might perchance be travelling thither, and who might possibly be some months on the way: the same inconvenience attended the return; so that it was not uncommon for a gentleman whose watch required inspection, to be four or five months deprived of its use. This is now done away, and a watch, &c. may be sent from Cawnpore to Calcutta, there undergo repair, and be returned with ease, in the course of a month, or less.

The same kind of convenience is, of course, afforded regarding books, and all other articles too bulky, or too heavy, to proceed by the dawk, but not of sufficient importance to induce the employment of a boat, or of a bangy, to convey them: nor, indeed, could a single bearer travel with a bangy more than twenty miles within the twenty-four hours; so that he would be full a month in going from Calcutta to Cawnpore; whereas, the dawk-bangies travel by relays of bearers, therefore can almost keep up with the dawk-hirkarahs, who carry the mail-bags suspended at the end of a stick over their shoulders.

The communication by water between Calcutta and the several subordinate stations, whether civil or military, is much resorted to; during the rainy season in particular. At that time, few are inaccessible to craft of some description, though but for a while: those immense falls of 337rain which cause the ravines to fill, and every little creek to become navigable for boats of ten or fifteen tons, swell the Ganges, and the other great rivers, to an astonishing height; causing them to run with awful velocity. The rivers generally rise in May, but a few inches only, in June, they often approach the summits of their banks, between which they fluctuate, rising and falling until the great swell, which takes place in August. Sometimes the river rises twice, sometimes thrice, or, even four times, during the season; but, in general, one ample inundation serves all the purposes of agriculture, provided the rains do not afterwards abate too suddenly in September, before the rice is cut. When such an untimely cessation takes place, it is attended with great mortality: the immense expanse of slime, suddenly exposed to the influence of the sun, then on the equinoctial, throws forth the most destructive miasma, whereby epidemics, of the most dangerous description, are propagated.

The swelling of the great rivers is a matter of great uncertainty; sometimes they rise very early, before the quantity of rain that falls in the lower provinces could lead to the expectation of their doing so: when this is the case, it is not uncommon to see the Cossimbazar river, commonly called the Baugrutty, nearly dry at night, and full twenty feet, or more, deep the 338next morning. In other seasons the waters are very tardy; a matter of serious moment to the husbandman, who is naturally anxious to plant his crop of rice in due time, so that it may be securely attached to the soil before the great inundation comes on. The growth of the rice stalk is certainly one of the most curious proofs of nature’s adaptation of that plant to the situation in which it is cultivated; namely, in the water: it will not thrive unless the stem be immersed for several inches; and, owing to the formation of its stalk, which draws out like the concentric tubes of a pocket telescope, it can put forth many feet in the course of a few hours, so as, apparently, to grow as fast as the water may rise, and to keep its pannicle from being overflowed. It is by no means rare for the rice stalks to shoot forth from five to six feet during the twenty-four hours: I have seen it do much more!

In parts subject to the regular annual inundation, all the villages are built on rising grounds: many stand on artificial mounds, formed by excavations around their bases, so that they are surrounded nearly by moats, in which their dingies, or small boats, are immersed during the dry season, and affording admirable refreshment to their buffaloes during the summer heats. But it sometimes happens, that the waters rise to so great a height as to endanger even these elevated 339villages; some of which are then completely inundated. To avoid this, most of the houses are built upon piles, or stakes, thereby to raise their floors from four to six feet above the ground, and open enough to permit the waters to pass through with freedom. In the dry time of the year, the cattle are occasionally kept within the areas thus enclosed under the floors; but, while the inundation is at its height, so as to insulate a village completely, all the live stock are kept in boats moored around it, where they are fed by a species of the doob, or doop-grass, dragged up from the bottom of the waters by means of split bamboos, made to serve as forks: but for so providential a supply, the cattle must be led scores of miles to some part of the country, whose elevation exempts it from inundation.

The mention of a country being so completely under water, cannot but cause considerable surprize. The fact is, however, too well known to be disputed. Even at Berhampore, which is not considered within the ordinary verge of inundation, it is common to see boats of great burthen, perhaps fifty tons, sailing over the plains, as through a boundless sea. As to the country lying between the mouth of the Jellinghy and the debouchures of the Ganges, that is always overflowed for full three months, perhaps to the average depth of ten or twelve feet. I have sailed over it full a hundred miles by the compass; 340aided, indeed, by some remarkable villages, mosques, banks, &c., well known to the boatmen, who, probably from their earliest days, had traversed the same expanse during every rainy season.

Were it not for the water being strongly colored, and the strength of the current, it would not be easy in many places to distinguish the great rivers which are crossed in steering through this fresh-water ocean: the water of the inundation is generally of a bluish tinge, derived from the quantity of vegetable matter at the bottom, of which a certain quantity decays, and partially taints the fluid. A large portion is concealed by the d’haun, (or rice,) which rises above its surface. This, in the first instance, bears the appearance of a long grass, of a rich green, rising above the surface, so as to be mistaken at a little distance for terra firma: gradually, the pannicles shoot forth, of a pale-dun color, turning, as they ripen, to a deep dun, or light clay.

The grains of rice, which are called by Europeans ‘paddy,’ retain the name of d’haun so long as in their coats; as we often see a few grains among the rice imported to us: these coats are peculiarly harsh to the feel, and are fluted longitudinally, so that no water can lodge upon them. Each grain is fastened to a short stalk, joining to a main stem, and furnishing a very pleasing bunch of grain, not very 341dissimilar to an ear of oats, but far richer, both in color, and in quantity. Rice has no husk or chaff; therefore is easily separated from the straw, which is eaten by cattle when no other provender can be had, and makes excellent litter, it being very long and soft. Where the inundation prevails, the straw is of little use: the grain being cut in boats, and the straw settling at the bottom as the waters subside; thereby adding to the natural fertility of the soil. In the more elevated parts, the straw is cut the same as in the rubbee, or corn crops, and bundled for domestic purposes: there, its length rarely exceeds two feet, whereas, among the inundations, it is often seen from fifteen to eighteen feet in length. The head, or pannicle, generally bears from a hundred and fifty, to three hundred, grains of rice.

Two modes of clearing rice from the shell are in use; the one performed by the very simple process of scalding, which occasions the rice to swell, and to burst the shell, so that the latter is removed with very little trouble; the other is, by putting the d’haun into an immense wooden mortar, called an ookly, and beating it by the application of two or more beetles, called moosuls, of about four feet in length, by three inches in diameter, shod at the bottom with iron ferules, and thinned towards their centres, so as to be grasped by the women; each alternately 342impelling one, in nearly a perpendicular direction, among the d’haun in the ookly. After the shells have been duly separated, the rice, now called choul, is separated, by winnowing either in a strong draught of air, or by means of a kind of scoop, made of fine wicker-work, called a soop, wherewith the native women can most dexterously separate different kinds of corn, and effectually remove all rubbish. The coat of rice is peculiarly harsh, and not much relished by cattle: I have seen it mixed with dung for fuel with excellent effect.

The natives, in general, make little distinction between the rice separated by scalding, which is called oosnah, and that dressed by the ookly, which is called urwah; but some of the more fastidious prefer one or the other, according to particular prejudices handed down in their families, or supposed to appertain to their respective sects. I think the scalded rice generally deficient in flavor; the grains are larger, and less compact; the beaten rice certainly boils with rather more difficulty, but appears whiter, and drier. The scalded rice does not immediately separate from the coat, but is usually submitted to the operation of a machine composed of a stout beam, nearly equipoised by means of a thorough-pin, on a fork, of wood also, fixed in the ground.

It is inconceivable what quantities of rice, of 343a coarse reddish cast, but peculiarly sweet, and large grained, are prepared, about Backergunge, near the debouchure of the Megna, for exportation. In that quarter fuel is cheap, and water conveyance every where at hand; so that the immense crops raised in the inundated districts find a ready sale. The average return from a bigah of 1600 square yards, of three bigahs to our statute acre, sown with about twenty-five seers of d’haun, may be taken at nine maunds. The price of the grain, when cleared of its coat, may be from thirty to forty seers of fine rice, and from sixty even to a hundred and twenty seers (i.e. three maunds) of coarse, commonly called ‘cargo-rice.’ But the demand always regulates the value; especially when great consignments are forwarded to the coast of Coromandel.

Large quantities of rice are usually cleared by contract, the operator receiving the grain at the door of the golah, or warehouse, where he sets up his cauldron and machines, and returning twenty-five seers of clean rice for every maund (forty seers) delivered to him; he finding the fuel, and reserving the husks. In a country where labor is so very cheap, it is not so very necessary to have recourse to mechanical devices for the purpose of diminishing the expence of such operations; yet it occurs to me, that, were tide wheels to be used at Backergunge and elsewhere, or a floating mill, like that moored 344between Blackfriars’ and London Bridge, to be made out of some condemned hulk, an immense advantage would be gained in regard to time. By the proper adaptation of machinery, whereby the rice might be hoisted in, or lowered down, either by the force of water, or of steam, and the beetles be properly worked, the grain might certainly be prepared for market in less time, and infinitely less charge for cooly hire, in landing, loading, &c.: should this hint be well received by any speculating European, it might tend to lower the prices of rice at those times, when, either from want of laborers, or from the expediency of shipping off with as little delay as possible, the saving of a few days might prove an object of importance. At all events, the work might be done more regularly, more frugally, and more independently, than by manual process.