Volume 2 — CONTENTS OF VOL. II. (continued 2)

The great number of trees thus immersed, some of which equal our largest oaks, render it extremely dangerous to go down with the stream during the night: in some strong waters, such impediments are numerous, and render the navigation very hazardous, even during the day time; especially should a goon, or track rope, give way just after getting a boat above them; when this misfortune happens, the chances of escape are comparatively small indeed.

When boats, heavily laden, strike upon a tree, they sometimes go to pieces, in consequence of the water’s rapidity; but, when so entangled as to be pierced in several parts, they very generally remain entire, presenting, as the waters subside, the very curious spectacle of a vessel, perhaps carrying twelve or fifteen hundred maunds, sitting, as it were, among the boughs, often ten or twelve feet above the 69surface of the stream. It is by no means unusual, in the course of a week’s travelling, to see one, or more, of these disastrous elevations; more especially about the month of October. The misfortune is, that, though the cargo may, perhaps, be saved, if not of a perishable nature, such as sugar, salt-petre, &c.; yet, that the vessel, however expeditiously emptied, can never be got off; consequently, she must be broken up.

With respect to the prices of saul timbers, we generally find them to be nearly the same, year after year, at the same places; provided a sufficient number, but not a great glut, should arrive within the proper season. On an average, near Patna, the cubic foot will cost about sixpence, at Moorshadabad, about a shilling, and, at Calcutta, about two shillings, or even half-a-crown. An extra price is, of course, put on timbers of superior dimensions, while the smaller kinds, called bautties, which rarely contain more than eight or ten feet, are, in an opposite degree, depreciated. The saul is a very solid wood, at least equally so as elm, but has not its pliancy, nor is it quite so apt to split: its grain usually runs tolerably even; it is likewise heavy, yet by no means so ponderous as teak: both, like many of our firmer woods, sink in fresh water.

In the upper provinces, some very fine oak 70timbers are occasionally to be seen: these are chiefly of a peculiar kind, nearly approaching to chocolate color, extremely difficult to cut up, and, consequently, very heavy: this last characteristic gives them the name of seesah, or, lead-wood. The prices of these trees, which generally measure about the same as the saul, from the same forests, (namely, from the neighbourhood of Peelabeet,) rather exceed those of the latter description; and would probably be greatly enhanced, if the natives stood in need of such very substantial wood for any of their buildings, or manufactures. The fact is, that the carpenters generally endeavor to dissuade their employers from purchasing oak, by representing it as subject to many defects; though the true reason is, that its hardness infallibly causes more grinding of, than working with, their tools; which are almost always either too much, or too little tempered. At Futty-Ghur, saul timbers commonly sell for full eighteen-pence the foot, and oaks for about two shillings. I recollect buying some of the former, that measured thirty feet in length, with an average squaring of fourteen inches, for twenty-eight rupees each; and oaks of the same dimensions, or nearly so, at thirty-five: but wood was then extremely scarce, and at full twenty per cent. above the ordinary rates.

The great aptness of saul-wood to warp, we 71should suppose, might have favored the importation of oak, notwithstanding the outcry against its flinty hardness: and such would doubtless have been the case, had not another kind of wood, possessing a very fine grain, and rather handsomely veined, been abundant. This, which is called the sissoo, grows in most of the great forests, intermixed with the saul; but, in lieu of towering up with a straight stem, seems partial to crooked forms, such as suit it admirably for the knees of ships, and for such parts as require the grain to follow some particular curve. This wood is extremely hard, and heavy, of a dark brown, inclining to a purple tint when polished; after being properly seasoned, it rarely cracks, or warps; nor is it so subject as saul to be destroyed by either white-ants, or river-worms. The domestic uses of sissoo are chiefly confined to the construction of furniture, especially chairs, tables, tepoys, (or tripods,) bureaus, book-cases, ecritoires, &c. &c. for all which purposes it is peculiarly appropriate, with the exception of its being very ponderous. This objection is, however, counter-balanced by its great durability, and by the extraordinary toughness of the tenons, dovetails, &c. necessarily made by the cabinet-maker, or joiner. Sissoo is, of late, more employed than formerly for the frame, ribs, knees, &c. of ships, especially those of great burthen: for 72such, it is found to be fully as tough and as durable as the best oak. When timbers can be had of this wood long enough for the purpose, it is often applied for bends, and, indeed, for a portion of the planking, or casing; but it is very rarely that a plank of ten feet can be had free from curve. Though admirably suited for stern and head-work, it is neither long enough for keels in general, nor sufficiently uniform in its diameter for the supply of stern-posts. Some sissoo-trees grow to a great weight; but, unluckily, the devious directions of their boughs render it necessary to lop them away for minor purposes: if, instead of dividing into several large branches, at perhaps only ten or twelve feet from the ground, one large stem were to rise, however crooked, to double that height, there would be a great encrease of substance; as it is, however, we may account it an excellent timber indeed that measures a ton (i.e. forty cubic feet).

This inconvenience is greatly augmented by the slovenly manner in which trees are felled throughout India. There, it is common to see the axe (for no saws are used on such occasions) laid to the stem often at a yard or more from the soil; while, at the same time, full a cubit in depth is destroyed in widening the orifice, so as to penetrate into the heart: this creates considerable loss, which is frequently rendered still 73greater by the irregular manner in which the butt rends when in the act of quitting the root, or stool. If this wood were more scarce, probably greater pains would be taken to make the most of its length; as it is, we see, that, even those ship-builders who occasionally send their agents into the Morungs, or great forests to the north of Bahar and Purneah, allow the same loss to take place; thus disqualifying the timbers from more general, as well as more important, adaptation. The price of sissoo, for the most part, runs about twenty-five, or even to forty per cent. above that of saul; but, in many places, up the country especially, where naval architecture is not in view, their values are generally about equal. In such situations, it is less an object of import; since its utility is greatly circumscribed, and, in a great variety of instances, superseded, by the baubool, (a species of mimosa, generally growing wild,) whose crooked billets are deservedly in great estimation, and whose bark is considered to be, if any thing, superior to that of oak for the tanners’ use.

I should have remarked, that, in some parts of the country, especially along the western frontier, a small kind of saul grows wild: this rarely exceeds six inches in diameter, and is commonly used entire, in lieu of bamboos, for enclosures, rafters of bungalows, &c. It is very peculiar that this wood cannot be trusted for any 74length of time, even under a thatch; it being subject to the depredations of a very small insect, called the g’hoon, which perforates it in a thousand places, depositing its eggs, which are very numerous, and absolutely rendering the rafter a mere honey-comb. During the day, these mischievous little devils are commonly quiet, but, after night-fall, when all else is still, may be heard in every quarter! A person unaccustomed to the sounds, would suppose that a very heavy shower of hail were falling on the thatch. In the course of two or three seasons, sometimes in much less, the rafters will be found to give way; on examination, they appear as though pierced with large awls; and, when struck forcibly with a hammer, yield a cloud of yellowish powder, resulting no doubt from the labors of the multitude of inhabitants. The g’hoon, which rarely exceeds the sixth of an inch in length, is of a chocolate color, very hard about the head, has firm exterior coats over its wings, and terminates abruptly behind, giving the exact appearance of its rump having been burnt off. Those timbers which are used immediately after being felled, as usually happens, are certainly the first to be attacked by the g’hoon; but, so far as my own observations went, and according to the experience of two years, in a quarter where we used scarcely any other kind of wood for rafters, even a year’s seasoning did not afford 75security against, though it obviously retarded, their attacks. Possibly, if all of this description of saul trees intended for rafters, were to be immersed in some of the very numerous puddles every where abounding in their vicinity, and of which a great majority are strongly impregnated with minerals, particularly iron, copper, and sulphur, the g’hoons might be altogether repelled: the immersion should continue for a year or two; the trees being previously allowed to season standing, by cutting away a circle of bark, about six inches wide, near the ground, that the flow of sap might be discontinued. We find no mode to answer so well as this for our climate; in India, the advantages would be still more extensive, in consequence of the regularity, and particular effects of the three great seasons, into which the year is there naturally divided. It is curious, but true, that the g’hoon acts less upon such timbers as have been squared, than on such as have only been deprived of their bark; and, that in the large species of saul, that is, such as is used in most parts of the country for great buildings, &c., it either is unable, or not disposed, to burrow.

Intermixed with the smaller species of saul, though by no means abundant, we find another tree, bearing, in common with the oak, the designation of seesah; and that, too, owing to the great specific gravity of its wood: this, 76however, does not grow to any size, but appears admirably suited to many of those purposes for which lignum vitæ, and ebony, are now used.

In the same jungles with the foregoing, a most remarkable tree is sometimes found, of which the interior is of a very dark color, nearly approaching to black: hence, the natives call it the ‘cowah’ (or ‘crow-tree’); but, from the hardness of its wood, it certainly might, with propriety, be termed the ‘iron-tree.’ The carpenters seem to view it much in the same light with the black-oak of Peelabeet; and, doubtless, tremble for their tools, whenever the cowah is to become subject to their labors.

Although such bungalows as are built with a view to duration, are sometimes built of the best materials, and have every part of their roofs sustained by rafters of the best saul, by far the majority of such buildings, and nearly all at the military stations, are constructed on a much cheaper scale, having only mango-wood rafters, door-plates, &c. The great abundance of mango trees, added to their being easily worked, and their growing in general with stems sufficiently straight to furnish beams, of perhaps two feet square, and from fifteen to thirty feet long, give them a decided preference over every other kind of wood brought from any distance. Formerly, a gentleman could send out his servant, with 77wood-cutters, sawyers, &c., to fell whatever trees might be found suitable to his intentions, without any questions being asked; but of late, and especially since the introduction of the Mocurrery settlement, (which will be hereafter explained,) the zemindars, (or land-holders,) and the raiuts, (or peasants,) have set a value upon every twig that grows, and invariably demand from one to four rupees, for such mango trees as may be felled for the use of any European; especially in the military. As to a Company’s civil servant, either the hope of his favor, or the fear of his resentment, generally is found to seal the mouth of the pretended proprietor of the soil; who even is assiduous in furnishing workmen and conveyance on most occasions of this description. I must caution my readers against entertaining any sentiment unfavorable to the gentlemen alluded to: the adulation in question results entirely from that servile, abject, and crafty disposition, for which the zemindars are notorious where their interests are any way implicated. They judge of our collectors, magistrates, &c., as they would of their own; at least, so far as to suppose that courtesy will secure their good-will; but, they are, at the same time, thoroughly sensible, that in all public, as well as in all private, intercourse, the Company’s servants act with the most conscientious propriety, and with 78the most undeviating attention to justice. It matters not that this character may be repugnant to some proofs existing of former rapacity, and extortion; which may now be deemed obsolete, or, at the utmost, only existing to such extent as must be expected under every form of government, and among every race of people, in spite of the utmost vigilance.

The wood of the mango is much like that of the plane-tree, but rather more tough, and its fibres rather coarser: nevertheless, it is in very general use for rafters, door and wall-plates, frames for windows and doors, especially of out-offices, pannelled and plain doors, floorings of factories, and drying-rooms; likewise for wine chests, indigo boxes, roofs of budjrows, and a thousand other purposes, both of individual convenience, and of mercantile service. It is, however, particularly subject to the white-ant; and, unless carefully preserved from damp, will speedily decay: its being very light, and easy to work, are points much in its favor. Though we consider a mango-plank to be at least at par, when it measures twenty inches, or two feet, in width, yet great numbers may be had, by research, of double that breadth. My carpenters once felled a tree, which proved too large for any saw I could obtain in that quarter.

Sometimes we see very old tables made of mango-wood, which exhibit some beautiful veins, 79and acquire a substantial polish; but, such can only attend a very careful choice of planks, which must likewise be seasoned, and be worked to great advantage: otherwise, a mango-wood table will appear singularly coarse and mean.

As to the tree itself, much may be said in its favor, though, owing to the stiffness of the leaves, it cannot be termed graceful: its deep green, contrasted with the white spindling blossoms, (much resembling those of the horse-chesnut,) and its abundant foliage, give it a richness, and render it peculiarly gratifying to the eye; especially as it is in its greatest beauty during the early part of the hot season, when the grass begins to parch, and the surface of the soil changes from that agreeable verdure produced by the rains, and, in some degree, cherished by the succeeding cold months, to a very sombre russet! The fruit does not run much risque after the blossoms have once fairly set; though, sometimes, severe blights occur, which render the whole abortive; when about the size of a very large gooseberry, the young mangoes make excellent pies; not unlike those containing apples, but with a certain terebinthinic flavor, which does not always please in the first instance, but soon becomes palatable. When about half grown, that is, beyond the size of a large walnut, they are in good order for pickling. This fruit is also preserved in common mosaul-oil; in this 80instance, they are allowed to remain about a month in the vinegar pickle, before they are immersed in the oil. Many persons are very partial to the pickle thus made; but, in my humble opinion, nothing can be more rank; especially when the rinds are not pared off. Mangoes likewise make a very rich preserve, provided they are prepared before the stones are suffered to harden; else they will be very fibrous, and cut with peculiar harshness. With respect to the ripe fruit, it is impossible to describe the flavor; since, even on the same tree, various kinds will often be found. A stranger would conclude, on seeing mangoes of different colors, different scents, and different shapes, ripening on the same tree, that they had been grafted; but such is not the fact: there seems to be some very peculiar property, that causes it to shoot out with such different bearings, which remain on distinct boughs; as though the tree were composed of various twigs, all proceeding from the same stem. What can be said of a fruit varying in flavor, from the finest apricot, down to a very bad carrot? Such, however, is known to be common: it is true, that, for the most part, the whole crop of a tree will be pretty similar, both in shape, and flavor; but such is not always the case. As for the produce of trees resulting from the kernels of the same kind of mango, that is quite a lottery; for, like 81potatoes raised from seed, there will generally be found a great variety.

The Chinese have produced considerable amelioration in mangoes, by a very simple process. They select some healthy branches on a good tree, and, having pricked the bark through with a sharp awl, surround the part with a lump of wet clay, or loam; which they secure by means of a piece of canvas, bound lightly with hempen bands. Above each part thus treated, a large pot of water is suspended, having in its bottom a small hole; which, being partially stopped with a piece of rag, allows the water to drip, whereby the clay is kept constantly moist. In about three months, small fibres shoot out through the punctured bark; which, on the branch being cut off, and the canvas being removed, strike into the soil, and become roots. It is highly curious, that the fruit produced by branches thus treated, becomes more fleshy, while the stone diminishes considerably; it being more flat, and rarely so firm as that of the common mango. By persevering in the operation, that is, by repeating it on the branches of a tree thus cultivated, for some generations, the kernel becomes so reduced as scarcely to be noticeable, while the skin also loses much of that highly acrid quality, arising from the abundance of turpentine it contains.

Mangoes are peculiarly stimulant, rarely failing 82to cause those who eat of them freely to break out with boils of considerable size, and often very tedious in their cure. It is absolutely necessary to treat these as critical abscesses; for, were any repellent to be applied, serious consequences would inevitably follow. Persons lately arrived in the country, often devour this luscious fruit, until checked either by a dozen or two of these most distressing companions, or, perhaps, in consequence of that kind of bowel-complaint prevalent in all hot climates, and which, though generally not very difficult to remedy when properly treated in its first stage, soon turns to dysentery, carrying off a large portion of those whose constitutions are not remarkably sound. When eaten in moderation, mangoes are gently aperient; but if, notwithstanding its acrid taste and effects, the rind should be incautiously swallowed, the stomach will be considerably disordered. The gland, or kernel, which in shape is something like a very large, flat, Windsor-bean, is unpleasant to the palate, its flavor being very similar to that of the acorn. Swine, especially of the wild tribes, which often take shelter, during the season, in topes, or forests, of wild mangoes, eat the entire fruit, as it falls from the trees, with great avidity, and thrive amazingly.

The generality of mango-topes owe their origin to religious institutions, or to bequests, or to 83charitable donations. To plant one, it is necessary that the land should be purchased in fee-simple; when, the trees being set out, perhaps thirty feet, or more, asunder, in rows, so as to form regular square intervals, the whole are fenced by means of a deep ditch; from which the excavated soil is thrown inwards, and either planted with baubool, (mimosa,) or sown with that tall kind of grass which bears a very large tassel, and is known by the name of surput: of this grass notice has already been taken in describing the seerky used in thatching bungalows. Some topes are endowed with small sums for the purpose of maintaining a priest, for whom a comfortable residence, and a substantial durgaw, (or temple,) are erected. The sale of the fruit, (which generally proves a full crop in four or five years, the trees being then as large as a well-grown walnut-tree,) furnishes the means of sinking a well, cased with masonry. But it is more common for the person who causes the tope to be planted, to sink the well also; and to celebrate the marriage of the former with the latter, in a manner suitable to his rank or property. On such occasions, the well, being supposed to possess the fecundatory powers, is considered the husband; the tope being typified as feminine, by the fruit it produces. However much we may be disposed to smile at a custom generally attended with much ceremony, and expence, 84we cannot but admire its effects; which, in a tropical climate, are highly beneficial, both to the weary traveller, and to the thirsty soil. Hence, the sight of a mango-tope is generally attended with the most pleasing anticipations!

Although mango-topes abound in every part of the lower provinces, their wood, except in bungalows, is rarely employed in European architecture; nor do the natives make much use of it as a timber: large quantities are every year cut up for planks, intended chiefly for very ordinary purposes, where great strength and durability are not essentials. The immense quantities of fine bamboos, which ordinarily grow very straight to the height of sixty feet, or more, though rarely measuring more than five inches diameter near the root, and gradually tapering off as they ascend, supply the contented native with rafters, joists, posts, pillars, laths, and a great variety of et ceteras, all tending either to his shelter, or to his convenience. The ordinary price of these invaluable reeds (for they are of the arundo tribe) may be from three-pence to five-pence each; that is, generally from seven to twelve for a rupee, according to size and demand. Millions of them are annually brought to Calcutta, both by water, and on hackeries; in the former instance, they, being remarkably buoyant, are floated in clumps, or, perhaps, 85are made into rafts, on which boossah, (or chaff,) and even corn, are laden; or they are tied to the sides of very large boats, which also carry from five hundred, to as many thousands, as a cargo. The buoyancy of the bamboo is occasioned as much by its various cells, as by the lightness of its wood. These cells, in a common sized bamboo, may be about three quarters of an inch in diameter in those joints that are near the roots; where the wood is far more solid and compact than in the upper parts, towards which the cells become gradually wider, and the joints longer; thus reducing the substance of the bamboo very considerably, as we find to be the case with reeds in general. This variety in the several parts affords considerable convenience, their allotment being made according as the work may require more or less substance; and, as the whole bamboo may be split, like whale-bone, from top to bottom, without much exertion, scope is afforded for applying it, with great promptness, to an infinite variety of purposes.

In their whole state, bamboos are used, not only for rafters in the construction of bungalows, but as yards for the sails of the common country craft; sometimes those of extraordinary size are selected for top-gallant studding-sail booms, in vessels not exceeding four or five hundred tons: their immense strength qualifying them 86admirably for that situation. The smaller open boats, throughout the East, are generally fitted with bamboo masts, selected from the lower part of the reed, the upper being more suited, by its lightness, to be employed as yards: thus, for three-pence, a boat of about four or five tons may be furnished, from the same bamboo, with both mast and yard. In vessels of greater burthen, two or more, even up to a dozen, of bamboos, are lashed together around a stout piece of wood, which, passing through the thatch, fits into a step on the vessel’s bottom, and is well secured by chocks and lashings in various places. This stick, which serves as the base of the mast, may be about fifteen feet long, and nine or ten inches diameter: it is commonly left in a very rough state, that the bamboos which are to surround it may be more firmly held in their places. In this manner the mast is run up, probably to the height of forty or fifty feet, according to the vessel’s burthen, and at every two or three feet is bound by cords made of white hemp. The position of this awkward-looking pile is maintained by stays innumerable; many of which, being allowed to point forward, before the line of the mast’s perpendicular, obstruct the bracing of the yard very considerably. The strength of that yard must be proportioned to the sail; sometimes one well-selected bamboo may suffice, but in vessels of great bulk, say from sixty to 87ninety tons, two, or even three, stout bamboos are found requisite.

The sail is usually made of a very coarse kind of canvas, constructed of a very indifferent kind of hemp, generally used for rice bags, &c., and known by the name of gunny: each piece may measure six or seven feet by thirty inches; consequently, the innumerable joinings made in a large sail, offer a very ready means for the wind’s escape. Blacky is not very particular in this respect; with him, a sail is a sail, so long as a bit remains adequate to giving the vessel way through still waters.

It will naturally be asked, ‘Why is such miserable tackling in use?’ The reasons are, firstly, because the native owner of a vessel will not go to one farthing expence beyond what may be indispensably necessary, however clumsy, or subject to mishap, to set his vessel afloat, and to have her, as he thinks, ready for departure. Secondly, the materials are probably of his own growth, or he deals in them, or, which is often the sole motive, he finds them, in the first instance, by far cheaper than more substantial materials; and, thirdly, even if other materials of a better quality, and in every instance more appropriate, were to be had for the same money, he would not very readily deviate from the customs of his ancestors. Were a vessel fitted up on European principles to be wrecked, the whole family 88would impute the accident to the sin engendered by such adoption of the customs of a race held in abomination by even the lowest casts, (or sects,) throughout the country. Nevertheless, we sometimes see the manjy and dandies grievously put out of their way, by some shrewd native, who resolutely breaks through the general prejudice, and imitates that which his faculties convince him is founded upon science. Not that he will understand the how, and the wherefore: no; he sees the practice is good, and he adopts it: whereas, if any regulation were to be framed to enforce his compliance with our system, in that, or in any other particular, we should assuredly witness his receding, if possible, from every idea of improvement; or, if under the necessity of conforming, that his whole deportment would betray the reluctance, and antipathy, he felt on the occasion.

May not this trait in the character of Asiatics in general, serve as a hint to those who talk of coercing them to the adoption of Christianity? May it not shew that much may be done by suaviter in modo, provided we temper the fortiter in re?—Certainly!

Exclusive of the bamboo, the natives have an ample resource for rafters, as well as for posts and pillars, in the cocoa-nut tree, which grows, it may be said wild, throughout those parts within reach either of the sea-water, or of the sea-air. 89Not that it is absolutely confined to such situations; but, in proportion as those are removed, so does the natural growth of this tree gradually diminish; giving way to the taul, (or fan-leafed palm,) which, though less umbrageous, and, in many instances, less useful, attains a great height, and furnishes a much larger quantity of wood. In general, few Bengallees will cut down a nereaul, (or cocoa-nut tree,) which supplies them with so many requisites. Thus, the outer coating, which often weighs from one to two pounds, when stripped off longitudinally, furnishes those fibres called coir, whereof both small rigging and cables are made. This kind of rope is particularly elastic, and buoyant; floating on the surface of the sea, to any extent; therefore, when, owing to the strength of the current, a boat misses a ship, it is usual to veer out a quantity of coir; having previously fastened an oar, or a small cask, &c. to its end: by this device, the boat may be easily enabled to haul up to the ship’s stern.

I should think, that, were a coir hawser kept on board every ship in the British marine, a great number of lives would be saved. It is, however, peculiar, that fresh water rots coir in a very short time; corroding it in a most unaccountable manner; whereas salt water absolutely invigorates; seeming to afford additional elasticity. This shews that coir is by no means fit 90to be used in running rigging, nor as shroud-hawsers, &c., especially for vessels subject to approach low latitudes; it being easily snapped in frosty weather.

Nothing can equal the ease with which a ship rides at anchor when her cables are of coir: as the surges approach the bows, the vessel gradually recedes, in consequence of the cable yielding to their force; but, so soon as they have passed, it contracts again, drawing the vessel gently back to her first position. The lightness of the material doubtless adds to this pleasing effect; for the cable would float, were not the anchor sufficiently heavy to keep it perfectly down. It is to be remarked, that a hempen-cable always makes a curve downwards, between the vessel and the anchor, but a coir cable makes a curve upwards: therefore, if a right line were drawn from the hawse-hole, to the ring of the anchor, it would be something like the axis of a parabolic spindle; of which the cables would form the two elliptic segments, or nearly so.

A very considerable trade is carried on, from all parts of India, with the Maldivies, and Sechelles, (very numerous clusters of islands near the west coast of the peninsula,) for coir and cowries; the latter being used for inferior currency, while the former is greatly appreciated, on account of the fibres being much larger, and 91firmer, than those grown upon the continent. Not only the islands above named, but all within the Indian seas, abound with the cocoa-nut tree; which, in many of them, stand absolutely in the water. These owe their origin to the growth of such nuts as, having been blown down, or dropped, when ripe, are buried in the sands; above which their acrospires soon appear, when the tree shoots up with greater vigor than its inland competitors. It is said, that, about a hundred and fifty years back, the Sechelles and Maldivies were known only as concealed sands, highly dangerous to the navigator; and that, after they had, by the action of the sea, accumulated so as to become superficial, a vessel laden with cocoa-nuts was wrecked upon one of these banks, which speedily threw up whole forests of that tree, in consequence of the seed thus furnished: others attribute the first supply to the adventitious floating of nuts from the Malabar coast. Nothing appears to discredit either of the accounts; but the former appears by far the most probable. Be it one way or the other, we now find that the islands in question not only produce immense forests of cocoas, but, that they are inhabited by a people, governed much in the same way as the other Arabian islands, (for such we may call these, as well as Johanna, Comora, Succotra, &c.;) and whose commercial relations may be said to consist of coir and cowries, bartered 92with their neighbours of the peninsula, and the Arabs of Museat, &c., for cotton-cloths, rice, sugar, &c. To whatever chance it may have been owing, the navigator now feels less anxiety when near these isles; for, notwithstanding they are so little elevated as to remain nearly in their former state of immersion, yet their cocoa forests, which generally tower to the height of thirty or forty feet, being visible at the distance of many miles, enable him to ascertain his locality with correctness, and to avoid the numerous shoals, by a due attention to the bearings and soundings. The natives are said to be extremely well acquainted with their archipelago, and to pilot vessels of great burthen with perfect security and precision.

The next consideration with the native, respecting the cocoa-nut, is its water, by us called cocoa-nut milk. This pleasant beverage is contained within the shell, and, in general, may amount to three quarters of a pint. It is purest when the nut is so young and tender as to allow the husk and shell to be cut with about as much facility as a stringy turnip; at which time, very little coagulum adheres to the interior of the shell, and that little is soft, like milk barely turned by rennet. Gradually, the water becomes rather turbid, and acquires a stronger taste; while the coagulum encreases to about the third, or even the half, of an inch in thickness; 93hardening, and becoming tough, but easily snapped into pieces. When arrived at this state, it abounds in oil, which, at first is remarkably sweet, though of a peculiar flavor, and is much used by the native Portugueze, in lieu of ghee, in their culinary operations.

The mode of extracting the oil is very simple: a piece of wood, say two feet in length, six inches broad, and two or three thick, bears at one of its extremities a stem of iron, driven in by means of a spike: this stem must be stout, and should measure about ten inches; but, towards its summit, spreading into the form of an inverted crescent, somewhat concave, and deeply jagged at its circumference. Sitting, as usual, on the ground, the operator keeps the baton from tilting, by placing one of his feet firmly upon it: in that position he takes the nuts, commonly broken into two or more pieces, by a forcible stroke of some heavy implement, or by dashing them on the floor, and, by rasping the interior of each piece against the jagged edges of the iron, causes the coagulum to fall, in form of a coarse powder, into a vessel placed below to receive it. To effect this with more facility, the stem slants obliquely from the baton; allowing room for the receiver to be put immediately under the crescent. The raspings are now put into hot water, in which they are well stirred and pressed with a large wooden spoon; 94by this means the oil is separated; it is drawn off by opening a little hole near its surface, as it floats upon the water. It is inconceivable how much oil is thus obtained in a few minutes; but, both from its own nature, and the mode of extraction, it soon becomes offensively rancid; a state in which it is by no means objectionable to the swarthy Signors, who, as well as the Hindus in general, are partial to it as an unguent for the hair. To a fresh European, the scent of this powerful finish to the charms of an Indian Venus is highly objectionable: of all the stinks of which India can boast, it certainly is the worst. But, as before observed, if used immediately after extraction, nothing can be sweeter: it also burns remarkably well; therefore is in general use for lamps among all the European inhabitants. The residuum, after separating the oil, fattens poultry better than grain: the pork of swine fed upon cocoa-nuts is delicious; as must be confessed by all who have visited the Andamans and Nicobars. Considering the coagulum as a food for mankind, I should by no means feel disposed to recommend it; though it is certain that the natives eat of it freely: experience satisfies me, that it is extremely difficult of digestion; and that, when ate as a meal, much inconvenience, if not indisposition, will generally follow. Nor can I recommend the water of the young nut to persons whose bowels are not of the strongest; 95it being aperient, and, when used beyond a certain quantity, extremely apt to induce dysentery: the amount of a nut-ful may, perhaps, be drank with perfect safety. During very hot weather, if the nuts are fresh gathered, or suffered to remain for a while in cold water, it is not very easy to withstand the temptation.

The shell of the cocoa-nut is always most valuable when suffered to ripen upon the tree; it then acquires great hardness, and a fine dark chocolate color, interveined by fine lines of a rich dun, or clay, or perhaps striated with those tints: they then take a good polish, and may, when tastefully mounted, be considered as ornamental to the sideboard. But, it is to be observed, that they are rather a brittle ware, compared with their solid appearance; and, that it requires a great length of time to divest them wholly of a certain strong scent, reminding those who have been accustomed to the oil, of that peculiar and powerful rancidity it invariably acquires by long keeping, and especially by exposure to the air.

Previous to the introduction of lamps in the halls, passages, &c., in the houses of Europeans, cocoa-nut oil was to be had for about three-pence, or four-pence, per seer (i.e. the measurement of a seer, which comes very nearly to the English quart; in some places exceeding it, but in others falling short). Since that practice 96has obtained, in consequence of candles having been doubled in price, the oil has likewise been enhanced; so that it now sells at about three and a half, or four seers per rupee; which accords with seven-pence halfpenny of our currency per quart. No kind of animal oil is in use among the natives of India, either as food, or in manufactories; if, indeed, we except that most curious production, the meemii-ke-tale, or oil extracted from the bodies of malefactors; who, being well fed for a month, or more, previous to execution, for the purpose of encreasing their fat, have large fires lighted under them while on the gibbet, and metal vessels placed to receive the drippings. That this practice has heretofore obtained, under the government of the native princes, does not, I believe, admit of a doubt; but, that it is now obsolete, is equally certain. Still meemii-ke-tale (i.e. human oil) may be had at many places; though not genuine, but composed of whatever materials may form a mass resembling that originally in use. I have seen several of these masses, which were of a dark, opaque brown, appearing something like coagulated blood mixed with dirty jelly, and become hard by exposure to the sun, or by inspissation: its smell was intolerably offensive. On the whole, this celebrated extract, which is supposed to cure all contractions, and stiffness of the joints, is a subject of astonishment, when 97we consider it to be in use among a people so very peculiar in their tenets, and professing so much humanity, not only towards their brethren, but towards all animated nature. Had Shakespeare been acquainted with the existence of the meemii, he certainly would have given it a place in Hecate’s stir-about!

If the natives were intent upon obtaining animal oils, the greatest abundance could be commanded; porpoises, turtles, alligators, dog-fishes, and sharks, all of which contain large quantities, exist in every part where the water is brackish; some of them, indeed, become even more numerous as their distance from the sea encreases. Whales, likewise, are occasionally seen in the Indian Sea, and in the Mozambique Channel are extremely common. But, to persons habituated from their infancy to the use of high-savored viands, any sweet oil would be insipid: such people want a haut-goût in their sauces; yet it must be confessed, they certainly manage to render even their strongest preparations extremely palatable; but, to relish them properly, the culinary operations must not always be witnessed. Babachees, or cooks, in the employ of Europeans, are sometimes extremely filthy; far more so than when dressing their own victuals. Few of the natives are sparing in the use of water on such occasions, even though it should be brought from some distance; 98yet, it is equally true, that whole villages are sometimes content to use water from a pool, comparable only with that into which Ariel ushered the surly Caliban.

The trunk of the cocoa-nut tree not only answers, when the central pith is scooped out, for canoes, but, when split, as it may easily be into slips of any width, forms excellent rafters: if applied to that purpose, all the soft part is taken entirely away, leaving only the exterior case, which is very hard, tough, and elastic, about three inches in thickness. A trunk of about a foot in diameter will commonly rive into five staves, each about seven inches wide: such should be placed edgeways on the walls, that their scantlings may be in a proper direction. Rafters thus made, provided they be not more than twenty feet, or thereabouts, in length, and not too heavily laden, will stand for generations, without shewing the smallest symptom of decay. In saying this, I am to be understood as alluding to their being under cover; otherwise, they will not exhibit such durability, although they may fully claim to be on a par with most of the indigenous timbers.

The reader is to understand, that, excepting where merely temporary, that is to say, intended for a few weeks, or months, bungalows are always built with pavilion thatches; by which construction they resist the weather far better, while 99the quantity of brick-work is considerably less than where gables are run up. The proximity of the thatches in the veranda parts, renders them far less cool, in the hot months, than the interior, in which the thatch is so much further removed: the latter would be rendered much cooler were flues, or ventilators, to be made for the purpose of carrying off the rarefied air, as already suggested. Cocoa-nuts are often sawed into two equal parts, for the purpose of being made into ladles: to effect this, a hole is made on each side, about half an inch from the edge, and a stick is passed through, serving as a handle; much the same as we see in the jets used by brewers for taking liquor out of their vats. When sawed into two equal parts, across the grain of the coir coating, cocoa-nuts make excellent table brushes, causing the planks to assume a very high polish from their friction. As this operation requires some strength, it is proper to be careful that the edges of the shell, if left in, (as is sometimes, though improperly, done,) should be perfectly smooth; being once rendered so, they will never scratch, however forcibly the brush may be applied. A very good mode is, to strip off the coir, and, after soaking it well in water, to beat it with a heavy wooden mall until the pieces become a little pliant, when they should be firmly bound together with an iron ring: their ends being then levelled, the 100implement is fit for use. A little bees’-wax rubbed occasionally upon them, adds greatly to the lustre of the furniture, without being clammy.

The stem of the toddy-tree is very similar to that of the cocoa, but grows to a much greater height, and is put to the same purposes. On first seeing a grove of toddy-palms, one would suppose that a strong wind must inevitably tear up the whole by their roots; which consist of innumerable small fibres, that penetrate but a very little way, comparatively, into the soil. When one of these trees is laid prostrate by the wind, a very small cavity is made, rarely so much as a cubic yard. The leaves differ very widely from those of the cocoa: the former being rather spear-shaped, about a foot, or more, in length, by perhaps two inches at their broadest part, and attached to each side of the rib, which may be from ten to fourteen feet in length, and hang gracefully on every side of the trunk; covering the nuts, which grow on very short, stiff stems, close under the place where the leaves start from it in all directions; a tuft of similar, but smaller, branches, grow with rather a vertical tendency.

The toddy-palm has, on the contrary, about ten or a dozen large leaves, radiated from their stems, arranged in folds very similar to a lady’s fan half spread; but the outer edges are indented considerably: the leaves form each about three-fourths 101of a circle, but not very regularly so; some more, some less. These are made into punkahs, or fans, of various sizes; or, when torn into strips of about two inches wide, which may be about the medium breadth of each fold, serve the natives in lieu of paper. The greater part of the accounts kept by Bengallees are written on these leaves, by means of any sharp-pointed instrument, which, marking through the glossy rind, or coating, on either side of the leaf, remains, ever after, perfectly distinct and legible. Those who wish to have the letters still more so, rub the leaves, after filled with writings, with kaujool, or lamp-black; which sinks into the porous parts laid open by the instrument, but easily wipes off from that portion of the surface which has not been pierced. Some hundreds of these leaves may be seen, secured together at one end by a twine passed through each, like waste paper in a grocer’s shop; thus forming a voluminous collection. The fruit of the taul consists of two, or sometimes three, lobes, or pods, somewhat similar to those in a horse-chesnut, and, like them, concealed in a pithy, spherical coating, but with a smooth exterior. Each lobe is hollow, and contains a small quantity of very clear liquor, partaking, in a very slight degree, of the flavor of rose-water; the lobes themselves are about the size of a Chelsea-bun, are rather of a crisp, but gelatinous substance, 102and pleasant to the palate: their exterior is covered with a very thin, brown rind, like that of an almond; rather astringent, but by no means acrid.

The liquor, called toddy, is obtained by making an incision under the head of the tree, when, a thin wedge being introduced, the toddy will gradually exude into a vessel suspended to receive it. This liquor is very pleasing when fresh drawn, but, in a few hours, acquires a harsh flavor, ferments, and becomes highly intoxicating. It answers admirably as leaven, making very light dough; but if kept, as is too commonly done, until rather sub-acid, it communicates a most unpleasant tartness to the bread. Groves of toddy-trees, in some parts of the country, yield a very handsome revenue, and great profit to the renters. Like the cocoa-nut tree, they have within their summits a substance very like a cabbage in flavor: this occasions mariners sometimes to fell them, with the view of carrying that part to sea; where it will, if left within its rind, keep for many months. I have tasted of this vegetable, but did not feel much gratified, though it assuredly was not disagreeable: it seemed to require much boiling.

The stem of the toddy-palm is annulated, but not very deeply: of this the toddy-men take advantage, ascending to the summit, and descending again to the plain, with wondrous 103agility. This is effected by a piece of strong twine, about a yard or more in length, but doubled into a loop of half that extent. The great toes are respectively put into the ends of the loop, so as to keep it perfectly extended. The man first embraces the tree, as high as he can reach, for the purpose of raising himself from the ground; his feet being instantly carried, on opposite sides of the trunk, as far asunder as the loop may admit. Then, sustaining himself by means of the loop, he slides his arms upwards to take a second spring; following, in due time, by the removal of his feet, as much higher as he has been able to reach. In this manner, successively stretching up his arms, and swarming with his feet, he reaches the summit; where, while he either suspends the pot, or releases it, his weight generally rests on the loop. The great art, both in ascending, and descending, is to keep the loop always stretched: should it be allowed to slacken, in all probability it would fall off. Few persons, following this profession, require more than half a minute to mount the highest palmira; by which name the toddy-palm is most generally known to Europeans. The natives designate it the taul (or taul-gautch).

I believe very few kinds of wood, except those I have mentioned, ever come within the ordinary course of domestic architecture; though, 104in some few situations, the soondry and jarrool are employed for the minor purposes; but, with some reserve on the part of the natives, who hold them to be more applicable to the construction of small craft, and to the formation of carriages of various descriptions. The soondry is a remarkably tough, heavy, and elastic wood; while the jarrool, though rather harder, more resembles the beech, than any other of our indigenous timber trees: as a material in boat-building, it ranks next to the teak, hence, many of the donies, (or coasting vessels,) measuring from fifty, to a hundred and fifty, tons, are principally built therewith. When teak is scarce, we occasionally see the ship-wrights apply jarrool in their repairs of the upper works of large vessels.

Having said thus much of the manner in which houses, and bungalows, are constructed, I have only to observe, that, of late years, the European architects have been rather prone to sacrifice comfort to appearance. Those old houses built at a time when punkahs, tatties, glass-sashes, &c., were not in use, certainly evince that attention was paid to coolness, but without disregarding convenience. Now, although building is full fifty per cent. cheaper than it was thirty years ago, we see the walls much less substantial, and, on the whole, a want of local fitness in the arrangement of the 105several apartments. I must caution the reader, that what would appear an admirable plan for a residence in our climate, would be found totally inconsistent with the temperatures attendant upon the changes of season in India, and with the several practices, and operations, peremptorily necessary towards meeting those changes. It must never be forgotten, that, at some seasons, and at some hours in all seasons, every door and window is usually thrown open; likewise, that, during the continuance of the hot winds, such apartments as cannot be kept moderately cool, by tatties applied to some apertures on that floor, whence the current of refrigerated air may find admission, will be scarcely habitable, and, at night in particular, will glow like ovens.

The hot-wind commonly rises with the sun, blowing at first very gently, but encreasing gradually, until about one or two o’clock; after which, it subsides into a perfect calm. This is its ordinary course, but some days remain calm throughout, while, at other times, the wind blows a hurricane the whole night through. I have, indeed, known it to continue, with very little change of temperature, or variation of force, for full ten days; during which period, the nights were, if any thing, hotter than the days; so that extra b’heesties were retained to water the tatties during the night. That was, to be sure, a very singular season, carrying with it a prodigious 106mortality; great numbers dying suddenly. It was peculiar that the fit, which resembled apoplexy, attacked all ages alike, and paid no deference to the abstemious and temperate, any more than to the licentious and gormandizing classes.

In describing the habitations of the lower orders of natives, I explained, that their chief attention was paid to privacy, and to the exclusion of the glare. The superior ranks are not less intent upon the same objects; though many of their state apartments do not indicate, that either the one or the other were of the smallest consideration. Some of the Durbars are uncommonly exposed; and, in consequence of the crowd, the fastidious ceremony observed, and the constant succession of entrances and exits, form a most uncomfortable tout ensemble. Yet, it appears that the natives have made little or no variation in their system, not only within the time we have been acquainted with them, but, if we examine their ancient structures, not for centuries before a British foot was placed upon their soil. We ordinarily find nearly the same aspect given to all their buildings, especially to their places of worship: nimauzes, (or open temples,) where the Mussulmans are in the habit of offering up their prayers, invariably are made to front the west; under the idea of their facing the shrine of Mahomed. This error may 107be considered on a par with the placing of altars in our churches always at the east end, with the view to their standing towards the place of our Saviour’s nativity: we also inter our dead with their heads to the west, on the same account.

Having detailed what relates to the domestic habits, and to the architecture of the country, I shall now proceed to describe the manner of living among Europeans in India; observing, that there are two very distinct classes, though perfectly on a footing; namely, the residents of Calcutta, and those among the civil and military, who are subject to be detached from the Presidency. Formerly, only such gentlemen as held offices of considerable emolument, or those who were married, supported a regular table: such might be said to keep open-house; at least, far the greater number usually laid several spare covers, especially at supper-time, under the hope of seeing their friends drop in to partake of whatever might be in preparation. The dinner hour being known, (for almost every family then dined between two and three o’clock,) it was rarely needful to make enquiries respecting the proper moment for repairing to the hospitable board. Little or no ceremony was required; the host being as much pleased with the compliment paid by the visit of a young friend, as the latter was to find a welcome among the most opulent 108and respectable portion of the European community.

Nor did the benefit accruing to the latter, confine itself within the limits of economical saving: it was generally found, that such as became habitually inmates of this description, were recommended to the notice of Government, or to such situations, (if not in the Company’s service,) as afforded the immediate means of maintenance, or eventually led to lucrative speculations. A variety of instances could be adduced, of young gentlemen having, from the foregoing admission within the domestic circle of visitants, been rescued from that most unpleasant situation, namely, a want of respectable friends; these, as Shakespeare properly remarks, ‘had greatness thrust upon them.’ Such was the state of society when I first arrived in India, [1778] and such was the fair expectation, with which not only young gentlemen, but many ‘far advanced upon time’s list,’ landed on the shores of the Ganges. In fact, it required that some very substantial objection should personally exist, to deprive any individual of an implied right to the most friendly reception. Still, however, it must be acknowledged, that a certain distinction, rather too fastidious, was prevalent in favor of those who came with appointments to the Company’s service; especially in the civil 109line. To a certain extent, such might have been considered reasonable, when we reflect that future association in the same duties was to be expected; but, the matter was doubtless carried too far; it being distinguished by that kind of deference which stamps a superior value upon its object, the whole amount of which is deducted from the supposed inferior; thus, causing the former to preponderate in society in a multiplied ratio, in the same manner as taking from one scale to put into the other, occasions the difference to encrease in the proportion of three to one.

The gradual encrease of commercial transactions, and of intercourse, with several parts of that extensive territory, which ultimately has come under the influence, if not the control, of the British government, served as invitations to many adventurers, who quitted Europe under assurances of employ in the East. Their expectations were generally confirmed by permanent establishments in various parts of the country; whereby a complete change took place, as to the estimation in which free-merchants, as they are generally termed, were held.

Among this class, there have, within a few years, appeared numbers, whose industry, and extensive concerns, rendered them conspicuous; and it would not, perhaps, be too bold to predict, that, in the course of a few years, the 110success of their efforts may prove a stimulus to such an encrease of private traders, as cannot fail to give birth to events of great national importance.

It would not be in place to notice such probable results in this work, but it may be permitted, without trespassing the bounds I have marked out to myself, to anticipate, that the commercial society of India will, in time, grow out of the knowledge of such as surveyed its state some thirty years ago. We have, at the same time, to lament, that, owing to such an augmentation of all ranks, it has been found necessary to drop many customs suited only to a limitted society, and to adopt a certain reserve, which may not be exactly conformable to those very sanguine ideas entertained by persons who may have read of the ancient regime of Oriental hospitality; the declination of which has unavoidably kept pace with the additional imports consequent to extended commerce. There will, however, even at this day, be found much to approve; and the mind endued with sensibility will have to acknowledge many a civility, very nearly akin to kindness, and sufficiently poignant to give an ample scope for many a grateful acknowledgment.

Morning visits are not, generally speaking, so uncommon as they were: formerly, few went to pay visits of ceremony during the forenoon; for, 111the dinner-hour being early, there was little time for such unsocial compliments; whereas, now, that it is generally delayed until about sun-set, that is to say, to perhaps five, or six, or even to seven o’clock, the forenoon is more applicable to the reception of visitors; who, if on any terms of intimacy, do not hesitate to join the family at a little avant-diner commonly called a tiffing, and known among us by the name of lunch. This kind of refreshment (for it is not considered a repast) usually takes place between one and two o’clock, and consists of grilled fowls, mutton chops, cold meats, and sometimes of curry and rice. Being conducted without ceremony, and in a very desultory style, the dropping in of friends never occasions the slightest discontinuance, any more than the accidental arrival among an English party here, of an intimate, while partaking of a slice of cake and a glass of wine. The various formalities are, however, now transferred from P. M. to A. M. and it is usual to see the town of Calcutta thronged with palanquins during the whole of what is called the forenoon; but which commonly is made to extend to three o’clock; about which time, especially during nine months in the year, most persons are at home, divested of their usual dresses, and reclining, in some cool apartment, on a bed, or a couch, for the purpose of repose, and to prepare for that change of linen, and for those ablutions, not 112forgetting the bath, which are both comfortable, and essential, in so very sultry a climate.

Gentlemen who purpose visiting the ladies, commonly repair to their houses between eight and nine o’clock in the evening; ordinarily under the expectation of being invited to stay and sup: an invitation that is rarely declined.

Among ladies who are intimately acquainted, morning visits are common, but all who wish to preserve etiquette, or merely return the compliment by way of keeping up a distant acquaintance, confine them to the evening; when, attended by one or more gentlemen, they proceed, in their palanquins, on a tour devoted entirely to this cold exchange of what is called civility.

Among the several justly-exploded ceremonies, we may reckon that, which existed until within the last twenty years, of ‘SITTING UP,’ as it was called: we must, at the same time, do the ci-devant inhabitants of Calcutta the justice to remark, that the practice was evidently founded on good-will and hospitality; although it bore so strong a resemblance to the exhibition of a cargo of slaves, as to occasion many a caricature, and many a satirical expenditure of ink. This ‘SITTING UP,’ as it was termed, generally took place at the house of some lady of rank, or fortune, who, for three successive nights, threw open her mansion towards the evening, for the purpose of receiving all, both ladies and gentlemen, who 113chose to pay their respects to such ladies as might have recently arrived in the country. The fair damsels were thus at once introduced to the whole settlement, and not unfrequently obtained a variety of offers from men of the first consequence. Many matches have, indeed, been concluded even before the third night of exhibition. If we consider the fatigue attendant upon the return of these numerous visits, (for the slightest omission would have been an unpardonable offence,) and that the novelty of riding in a boçhah, (or chair-palanquin,) would not be agreeable to all, we may form some idea of what many a delicate female, melting with the heat, tight-laced, and tormented with musquito-bites, must have undergone during the performance of this ceremony. To the gentlemen of the settlement, it might have been abundantly pleasing; they had nothing to do but to post about in their palanquins from one sitting up to another, and there either to admire, or to quiz, the fair sufferers, according as their taste, or caprice, might dictate. The throng has, in some lovely instances, been so very great, that even a fourth night has been required for the benefit of bachelors from the interior!

The great encrease, not only of inhabitants, but of houses, some of which are situated at an inconvenient distance, has rendered the custom of ‘sitting up’ nearly obsolete. The modern 114instances of its continuance, are, indeed, so very few, and those few so modified, as barely to leave room for saying that it is at all in use. In these days, a lady is received on landing by her friends, who, generally, after a few days of repose, and of preparation, invite their acquaintances, to be introduced to their fair companion, who, in the course of a week, usually returns their visits. This is merely a partial shew, compared with what formerly took place, and is no more than would be practised in England on a similar occasion: it is true, that, where superlative attractions exist, many, who probably are not in the habit of visiting the family, will often avail themselves of the opportunity to chaperon some acquaintance, merely with the intention of gaining a peep at the goddess.

The company rarely sit long at table after dinner, unless among those convivial souls who deem the presence of a petticoat a perfect nuisance. Such were formerly very numerous, but of late, the society of the sex has been more duly appreciated, and we see the gentlemen quitting the bottle to retire to the chabootah, (or terrace,) there to enjoy the cool air of the evening, and to take a cup of tea, or to smoke their hookahs; after which, those who have business to attend, proceed to their offices, &c., while the larger portion separate to partake of a family supper with some of their female acquaintances. 115Very little ceremony is used on such occasions; the gentlemen leaving their hats in their palanquins, and ordering their servants to proceed, as a matter of course, to the houses whither their palanquins are to be conveyed. In many instances, these evening visits are paid in a very airy manner: coats being often dispensed with; the gentlemen wearing only an upper and an under waistcoat, both of white linen, and the former having sleeves. Such would appear an extraordinary freedom, were it not established by custom; though, it generally happens, that gentlemen newly arrived from Europe, especially the officers of his Majesty’s regiments, wear their coats, and prefer undergoing a kind of warm bath of the most distressing description, both to themselves, and to their neighbours; but, in the course of time, they fall in with the local usages, and, though they may enter the room in that cumbrous habit, rarely fail to divest themselves of it, so soon as the first ceremonies are over, in favor of an upper waistcoat, which a servant has in readiness.

Supper, though enumerated among the ordinary meals of a family residing at the Presidency, seems rather to be the means of concentrating the party, than partaken of with that keenness we often witness in our colder climate. Few do more than take a glass or two of wine, generally Claret, with, perhaps, a crust, and a morsel of 116cheese: the appetite at this hour, say ten, being by no means keen. After supper, the hookah is again produced, and, after sitting awhile in conversation, the lady of the house retires: few remain long after that has taken place. On the whole, it may be said, that at least four in five are in bed before twelve; or, perhaps, before eleven o’clock. From this, I exempt all concerned in card-parties, especially if the stakes run high: for such, no measure, or calculation, exists; the whole night being occasionally passed at tradrille, which is the favorite game, or at whist, &c. Such exceptions fortunately are not very numerous; it would certainly be difficult to find any city, wherein celibacy among the males is so prevalent, as at Calcutta, that can boast of so few excesses of any description. The European inhabitants of respectability certainly live well; that is, they keep as good tables as the seasons may enable them to furnish; and they drink none but the best of wines: Claret, Madeira, and Port, are in general use.

Of the former, there are two kinds; one called ‘English Claret,’ which is the best wine that France produces, manufactured after its arrival in England, with an addition of Brandy, &c., to enable its standing the hot climate of India, and with other liquids, to give it a richer body. Such wine generally sells at Calcutta 117for about thirty rupees per dozen, equal to six shillings and threepence per bottle.

The other kind of Claret, which is the purest that can be obtained from the most valuable vineyards near Bourdeaux, the Coté-Roti, Chateau Margeau, &c., can rarely be obtained, except in times of peace, when sixteen rupees per dozen, equal to about three shillings and four-pence per bottle, may be considered a fair price. This wine, however well packed, and carefully treated, will not keep long: at the end of six or seven months after arrival, it will be found rather sharp, and then becomes extremely pernicious to the bowels. When fresh, it is remarkably fine, and delicate, and being far lighter than the ‘English Claret,’ is certainly best adapted to the climate. Occasionally, a few chests of Claret are imported at Serampore, a Danish settlement, about sixteen miles above Calcutta, but experience has proved, that, in regard to wholesomeness, as well as to flavor, it is far inferior to either of the former: the severe bowel-complaints its free use often occasions, are attributed to the litharge with which it is said to be fined; hence, what is called ‘Danish Claret’ is rarely found at any gentleman’s table.

About thirty years back, a large quantity of 118Madeira used to be imported at Calcutta, by the Company, in pipes of extra-measurement, for the use of their servants. Sometimes nearly a thousand pipes arrived during the course of the season; being of prime quality, and laid in by the Company’s agents at Fonchall, it always sold well at the annual auctions: six hundred rupees was a common average. For some time past, the Company have, generally speaking, declined this trade, which was of extensive convenience to the residents at Bengal, and must be supposed to have paid them amply for their outward tonnage, while the returning tonnage was always at liberty to receive investments for the Europe market. The cause of this relinquishment has been attributed to various circumstances; but, I believe, is to be found in that immense supply which, at the close of the war in 1782, glutted the markets for some seasons. Until that date, the Company had nearly monopolized the trade, there being no competitors of consequence, though the speculation was open to all; but its excellence, which seemed to offer full seventy pounds for every pipe, that cost perhaps only twenty-five, or thirty, on the Island of Madeira, induced the French, Portugueze, and some English speculators, to embark on vessels under Imperial colors, and to become rivals in a trade which 119could not bear extension beyond certain narrow limits. All could not be supplied at Fonchall; therefore Teneriffe, and other inferior wines, were substituted; whereby the depreciation even of the best genuine Madeira was enhanced, and it fell, in consequence, full fifty per cent. Of late years, very little of the latter has found its way to India; the produce of the island being almost wholly required for the Europe market; but the merchants in that quarter have found out the way to doctor the inferior wines of the neighbouring isles, so as to sell them at a good price, under the captivating titles of ‘London Particular,’ ‘London Choice Particular Particular,’ &c. &c.

The low price to which Madeira fell, (for, in 1781-2 it had been so high as two thousand rupees per pipe,) made a great change in the affairs of some adventurers, who had anticipated the golden harvest with which they were to return to Europe. The general effects were highly beneficial, as the greater portion of persons settled in Calcutta, &c., were enabled to purchase large quantities; which, being kept in godowns, (warehouses and cellars,) gradually improved in that hot climate, and, after a few years, became highly valuable. Many gentlemen availed themselves of the low state of the markets to supply themselves abundantly; some purchased from forty to sixty pipes, and thus secured to themselves 120a supply of capital wine, for many years consumption, at a certain price.

It is no uncommon thing to see Madeira, which has been in a gentleman’s godown ten years in the wood: many have much older wine in their possession; a few can, indeed, boast of some, which, though inconceivably mild, and rich in flavor, is extremely potent. None will attempt to produce, at their tables, Madeira that has not been two or three years in the country; for the new wine is neither pleasant nor wholesome, and may be readily distinguished from the old, notwithstanding some venders are well skilled in the art of adding, in the course of a few hours, many years of age to the liquor. Among the military, it is found best to purchase wine that is known to be of good quality, and of a certain age; which is easily done, through the several agency-houses; all of which have generally large quantities, of every description, either on commission, or at command. This mode is far preferable to the otherwise general practice of buying several pipes, with a view to filling up the ullage, (say of four, from a fifth,) as the contents decrease. By such management, any person settled at Calcutta, or elsewhere, may, in the course of five or six years, become possessed of a stock of excellent Madeira; observing, however, that, in that time, every fifth pipe will have been drawn off, to fill up its 121neighbours: therefore, in computing the value of such remaining pipes, that of the pipe thus expended must be included.

Nothing can injure a cargo of Madeira more than the presence of a cask of coal-tar: it communicates to the wine a most nauseous flavor, and scent; rendering it totally unfit for use. I recollect, about seventeen years ago, dining with a General Officer, who had inadvertently allowed his Madeira pipes to be smeared with coal-tar, for the purpose of preserving them. Whether it had that effect on the wood I never took the trouble to enquire, but it certainly preserved the wine; which, I doubt not, may be in existence to this day; for it was really too potent, even for parasitical stomachs!

The price of good Madeira wine that has been three or four years in the country, may be generally stated at about four hundred rupees, equal to £50. The pipes are not so large as formerly, but will commonly run about forty dozens; which brings the price per dozen nearly to twenty-five shillings, or little more than two shillings per bottle. Wine of the first quality may be about fifty, or even sixty, per cent. dearer.

The Port-wine used in India is generally of a light kind, not unlike what we term ‘Southampton Port:’ about ten years ago, when Claret began to be scarce, a large quantity was sent 122out, and was bought up with readiness; but, on account of its astringent, and, consequently, heating, quality, it fell into disrepute. It is, nevertheless, highly esteemed as a restorative, especially in a convalescent state after obstinate bowel-complaints, and in cases of debility not proceeding from obstructions.

Such exceptions are, indeed, rare; for, I believe, very few of the local diseases are exempted from such connections with obstruction: in fact, almost every ague, which is a very common complaint in many parts of the country, and is generally designated the ‘Hill,’ or ‘the Jungle-fever,’ according to the situation in which it is engendered, either originates from, or resolves into, confirmed hepatitis.

Porter, pale-ale, and table-beer of great strength, are often drank after meals: all these are found in the utmost perfection, for indifferent malt-liquors do not stand the voyage; and, even should they arrive in a sound state, would meet no sale. A temporary beverage, suited to the very hot weather, and called ‘country-beer,’ is in rather general use, though water, artificially cooled, is commonly drank during the repasts: in truth, nothing can be more gratifying at such a time, but especially after eating curry. Country-beer is made of about one-fifth part porter, or beer, with a wine glass full of toddy, (or palm-wine, which is the general substitute for yeast,) a 123small quantity of brown sugar, and a little grated ginger, or the dried peel of Seville oranges, or of limes; which are a small kind of lemon, abounding in citric acid, and to be had very cheap.

The great cheapness and abundance of the materials, added to the frequent and great thirst to which Europeans are subject while resident in India, should appear to be strong inducements toward the free use of punch, lemonade, sangaree, negus, &c. The reverse is the case; for, I believe, with the exception of the lowest classes, all such beverages are totally discarded: they are deleterious; rarely failing, in the first instance, to injure, and ultimately disgracing all who yield to the temptation. Fortunately, that temptation is not very strong; as liquors of a superior quality are found to be more wholesome, more pleasant, and, in the long run, not much dearer. Besides, there is a certain odium attaches in that quarter to all who are in the habit of drinking spirits, whether raw or diluted. In a climate so ungenial to European constitutions, and where, as above said, thirst is often very distressing, the frequent recourse to ‘brandy shrob pauny’ (brandy and water) never fails to produce that sottishness at all times despicable, but peculiarly unsuited to Oriental society, in which at least the better half are men of very liberal education, and all are gentlemen.

In saying thus much, I barely do justice to 124the persons of whom mention is made; for it may be said, without fear of refutation, that fewer deviations from propriety are to be found in our Indian settlements, than in one-tenth the number of inhabitants of the same classes in any other country, whose manners and properties, either personal observation, or respectable authors, have enabled me to estimate.

This results, not simply from the advantage almost every individual in the Company’s service, and in the mercantile branches, possesses, of having been brought up in the most respectable seminaries, &c., and of being early initiated in the walks of decorum and integrity among their respective friends in Europe; it proceeds partially from the nature of the climate, and from that mode of association which the duties attendant upon each profession, as well as certain localities, seem, imperiously indeed, to inculcate.

I have before shewn that taverns, punch-houses, &c., are by no means places of resort, as in Europe: there is no such thing as a coffee-room, merely as such; unless we so consider the few mansions of certain French and English traiteurs and restaurateurs, who occasionally have to accommodate committees of shipping, or town meetings, &c., and who send out dinners to any part of the town, or its vicinity, on terms advantageous to both parties. Therefore, under 125such exceptions, which are rare, and setting apart the civic operations of the beef-steak clubs, &c., it may properly be said, that coffee-house association is unknown in Calcutta, at least among the respectable members of the community. Neither does any corps in the Company’s service keep a mess: all the officers dine either at home, or in small parties, according as their several fancies, or occasion, may lead them. It is common to hear one or two of a party, before they retire from table, which is always done without the least ceremony, enquire, who will dine with them the next day? Thus, it is extremely easy to avoid any obnoxious person, be the objection to him what it may; and as the omission of any individual, from the ordinary course of invitations of such a description, soon produces explanation, it is impossible that a person of unpleasant manners, or of an indifferent character, can, for any length of time, stand his ground; the whole circle, by degrees, drop his acquaintance, while, in lieu of that friendly and familiar salutation which denotes approbation, the shunned offender experiences the most distant, and most forbidding reserve. Being once condemned, something more than ordinary must appear to produce his re-admission: for the most part, especially if habitual inebriation be in question, the unhappy man pursues his career, either until the grave may 126receive his dropsical remains, or the Invalid Establishment affords him an asylum against the mortifying neglect of his late associates.

This kind of retirement, of course, can only apply to military characters, and certainly does infinite credit to the humanity of those who tolerate the measure. It may, probably, be urged, that such an institution should not be open to persons retiring merely in consequence of indulgence in depravity; or because they are no longer acceptable among their former associates: it may be asserted, that the admission of such men within so honorable a pale, must be injurious both to the character of the corps, and to the feeling of those meritorious individuals who are compelled by wounds, &c., to accept the benefits of that establishment. This is undeniable; but when we consider, that, perhaps, after long service in an oppressive climate, the best of us may be brought to that kind of conduct which disqualifies from military service, it may not be too much to assert, that the concession and indulgence thus granted, are at least charitable, and often incontrovertibly merited.

Among the gentlemen of the civil service, the society is far less diversified than with us in Europe; therefore, much facility is afforded towards the evasion of intercourse with persons in any way unacceptable. It must at the same time be remarked, that, in this instance, the most 127liberal consideration is very generally exhibited; and, that so long as any hope of reform may remain, there will rarely be found a disposition to exile a man from that converse with his countrymen, without which he can neither preserve the appearance of respectability among the natives, nor, in all probability, receive the approbation of Government. Hence, what we commonly call a ‘black-sheep,’ is a most marked, and equally forlorn character, throughout the East; and, consequently, is very scarce.

Many years ago, when it was customary for the Governor-General, and some of the leading gentlemen, such as the Members of Council, &c., to have public breakfasts weekly, persons of all characters mixed promiscuously at table; good and bad were to be seen around the same tea-pot. This occasioned a native of some consequence to remark, that, ‘among Europeans, all who wore a hat and breeches were gentlemen.’ The sarcasm was not, however, quite applicable; for, the breakfast being considered merely the preface to a levee, it was to be expected that, on such occasions, persons of every description would be seen, who, having public business to transact at the levee, naturally availed themselves of the opportunity, without reference to the opinions of others regarding their private conduct. After the arrival of Marquis Cornwallis, these public breakfasts were discontinued, and 128open levees substituted. This was certainly pleasanter for both the Governor and the governed. However, there are, to this day, I believe, some remains of the former ceremony preserved, among a few of the principal gentry; who, on certain days, expect to see their friends, and such others as may wish to consult them. Some have two levees, if we may so designate them, weekly; one for Europeans, and one for natives; but such cannot be considered official.

A breakfast in India bears a strong resemblance to the same meal in Scotland, with the exception of whiskey; the introduction of which, (if to be had,) or of any other spirits, would be considered both nauseous and vulgar. The general bill of fare, at this time, consists of tea, coffee, toast, bread, butter, eggs, rice, salt-fish, kitchery, (a kind of olio,) various sweetmeats prepared in the country, especially preserved ginger, and orange marmalade, honey, &c.; and, after hunting or shooting, occasionally cold meat, with proper accompaniments.

During a great portion of the year, breakfast may be considered rather a substantial meal. The generality of European gentlemen rise about day-break, and either proceed to the parade, to their field diversions, or to ride on horseback, or on elephants; thus enjoying the cool air of the morning. From the middle of March to the middle of October, the sun is very powerful, 129even when the atmosphere is overcast with clouds of great density. This induces all who ride for health, or for pleasure, to avoid violent exercise; they proceeding, generally in small parties, each gentleman being attended by his syce, who carries a whisk made of horse-hair, fastened to a short lacquered stick, for the purpose of driving away the flies, which are generally very troublesome both to the horses and to their riders. It is not uncommon to see the backs of the latter covered with these noxious parasites, which, by their buzzing, and their attempts to alight on the face, produce extreme irritation. During some part of the year, when scarce a leaf is in motion, and the clouds hang very low, exercise, even so early in the morning, is often found more injurious than refreshing: at such seasons, nothing but the abundant perspiration which then relaxes the whole frame, and absolutely oozes through the light cloathing in common use, could prevent the occurrence of diseases highly inflammatory. Many feel so uneasy, in consequence of this unpleasant exudation, as to be induced to change their linen three or four times within the day; but, however refreshing such a change may prove, it is by no means to be commended; experience proving that considerable prostration of strength is the inseparable consequence of so ill-judged an indulgence. The best plan is, to have night apparel, and to ride out in the linen worn during 130the preceding evening; changing for a clean suit on returning, so as to sit down to breakfast in comfort.

Those who are subject to bile cannot be too cautious in regard to their diet; which should be rather sparing, and confined to viands dressed in a simple manner. Many gentlemen of the faculty, in England, entertain an opinion, that eggs, moderately boiled, are rather beneficial, than otherwise, in bilious cases: the idea they entertain is, that the yolk assimilates with the bile, and carries it off. But practice is better than theory; and it is to be wished, that such as maintain the above hypothesis could view the number of patients who may be said to owe their pains and sorrows merely to the practice of eating eggs for breakfast. In this climate, to a person possessing a robust constitution, and whose stomach might vie with that of an ostrich, eggs may be innocent; but, in the East, where relaxation weakens the powers of digestion, they are by no means a proper article of diet. If, as physicians assert, assimilation takes place, it assuredly is on the wrong side of the question; for I believe all oriental practitioners will allow, that the bile is considerably augmented, but not carried off, by eggs.

However grateful many of the other items, such as salt-fish, &c., may be, they certainly cannot tend much to the preservation of health; 131therefore, should be discarded from the breakfast table. I speak feelingly; for, although I did not possess sufficient resolution to withstand what then appeared a very alluring temptation, I have now the candor to confess, that thirst, heat, and uneasiness were generally attendant upon my imprudence, and no doubt occasioned me to swallow many a nauseous dose, which might have been avoided by a moderate share of discretion. Therefore, let me strongly recommend to those of my juvenile readers who may be about to proceed to India, not to indulge in breakfasts such as I have described.

The tea used in India is generally what we call green, or hyson; very little bohea being drank. It is very rarely that either kind can be obtained good; indeed, the climate speedily renders tea unfit for use, if at all exposed to the air: on this account, leaden catties of various sizes, but generally containing from four to ten pounds, are employed for preserving it. These catties fit in pairs, or, if large, singly, into neat boxes provided with locks. But little tea being sold retail, it is usual for a few friends, perhaps three or four, to club, and buy a chest; which may be had for about 150, or even so high as 200 rupees (£25). This, however, is not the price of the best teas, which occasionally sell for nearly double the latter sum, unless there may be a very large supply at market; when, as it is 132a very perishable commodity, the prices sometimes fall even below prime cost. To say the truth, it rarely matters much whether the tea be good, or bad; for it is always made at a side-table by some menial who knows nothing of the matter, and who never tastes it himself: hence, a cup of good tea is really a rarity; which must appear extraordinary, when it is recollected that many vessels import at Calcutta in five or six weeks only from China.

The Arabs now convey immense quantities of fine coffee from Mocha to every part of India; but they sell it at a high price, generally from forty to sixty rupees, or even more, per maund of 82lb.; which brings it, at the latter rate, to 3s. 9d. per lb. in its raw state. Bourbon and the Mauritius raise coffee, but of an inferior quality; and, within these few years, considerable plantations have been formed at Chittagong; but the produce, though abundant, cannot compare with even the French coffee.

I have often had coffee that tasted very salt, and rather bitter, the cause of which was then unknown to me; but a gentleman, who was ‘up to the trick,’ assured me it was occasioned by the frazils (or baskets) being immersed in seawater, in order to give the berries that greenish, horny appearance, which is supposed to be the indication of a superior quality.

Sugar-candy is always used for making tea, 133coffee, and, indeed, for all such purposes: it is to be had of various degrees of purity, and either of indigenous manufacture, or imported from China. The former kind is sold by the maund, and may be estimated at from twenty to forty rupees; the latter in tubs made of thin deal, and other light wood, in which the candy is packed among dried bamboo-leaves. The price of a tub is usually about twenty rupees, (more or less, as the markets may stand,) for which about sixty pounds weight are obtained.

Although the sugar-cane is, by many, supposed to be indigenous in India, yet it has only been within the last fifty years that it has been cultivated to any great extent: since the failure which took place some twenty years back in the West Indies, it has become a most important article of commerce. Strange to say, the only sugar-candy used until that time was received from China; latterly, however, many gentlemen have speculated deeply in the manufacture, and, by serving themselves richly, have rescued the country from a very impolitic branch of imposition. We now see sugar-candy, of the first quality, manufactured in various parts of Bengal, and, I believe it is at length admitted, that the raw sugars from that quarter are pre-eminently good. I have lately had occasion to purchase some of a very superior fineness, called Soonamooky, from a place of that name in the 134Burdwan district, which was as high as eleven-pence per pound.

About thirty-two years ago, the common raw sugar, known by the name of g’hoor, was to be had at three rupees per maund of 96lb. in the upper provinces: this was about three farthings per pound; for a Sonaut or Tersooly rupee then was exchanged at about two shillings, or even so low as one shilling and ten-pence. In consequence of the great demand for the article, it rose gradually, but in comparatively a very short time, to eight rupees the maund of 72lb.; and it has been so high as twelve rupees, but not, I believe, for any length of time: partial instances could be quoted, of even fourteen rupees being given.

The superior kind, which may often be had nearly white, at least of a dove color, perfectly dry, and sharp grained, under the name of cheeny, was formerly about seven, or eight, rupees per maund (of 96lb.); of late, it has risen to full fifteen; and has been up to twenty.

The sugar-candy made in India, where it is known by the name of miscery, bears a price suited to its quality: some may be had at twenty, and some up as high as forty, rupees per maund (82lb). It is usually made in small conical pots, whence it concretes into masses, weighing from three to six pounds each.

For further information, I must refer my 135readers to Mr. Colebrooke’s excellent Essay on the Husbandry of Bengal.

Bread is not made of flour, but of the heart of the wheat, which is very fine, ground into what is called soojy; a kind of meal, so far from being pulverized, as to bear a strong resemblance to rather coarse sand. Soojy is kneaded the same as is done with flour, but there being no yeast in the country, (I mean such as we know by that name,) it is leavened by means of toddy; which is the juice obtained by making incisions into the taul, (or palm-tree,) already described. In many parts of India, taul trees are very scarce, and are carefully preserved for the sake of the toddy, which is sold to the nonbaies, (or bakers,) at a high price. In Bahar these trees are peculiarly abundant: there we often see groves, of hundreds upon hundreds, let out to the kulwars, or distillers, to great advantage. These venders of misery have the art of rendering the toddy peculiarly potent, by causing it to work upon the kernels of the datura, that grows wild in every part of India, and possesses in every part, whether the stem, root, leaf, or nut, a most deleterious property. Toddy, that has been strongly impregnated with datura, (which is the name it bears in the East,) acts very rapidly on the brain; producing mania, and, not unfrequently, apoplexy, when drank to excess.

136The bread is usually made into small loaves, weighing about a pound each; these are called ‘single-loaves’ and may generally sell from fifteen, to twenty, for a rupee; which brings the bread to about three half-pence, to two-pence, per pound. ‘Double loaves’ include double the weight, and sell in proportion. A large portion, of both sizes, is baked in tin moulds, of a brick form; these are generally preferred, on account of their rarely scorching, and not requiring to be rasped, as all the other bread, baked in the form of heavy cakes, generally does.

Soojy, (the basis of the bread,) is frequently boiled into ‘stir-about’ for breakfast; and eaten with milk, salt, and butter; though some of the more zealous may be seen to moisten with porter; a curious medley, by no means to my taste! Nor is much to be said of its qualities; as few stomachs are suited to its reception.