Volume 2 — CONTENTS OF VOL. II. (continued 3)

The camp-oven in common use, consists merely of a very large naud, or pot, capable of containing from thirty to fifty gallons, and of rather a conical form. This vessel is prepared for the purpose, by having a hole punched through its bottom, large enough to admit a man’s arm; it is then placed, mouth downwards, over a corresponding cavity, dug out of the soil, so as to fit close every way; but, in order to 137allow a proper draught of air, two, or more, sloping apertures are left, passing under the circumference of the naud. The vessel is next well covered with turf, &c., and thus rendered capable of retaining considerable heat, long enough to bake small bread. The interior being filled with chips of wood, charcoal, gutties, (i.e. dried cow-dung,) or any other kind of fuel that may be at hand, a strong fire is kept up in it, until the naud appears to be nearly at a red heat. The hole, which served for a chimney, is then closed; and, the embers being withdrawn, the bread is introduced upon pieces of iron plate, or of tin, or boards, or leaves, &c., &c.

I should here remark, that the natives invariably eat unleavened bread, generally made of wheaten, or of barley-meal; which, being made into a good dough, is flattened into cakes, called chow-patties, between the hands, with very great dexterity. Such cakes are then either put at the edges of the heated choolah, or fire-place, or they are baked upon a convex plate of iron, circular, and about ten inches, or a foot, in diameter. This plate, called a towah, is precisely the same as the girdle made in Scotland for baking their oaten bread, and is used in the same manner.

Milk is to be had in abundance throughout India, especially among the Hindus, who venerate the cow, and follow all occupations relating to the dairy; but, owing to the general custom 138of smoking the insides of whatever vessels are allotted to its reception, will not be obtainable in such a state as suits the palate of an European, unless a clean pitcher, &c., be sent to the gwallah, or cow-keeper, that the cow may be milked into it.

That fuliginous taste, to us so obnoxious, is perfectly palatable, and perhaps agreeable, to the natives; who assign, as the reason for smoking their vessels, that it prevents the milk from turning. It, however, becomes a question, whether or not the operation of scalding, always performed when practicable, while the milk is warm, be not the true preventive against acidulation. Certain it is, that sour milk is very rarely found in India, although, for full half the year, the thermometer is generally up between 75°, and 95°, in the shade; and, in a Bengallee hut, frequently rising to 110°, or more!

The milk obtained from buffaloes is certainly much richer than that from cows; yet, the butter produced from the former is very inferior, generally white, and brittle: it, however, possesses qualities suiting it admirably to the climate, and occasioning the natives to give it the preference. After being warmed to a certain degree, so as to become rather liquified, it is kept nearly stationary in that state for a long time; whereby it loses its aqueous particles, and is rendered fit for keeping. When 139thus treated, it is called ghee. Others deviate from this tedious process, and, by exposing it to a greater heat, keeping it simmering for some time, effect the purpose more speedily, but not without danger of burning, or, at least, of giving it a certain empyreumatic flavor. Few of the natives will touch cow-butter, to which they attribute many bad effects, though they will drink ghee by the quart, and pride themselves not a little in being able to afford so luscious an enjoyment. The uncontrolled expenditure of this article, among those whose purses will bear them out in the indulgence, though it may tend to that obesity of which they are inordinately vain, cannot but contribute greatly to the generation of those bilious diseases which so often attack the more opulent natives. Ghee and idleness may be said to give birth to half their ailings. As an article of commerce, ghee possesses some claim to importance; many thousands of maunds being sent every season from some of the grazing districts, such as Purneah, and Sircar-sarun, to the more cultivated parts, and especially to the western provinces. The ghee is generally conveyed in dubbahs, or bottles made of green hide, which, being freed from the hair, and worked up while in a pliant state, into the form of a caraboy, such as we use for spirits of turpentine, &c., will keep sweet for a long time, provided the mouth of the vessel be 140well closed. In this manner it is conveyed by water in dubbahs, often measuring nearly a hogshead; but a smaller kind, containing, perhaps, from fifteen to twenty gallons each, are made for the purpose of being slung across the backs of bullocks, by which it is carried to places situated at a distance from navigable streams. The price of ghee varies according to the demand, and to its quality: generally, from six to eight seers of 2lb. each may be had for a rupee in favorable situations; otherwise, it will be from thirty to fifty per cent. dearer. It may be supposed that buffaloes’ milk must possess a very considerable portion of cream, when it is stated, that milk is considered very cheap at 30 seers (or quarts) for a rupee, and that five seers of ghee, equal to one-sixth of the mass of milk, may be had for the same sum, in almost any part of the country. According to this proportion, we find that one-sixth part of the milk turns to butter; whereas, in this country, a cow, yielding twenty gallons of milk within the week, will rarely produce ten pounds of butter; which is equal to only one-eighth part of the mass of milk: it must, indeed, be a good cow that will produce that quantity.

The d’hoob grass, which grows wild in almost every part of the country, is peculiarly nutritious; but the food of cattle, of all descriptions, throughout India, is more dry and solid than is 141offered to cows in England. Hence, though the quantity of milk yielded by a buffalo, may not be equal to that of an English cow of equal weight, the produce in butter, from an equal quantity of milk, will be in favor of the former.

I have already stated the difficulty of getting milk devoid of the taste of smoke; this arises from the cause already described, and is encreased by the very small proportion of milk yielded by the cows in India, which are, with few exceptions, white, and rarely grow larger than the generality of yearlings, or steers, bred in England. In some grazing districts they thrive well, attaining to full thirteen hands in height, and weighing, when fit for the butcher, from four to five hundred weight: but such are merely local, and not very numerous. Butter produced from cows’ milk is very indifferent, unless carefully made from such as are well fed. The number of gentlemen keeping dairies is extremely confined, perhaps less than ten for all India: they certainly obtain excellent butter, but that sold by the muckun-wallahs, (i.e. the butter-men,) would appear, to a stranger, not to be made from the same species of animals. Considering the price of a cow, which may be averaged at from four rupees to eight, (i.e. from ten to twenty shillings,) it is remarkably dear, as is usually the case with articles of inferior quality: thus, we consider three 142pounds for a rupee to be a fair rate, though sometimes four may be had; but such can only happen where cattle are very abundant; for, as I have already said, buffaloes, and not cows, are almost invariably kept by the natives for their milk, on account of their greater produce, and because the ghee made from their butter is more appreciated. We may, therefore, estimate the pound of cow-butter at nine-pence; whereas, ghee rarely sells for more than three-pence: a strange disproportion; to be attributed, in some measure, to the demand for the former being confined to the Europeans.

In speaking of the berriarah, or shepherd, I have already noticed, that, for the supply of their tea-tables, gentlemen usually keep a few goats, which afford milk of a remarkably fine quality, and are herded in company with those store sheep intended to supply vacancies among the fatting stock. The kids produced, generally twice in the year, by each milch-goat, (mostly twins, and not unfrequently trins, or even four, at a birth,) serve to keep up the number of the flock, besides yielding occasionally a most delicate viand for the table. I know not of any meat more sweet, or wholesome, than that of a kid allowed to suck the mother at pleasure: it is as white, and, in proportion, as fat as any veal. Being in general request, and admirably suited to making rich curries, as also roasting remarkably 143well, kid-meat may be had of any butcher; the usual price being a rupee for a whole kid, and in proportion for halves and quarters. When of a good size, and duly fatted, an entire one may weigh about six pounds; which brings the meat to five-pence per pound.

By the word butcher, we are not to understand the individual to be a shop-keeper, exposing the several joints of various animals for sale, in that pleasing mode of exhibition so common in our markets. On the contrary, a fat kussee (i.e. cut-goat,) or two, and two or three kids, daily, with, now and then, a half-fatted ox during the cold months, may be said to comprize the whole business of one of this profession in full trade; indeed, a first-rate knight of the cleaver! The greater part of the profit arising to this class, is derived from slaughtering oxen, calves, pigs, sheep, and kids, for families; for which labor they ordinarily receive a few annas, (or two-pences,) according to the size of the animal: in most instances they take the skin, pluck, and, of some, the head, as a perquisite.

It is impossible to produce finer mutton than is served upon table in India; nor can there be finer beef than is to be seen in most cantonments, and among fixed residents. At some of the principal military and civil stations, those gentlemen who keep a regular table, usually fatten several bullocks for winter slaughtering. Some 144of these are fed full two years, with that intent, on gram; and, exclusive of being burthened with fat on the kidneys, &c., have their flesh absolutely marbled by the admixture of fat among the fleshy parts. Sometimes, the officers of a regiment club to fatten four or five head, the joints of which are either divided according to mutual concurrence, or drawn for by lot: this supplies fresh beef during the winter season; very few bullocks being killed at any other time, on account of the extreme difficulty of curing the meat. To persons inexperienced as to the hasty strides of putrefaction in hot climates, this forbearance from beef, for so large a portion of the year, might appear unnecessary; but the fact is, that, during the close weather, prevalent throughout the rains, and for a certain part of the hot season, meat, though killed only about midnight, will often become absolutely putrid long before the time at which it ought to be on the spit; and that, too, in spite of every precaution!

The markets at Calcutta are open at daybreak; when very fine meat, of every kind, together with various sorts of choice fish, fruits, vegetables, &c., may be had on very reasonable terms. There, indeed, beef may sometimes be seen in the hottest weather; because, being cut up into small joints, a bullock may be readily sold off among so many customers; but, in 145general, the prime pieces, together with all the best fish, &c., will have been bought up by sunrise: the refuse joints are generally taken by the Portugueze, (who are the only customers for bazar-pork,) and by Europeans of the lower classes, or by persons who supply the shipping. The whole of the non-commissioned and privates, in the several regiments of Europeans, are served with meat, rice, spirits, and fire-wood, by contract; receiving their several quotas early in the morning, under the inspection of their commissioned officers, who make their reports regarding any deficiencies, either in quantity, or of quality.

Those gentlemen who produce pork at their tables, are extremely particular as to the manner in which their pigs are fed. Many are so extremely fastidious, as not to allow any to be served up unless educated, as it is called, in their own sties; the very circumstance of being born elsewhere, absolutely disqualifying, and rendering of no avail, all that change of bulk, and all that purification, derived from perhaps a whole year of confinement to a clean stye; in which nothing but the best corn (gram) is given to the grunting inhabitant. This, certainly, is carrying daintiness to an extreme; but it must be confessed, that swine are so offensively greedy in the indulgence of their appetites in that part of the world, as to give occasion for 146many very reasonable scruples regarding the use of bazar-pork; which is indiscriminately killed from the fattest of those wanderers that sometimes absolutely interrupt the operations of the multitude, who resort, generally at dusk, and at day-break, to lay their offerings at the shrine of a certain deity!

This calls to mind a very laughable circumstance which happened at Berhampore, in 1803. An officer, who had been many years at Gibraltar, where a joint of meat, of any kind, was probably snapped up without any questions being asked as to its education, produced at his table a very fine corned leg of pork, of which all his guests ate with great avidity. One of them, when the repast was over, begged leave to enquire how the gentleman kept his pigs; what had been then on table, being of so superior a flavor, that he presumed it was educated in some very particular manner. ‘Oh no,’ answered the host, ‘I never trouble my head about sties; my man bought a whole side of it this morning of Neeloo the butcher, for eight annas’ (15d.) This untimely disclosure operated not only like magic, but like emetic tartar; the whole company were taken with violent sickness, and retired to give vent, both to the pork, and to their feelings, on so dreadful an occasion. However, none died in consequence of having been thus poisoned; but the whole station received the 147tale with horror, and resolved, to a man, never to accept another invitation from the unfortunate hero of the rock!

Whether it be owing to the foregoing cause, or, that the time necessary for the completion of a pig’s ‘education,’ be too protracted to allow of persons, subject to removal, engaging in that branch of domestic economy, may be difficult to determine, but certain it is, that very few officers have piggeries; they commonly content themselves with hams and cheeks imported to them from England. The grossness of the viand is, however, so very inappropriate to the climate, that, even after the most delicate course of management, pork is by no means considered a choice dish: sucking pigs are more generally approved.

Veal is so very seldom to be obtained in the market, of a quality fit to be brought to table, that it is customary for four or five friends to subscribe for the purpose of rearing calves for their own expenditure; each taking a share of every calf that is slaughtered. The best, and most economical plan, is to agree with some butcher, through whose means alone it can in general be effected, to receive of him a cow and calf, the latter being newly born, and to return him the mother, after the calf may have been killed, together with four rupees (10s.) By this mode, the calf will thrive admirably, provided the cow 148be well fed; but it is usual, and I have practised it with great success, to give the little one as much scalded milk as it can drink, three times daily; drenching it with either a horn, or a quart-bottle: from three to four quarts, in each of which the yolk of a fresh egg is beat up, will commonly produce the desired effect, rendering the meat very fine by the end of a month; the usual age at which they are slaughtered. What with the keep of the mother, the milk and eggs given to the calf, and the necessary attendance, a gold-mohur, (£2.,) will generally be expended upon each calf, unless several be kept together as a successive supply for the table; in which case, about twelve rupees will be found the average expence. In this, I reckon the out-lay upon a calf that will now and then, perhaps one in five, prove a bad subject; and, notwithstanding every precaution, either scour or pine.

It is a great misfortune that, on account of the extreme antipathy the horned cattle of India always exhibit towards Europeans, no possibility exists for remedying many bad practices, and neglects, to which these animals are subject, when under the care of the native servants. An Indian ox, or cow, when at liberty, is always shunned very carefully, lest it should indulge its savage disposition. On first entering that country, the cattle would be supposed to be wild, instead of domesticated; for not one in a thousand 149will admit the approach of an European; nor are they always less gentle towards strangers of any description. As to what are called tame buffaloes, they are commonly more fierce than any British bull, and, when they have calves at their sides, make no scruple of attacking man and horse, with unbounded ferocity. Hence, it is extremely proper to be very cautious of approaching herds, or single cattle of either kind, even when tolerably mounted. Sometimes, in riding through the country, and especially where jeels (lakes) are to be forded, or pools to be passed, the unwary traveller may find himself, on a sudden, within a few yards of a whole herd of buffaloes, which, to avoid the heat of mid-day, wallow in the muddy water, so deep as to have, in general, only their noses and eyes above the surface. Being, perhaps, among rushes, &c. even those parts are not discernible, or, if in an open expanse, may be easily mistaken for clods of mud; for the horns lie back towards the false ribs. On a sudden, the whole herd sometimes rise, and at the least frighten the horse, whatever the rider’s heart may be made of: such a surprize, and from animals that, according to the old saying, ‘give but a word and a blow, and the blow comes first,’ is far from pleasant. In such situations, all depends on the conduct of the leading bull; if he snorts, shakes his horns, and 150advances, the danger is imminent. But it frequently happens, that, whether owing to lassitude, or the absence of any object particularly irritating to buffaloes, of which a red coat may be considered the extreme, the herd content themselves with rising from their reclined postures, and, after those who rouzed them may have passed on, again sink into the friendly pool.

The British settlers in India are extremely indebted to the Dutch for many essential improvements. The small town of Chinsurah, situate about twenty-eight miles north of Calcutta, on the banks of the Hoogly river, has, in this instance, proved serviceable to India at large. The Dutch, to whom that place appertained before the war, were the first to introduce the culture of that invaluable esculent, the potatoe; which was received from their settlement at the Cape of Good Hope: they likewise were the first to exhibit any disposition towards horticulture. From them the British received, annually, the seeds of every kind of vegetable useful at the table, as well as several plants of which there appeared much need, especially various kinds of pot-herbs. They likewise supplied us with vines, from which innumerable cuttings have been dispensed to every part of Bengal and its upper dependencies. The whole of the lower provinces, at least, 151those parts skirting the ranges of hills that bound them, produce immense quantities of wild vines, which, during the rains, may be seen partially to bear grapes of a red color, and about the size of a pistol-ball. These vines tower over the high saul trees, or creep along the rocky masses, throughout the Ramghur district especially, in all the majesty of wild luxuriance.

Here is a field for speculation! Let us suppose, that the wines which should be raised might not prove of the best quality, still we might derive the most important advantages from the brandy and vinegar to which they might be converted. As to wood for the staves, and iron for the hoops, they are both to be had on the spot; and, in regard to distillation, abundance of men, sufficiently skilled, may be found among the natives. Fuel is every where abundant, indeed, a perfect nuisance. The only impediment I could ever discover, is, that the neighbouring streams are not generally navigable, or, perhaps, only for a few months in the year: they might, however, be easily rendered adequate to every purpose, there being lime-stone in various adjacent hills, while, among the convicts, who are in a state of idleness for the most part, many persons might be selected fully capable of constructing whatever masonry, or timber-work, should be found necessary.

Some years ago, I had the honor of submitting 152this suggestion to the Court of Directors. The India minister of that day was forcibly struck with the facility obviously afforded of founding an immense national concern: and, had he remained in office, would probably have taken means to ascertain every point contained in my memoir, with the utmost exactitude: the result must have been perfectly satisfactory.

When we consider, that the Company pay two lacs of rupees (£25,000.) yearly for spirits, of a very inferior quality, for the use of the European soldiery; and, that good vinegar cannot be had under two rupees per gallon, (5s.) it should seem an object, even in that limitted view, to cultivate the vine for their own use; but, if we extend the prospect, and shew that any quantity of brandy, if not of wine, might be imported from Bengal, the benefits will be found so great, as to claim every encouragement on the part of the legislature. It appears highly probable, that full a million sterling would be annually saved to the nation, by its adoption of this speculation; which might be began at little or no expence, and be progressively extended, by giving employment to the whole body of convicts, who now are a heavy burthen on the revenue, without doing a thousandth part of the service of which they are physically capable. If my information be correct, there are now sold at Calcutta near four thousand pipes of Madeira, 153Teneriffe, &c., annually, and about as many chests of Claret, including French and English; the quantity of Brandy imported at that settlement is full 10,000 gallons, besides Hollands, Rum, and other liquors, of which I shall make no account. The licences granted for the retail of spirits are amply abundant; and the number of shops where Toddy, Mowah, Pariah Arrack, &c., are served out, absolutely incalculable.

From the best computation I have been enabled to make, full 10,000,000 gallons of spirits are made and sold in Bengal and its dependant provinces, the average of which may be taken at one rupee per gallon, as it comes from the still; the retail prices will, no doubt, double that sum; making no less than 20,000,000 of rupees, equal to £2,500,000 expended annually by debauchees, and by the regular consumption among the soldiery, &c. If the foregoing items be put together, they must make a tremendous total; while we shall see, that a most ruinous intercourse prevails, throwing money into the pockets of our rivals, and enabling them to carry home investments in exchange for their own produce. We shall further see, that, supposing a duty of only 25 per cent. were imposed on all spirits sold, exclusive of the amount of licences, which are very trivial, no less than £625,000. would annually flow into the treasury. This may appear a 154very large sum, but, when it is recollected that the manufacture of salt, monopolized by the Company, yields, on the average of several years, the sum of £1,500,000., (after deducting about £525,000. for the expences of boiling, &c.,) we may fairly consider the above computation to be far within the bounds of probability.

Rum is made in Bengal from refuse sugar, the same as in the West Indies; its quality is by no means inferior, though it sells, when new, at the very cheap rate of about a rupee the gallon. It is to be had, of a good age, of the several great distillers and merchants, at a proportionate advance. I have known it, after being six years in the godown, (warehouse,) to be compared with Jamaica Rum, warranted ten years old; when the preference was given decidedly in favor of the former. With respect to arrack, which is in a manner peculiar to the East; the native distillers produce excellent alcohol, which, after being properly rectified, and kept for some years, proves an admirable spirit, supposed to be far more wholesome than rum.

Though, on the whole, the fish brought to the Calcutta markets, cannot be compared with such as we see at Billingsgate, &c., there are, nevertheless, some kinds, which might please the most dainty epicure. The hilsah, (or sable fish,) which seems to be mid-way between a 155mackarel and a salmon, whether for form, general appearance, or flavor, is, perhaps, the richest fish with which any cook is acquainted. It abounds so with fat, that most persons, after being served with a portion, immerse it in boiling water, brought in a soup-plate; thereby causing a large quantity of grease to float. When baked in vinegar, or preserved in tamarinds, the hilsah is remarkably fine.

Like the salmon, these run up to the very spring-heads, seeming to abound more and more in proportion as they approximate thereto; though certainly they grow to the largest size, immediately within the tide’s reach: getting beyond that, they dart up as far as possible during the season, returning, after spawning, to the sea. They are in perfection towards the latter end of the rains.

The bickty, (or cockup,) very strongly resembles the jack, and grows to an enormous size. I have seen one measuring more than eight feet in length, and various others that weighed full a maund (82lb.) The average size at which they are brought to market, may be from eighteen, to thirty, inches in length; and their weight from two to ten, or twelve, pounds. They flake like cod, to which also their flavor greatly assimilates.

Soles, of a diminutive size, are sometimes to be had at Calcutta: the natives call them kookoor 156jibbys, (i.e. dogs’ tongues,) in allusion to their shape. These are sometimes caught in the brackish waters, among the bicktys, or cockups, or in the flat sands about Diamond-Harbour, &c. Prawns of a very good size, and very small crayfish, are to be found in most parts of the country, as also a kind of eel, called baum; which, however, bears more resemblance to the gar, or guard-fish, of which millions may be taken in most of the fresh-water jeels, (lakes,) though rarely exceeding a foot in length.

The rooy, or r’hooee, is a species of the carp, as is also the meergah. They are both abundant in the great rivers, and in all the waters connected with them, though the former are most numerous, and thrive greatly in ponds. The latter are of a browner color, and rarely exceed ten pounds in weight, whereas, the former are often found of fifty lb., and sometimes up to a maund.

The cutlah is a species of the perch, though some consider it to be of the bream-kind: it is only found in the great rivers, is generally of a dark color, approaching to black, and commonly weighs from ten to sixty lbs.

The whole of the above, viz. The r’hooee, the meergah, and the cutlah, may be taken by angling; as may also the soly, a species of the jack, and nearly as voracious.

Trouts, about as large as smelts, are sometimes 157to be seen in those small streams that have their rise among mountains, but they are not so distinctly spotted as we see them in Europe: they are, indeed, very scarce, and generally bear a small red, or gold, or black, spot on each scale: the adipous fin, by which all the salmon tribe are distinguished, is scarcely elevated above the loins.

The fresh-water anchovy, called by the natives çhelwar, is to be found in shoals on every flat sand throughout the great rivers: these are generally scared, so as to precipitate themselves on the beach, by two men, who, wading in the water up to their knees, gradually draw a line of fifty or sixty feet in length, every where laden with small, colored rags, in such manner as to enclose the çhelwahs in a crescent, and ultimately to drive them ashore. Occasionally, mullets, of a small size, are found among the booty: they are remarkably sweet and firm. Nothing can be more common than to see shoals of them struggling against the current, especially in the cold months, with their eyes out of the water. Their motions are very nimble, but it is not uncommon to see several killed by a round of small shot, from a common fowling-piece: they are not to be taken by angling. As to the tingrah, a kind of freshwater gurnet, it is extremely voracious, and grows to a good size; often weighing eight or 158nine lbs.; though the average may be from two to four. They are very strong, and afford ample amusement when hooked. The skait grows to full twelve or fourteen lbs., and is common in all the great rivers; but, it must be handled with caution, on account of its having a dreadful spine about the centre of its tail. These two last-mentioned fishes are rarely seen at table; nor is the buallee, which is rather flat, and has a continued abdominal fin, the same as eels. This fish is extremely coarse, but desperately rapacious; seizing almost any bait with avidity, but affording little sport when hooked.

The puftah is of the same description, but, in lieu of weighing, as the buallee often does, from ten to fifteen lbs., seldom amounts to so many ounces. Its flesh is remarkably rich and sweet, but, when hooked, it is as little disposed as the former to resist. The most esteemed fish is, that called by the natives tupsey, but by us ‘mango-fish,’ on account of its appearing about the time that mangoes first come into season: it comes up with the tide. In appearance, it is not unlike the smelt, though rather deeper, and with reddish fins. The flesh of this fish is fine, but its roe is deservedly esteemed to be delicious. An immense quantity are cured, by being slightly salted, and sun-dried; after which, they are smoked for a short time over a fire made of chaff, &c.

159Turtle, of about a cwt., are to be found in almost every river and creek, as also in some of the large jeels; though they are very rarely seen in standing waters, and then, perhaps, only in a state of migration. The flesh of these is peculiarly unwholesome; and, so far from being, like the sea-turtles, composed of parts resembling fish, flesh, and fowl, may be aptly compared with bacon of the coarsest description, with some tendency to rancidity. The batchwah, or ‘freshwater herring,’ (though it has no scales,) is one of the best fishes the Indian rivers produce; but a general prejudice is entertained, with much justice too, against its selection of food. The most appropriate baits for most fishes are the goorgoory, (or gryllus monstrosus,) and the cockroach (or blatta). It would be endless to recount all the kinds of fishes to be found in the streams and lakes of India; but it may justly be stated, that, in some parts, their numbers are so great as absolutely to corrupt the waters. With respect to the minor species of fish, occasionally served at table, they are very numerous, and, in most places, abundant: every creek and jeel is replete with them, and every village in their vicinity contains persons provided with some kind of apparatus suited to catching an ample supply. On the larger pieces of water, there are usually either canoes or dingies, which, together with their owners, are subservient to the jemmadars, 160or head-boroughs, and may also be set in motion for a very trivial present, made ostensibly to the laborer, but commonly transferred privately to that proud, imperious, and avaricious officer.

Poultry next come under consideration: of this, great variety is to be found. Fowls, capons, ducks, geese, turkies, and pigeons, are for sale in every city, or great station, at very moderate prices. In general, taking an average of all places, fine chickens, called chujahs, may be had at ten for a rupee (i.e. 3d. each); middle-sized, or meem-kabobbies, (small roasters,) at seven or eight for a rupee (about 4d. each); and good-sized roasters, or kabobbies, at five for a rupee (about 6d. each).

Capons are only to be had in particular parts of the country; generally they are white, and so cheap as to give ten or twelve for a rupee; though I have purchased no less than twenty-nine for that sum, (i.e. 1d. each,) in the Tomar district, where they are produced in immense numbers by the Pahariahs, or Hill people, of that mountainous district. These people are more immediately distinguished by the designation of Dangahs: they are of a small stature, very, very poor, rather squalid, but capable of undergoing great fatigue: they are wonderfully adroit in the exercise of the bow; and, after performing the little labor needful for the cultivation of the vallies, generally repair, at certain 161seasons, to the military and civil stations in the neighbouring districts of Ramghur, &c., where they serve as bearers; especially on the new-road, which is much frequented by gentlemen travelling dawk, (post,) in palanquins, to or from the upper stations.

Ducks are of various prices, but may be considered at an average of four or five for a rupee (about 7½d. or 6d. each); and geese at a rupee each. These thrive prodigiously throughout India; but it is far otherwise with turkies, which are extremely tender, and cannot endure the great heats of summer, unless allowed to graze upon a plot well watered, and generally sheltered from the sun. It is not uncommon to see them crowding to some little verdant spot under the shade of the lee-side, where a current of air, refrigerated by the tatties, passes out from the bungalow, &c. Without some such restorative, they would, to a certainty, pine away, and speedily disappoint the hopes of their owner. Among the grass on the plots generally preserved near the dwelling, it is common to see immense numbers of ants, of all descriptions, which resort thither both for coolness, and for the collection of the seeds that are perpetually falling. It is very strange, but true, that these little depredators are not easily deterred, by the water being laid on occasionally, from forming their nest in such plots of grass, though they generally prefer some 162dry, hard walk, or level area, along which they form little paths, by laying the gravel, &c., aside; so that their progress is not obstructed when robbing some store. Many of these paths may be traced for fifty or sixty yards; occasionally, they are double; one being appropriated for the egressors, the other for those returning laden with the booty. When the turkies light upon such a line of march, they fall to with a famous appetite; seeming to rival our pheasants in that particular, and exhibiting the satisfaction they feel on receiving a supply of their favorite food. In thus devouring the ants, they do great service; for, I know not of any more unpleasant companions than the little tormentors in question, whose bite is extremely keen, producing considerable irritation. Some of these ants grow to full three-quarters of an inch in length, and are capable of causing great pain. Many prevent their being destroyed, under the opinion that they feed upon white-ants: this I never could establish, though I believe they are ready enough to march off with the body of a dead white-ant, the same as they would with any other morsel of animal substance.

The difficulty of rearing turkies, renders them extremely scarce; hence, it is not uncommon to pay a gold mohur (£2.) for a well-grown, fat, turkey-cock: few, either cocks or hens, are to be had in any part of the country, for less than half 163that sum; and then chiefly from Portugueze families, that make a livelihood by rearing them. About Bandel, a Portugueze town, some thirty miles above Calcutta, great numbers are reared; as are also ducks, and geese, in abundance. At all the great stations, both civil and military; some persons of that description generally reside, through whose industry families are supplied. Fowls are reared by the same persons; though less an object to them, as almost every Mahomedan family maintains a few, mostly for its own use, but sometimes for sale. As to the Hindus, nothing could be more criminal than such a speculation: the very touch of a fowl being considered the acmé of pollution. From this we may judge how necessary it is to be guarded in making changes in the dress of our native soldiers; whose zeal and fidelity are unquestionable, but who instantly revolt at any invasion, however slight, of their religious tenets, or of their vulgar prejudices. Those who affect to consider such to be easily overruled, or, who vainly talk of coercing so many millions to adopt our faith, would do well to take a trip to Bengal, and to insist on any Hindu menials, or others, under their authority, wearing a feather in their turban.

As to the numerous species of wild game, such as antelopes, hog-deer, hogs, geese, ducks, teal, snipes, ortolans, quails, partridges, florikens, 164(or bustards,) pigeons of sorts, wild and tame, hares, &c., they are generally to be had in abundance; those of my readers who wish for a more detailed account, will find it in my ‘Wild Sports of the East,’ published in folio, with colored plates, as also in quarto royal, and imperial octavo, by Mr. Edward Orme, of Bond-street, and by Messrs. Black and Co. Leadenhall-street. In that superb work, the details of every branch of hunting, shooting, &c., will be found.

There are no wild rabbits in India, but great numbers of tame ones are to be had at Calcutta, and at some of the subordinate stations. The prices vary according to demand, age, and condition; but we may take the average at four for a rupee when half grown, and at double that rate when fit for the table. It is, however, extremely difficult to preserve them in safety from their numerous enemies the dogs, jackals, foxes, cats, rats, bats, snakes, hawks, crows, &c.

Having, I believe, generally discussed what relates to the supply of the table, I shall proceed to the description of other matters relating to the convenience and service of gentlemen resident in the East.

The dinner table is invariably laid with two cloths; one of the usual size, the other about large enough to cover the surface only: this last is removed when the meat is taken off; so that 165the dessert is laid upon the lower one, which has, in the mean while, been preserved by it from stains, grease, crumbs, &c. A napkin is laid with every cover, together with a tumbler or rummer, a long glass for Claret, and an ordinary-sized one for Madeira. Each glass is provided with a cover, which may be lifted off by means of a stud in its centre. In opulent families, these covers are usually made of silver, otherwise of turned wood. It is remarkable, that some of the common indigenous woods have the peculiar property, when used for this purpose, of imparting a most offensive smell, attended with a similar flavor, to water, &c., if left for a few minutes.

The knives and forks are all of European manufacture, though, within these few years, some excellent imitations have appeared. I doubt if Blacky can, as yet, bring his work so low as our artizans, though he certainly has the advantage of them in cheapness of living, and in being generally exempt from the operation of a variety of taxes. This deficiency on the part of the natives, proceeds from their being obliged to perform all those operations by hand, which we both accelerate and perfect by means of machinery. The greater part of the plate, used throughout the country, is made by native smiths, who, in some instances, may be seen to tread very close on the heels of our jewellers, 166not only in the graceful form of the articles manufactured, but in the patterns, whether carved or embossed. Such specimens of perfection are, however, rare, and are produced chiefly under the superintendence of European masters; though I have seen some pieces, made by sonaars, (goldsmiths,) totally independent of such aid, or instruction, which displayed much skill and some taste. Speaking, however, of the common workmanship of this class, it must be put out of all comparison with British plate, on account of its being indifferently shaped, and rudely ornamented. Hence, such plate as is sent from this country, as well as what is made up by Europeans settled in India, very generally sells for full 25, or even for 50 per cent. more than what is manufactured by the native artizans.

The whole of the glass-ware used in India, is furnished from England, and commonly sells at full two, if not three, hundred per cent. on the prime cost: this is not unreasonable, when we consider how brittle the commodity is, and that the extent of sale is not so considerable as to render it, individually, an object of adventure.

Table cloths and napkins are manufactured in several parts of the country, especially at Patna, Tondah, and most of those cities where piece-goods are made. The beauty of some fabrics of this description is very striking; nor is their 167durability less conspicuous. I have by me, at this moment, some that have been in constant use for full twelve years, and my stock, at no time, exceeded a dozen and a half of table cloths. The prices of such may be supposed to vary according to quality; but a very superior bird’s eye may be generally had for about two rupees per square yard; observing, that the cost will necessarily be somewhat encreased in proportion to the greater extent of the piece. Others, of a coarser texture, and of a plain diaper, are to be had extremely cheap; perhaps as low as eight annas (15d.) per square yard. Such are, however, extremely flimsy, and never appear creditable. Towels are also manufactured at various prices; some reaching so high as two rupees (5s.) each, while others may be obtained by the dozen for the same money. The best for common use may be rated at about five or six rupees per dozen. A kind, generally of mixed colored borders, wove in, is made at Chittagong: these are rough, like what we call huckaback, and are peculiarly well calculated for drying and cleaning the skin after washing; but they are not so durable as the plain diapers.

Great quantities of furniture are sent from Europe, being first taken to pieces, and packed within a very small space. Of this description, mahogany tables and chairs form by far the 168greater portion; few other articles being shipped, though now and then we see a few bureaus, secretaires, ecritoires, &c., among a cargo from Europe. All such commodities would bear even a higher price than is now charged for them, were it not that, among the natives, as well as among the European carpenters, and joiners, settled in Calcutta, the British mechanics experience considerable, and very successful, rivalship.

The excellent woods, of different kinds, produced in almost every part of India, and the facility with which they may be brought to market, present the most favorable aids to the Indian artizans; but, owing to the want of capital among the natives, the work done by them is rarely found to answer: it warps dreadfully, and sometimes rives from one, to the other, end. This is entirely owing to the deficiency of seasoning; for we find, that whenever a gentleman is at the pains, and has the opportunity, to saw up his own wood, and to season it properly, it will commonly be found to answer his expectations fully; both in respect to durability, and to the polish it may take. Although there is, in some instances, an obvious cheapness in employing a native carpenter, it may safely be asserted, that, on the long run, what with delay, impositions, imperfections, &c., it is frequently found to be a very round-about way of saving a trifle. I strongly 169recommend to all persons arriving in India, to visit the several depôts of furniture to be seen at every auction-warehouse, and generally at the godowns (warehouses) of the European shopkeepers. There is, besides, a whole street, called the ‘china-bazar,’ as well as various scattered boutiques, appropriated entirely to the display of European articles, and of china-ware, of every description; all which are sold for ready money only, by a tribe of Hindu speculators, who, from attending at auctions, are enabled to make cheap purchases, and become perfectly acquainted with the qualities of every article; or, at least, with such points as give a preference in the eye of an European. In this bazar, (or market,) almost every thing an European can require, for common purposes, may be obtained: he may, indeed, purchase an ample library, either of new, or of second-hand books; and, generally speaking, may equip himself in such a manner as may enable him to keep house at full thirty per cent. cheaper than among the European shop-keepers.

Though we may find a few trades, such as coach-making, jewellery, cutlery, armoury, &c., perfectly distinct, and unconnected with any other speculation, we are not to suppose that commodities, in general, are separately classed, and exhibited in shops solely allotted to them. On the contrary, what we call an ‘Europe-Shop,’ 170affords a rich display of that heterogeneous kind of cargo imported in every merchant-ship proceeding to that quarter. Consequently, each shop offers an astonishing variety of wares. Liquors of all kinds, guns, pistols, glass ware, tin and copper ware, crockery, stationary, shoes and boots, hosiery, woollens, linens, ironmongery, hats, cheese, grocery, and an infinity of articles of the most opposite natures, may be found in the spacious rooms, and godowns, allotted to the exhibition of the miscellaneous profusion!

Though it is not common to see European goods, especially those which are not immediately perishable, selling for less than thirty or forty per cent. advance upon the salt-water invoices, it sometimes happens, that an immense importation of some few particular articles may lower them to full fifty per cent. under prime cost. This is easily accounted for: for instance, should hats, shoes, and boots, bear a great price at the time a fleet is about to be despatched for Europe, all the commanders and officers note it down, for the purpose of making those articles bear a large proportion in their next outward-bound cargoes. Thus, each unwittingly becomes the dupe of his own avarice; and, on the return of those ships to India, experiences the lamentable effects of having allowed himself to be guided by former prices. I recollect hearing an officer 171on board one of the Company’s ships declare, that he made it a rule always to lay in a good stock of those articles which were cheap at the time he quitted India: for, that he was certain the lowness of the prices would influence the others of his class to avoid purchasing them for the India markets, which, by the time of his return, he invariably found to have regained their former level. By holding back a little while, until the Europe shop-keepers found that he was the sole, or, at least, the principal, importer of those goods, he had never failed to make a very profitable bargain.

However much we, in Europe, may admire genuine china-ware, our countrymen in the East seem, for the most part, indifferent to its beauties; they preferring our ornamented Staffordshire ware; which, owing to its bulk, and brittleness, necessarily sells at a very high price in every quarter of India. What is called ‘a long set,’ by which we mean a service equal to a table for at least thirty persons, often sells for 500 sicca rupees, equal to £65.; and ‘short sets’ in proportion. The disadvantage attendant upon the use of this ware, in so remote a situation, is, that, when, owing to the numerous accidents to which all such articles are subject, even under especial vigilance, but particularly under the auspices of native menials, the set may be much reduced, it is utterly impracticable 172to fill up the vacancies thus occasioned. With china ware, it is very different; for it is not so easy to distinguish between two complex patterns, if tolerably similar; and, as there is always a very large stock on hand, among the retailers in the china-bazar, a very great chance, if not a certainty, exists, of being furnished with any number of plates, dishes, &c., that may be required to restore the set to its complement, or even to augment it, if necessary. It may be a proper precaution, however, not to buy a set of china ware of any very particular pattern; but to select one from those numerous rich patterns every where common, and annually imported. This seems to prove, that, unless under particular orders, the Chinese deviate but little from their established fashions; as may be further seen in their constant manufacture of that kind of crockery we generally term ‘dragon-china,’ which appears to have been in use among them for centuries.

A very expensive article of general consumption is wax-candle. The price of wax, some years back, was about sixteen rupees per maund, (equal to 6d. per lb.,) but, of late years, it has more than trebled, in consequence of the encreased demand. Here we see that want of system which too often tends to annihilate what might, under due regulation, be made a most advantageous concern. It is necessary to 173be understood, that honey is of little value in India, the natives considering it unwholesome, and the Hindus being particularly averse to destroying so many lives, for the purpose of robbing their combs. These circumstances tend to diminish the collection of wax, which, in some districts, hangs for years neglected upon the briars in the jungles; and, added to the jealousy of the zemindars, (or land-holders,) who rarely omit to exact a very smart duty upon whatever is taken from their soil, deters those who possess a spirit of enterprize from becoming dealers in wax. I have not a doubt but that half a million of maunds might be annually collected, if proper encouragement were held out, and a sale insured to the adventurers, at any particular towns in the several districts where bees are abundant. Within the last twenty years, a few Europeans have established manufactories of wax-candles, which often sell for eighty rupees per maund (82lb). This, though an excessive price, compared with that formerly prevalent, comes to rather less than 2s. 6d. per lb.; and, as the wax is always pure, it should seem, that, as an article of commerce, much profit might be derived from importation. At present, wax-candles are prohibited, although the price of raw bees’-wax is here up to near 4s., and tallow at a very exorbitant height. I am greatly mistaken, if the benefits this branch of business is capable of 174yielding, both to the nation, and to individuals, are properly understood.

To place this in a proper point of view will require but little detail; for, if we say that wax candles, of the first quality, can be offered for sale at Calcutta for £13. per cwt., and that raw wax sells with us at 3s. 6d. per lb., or £19. 12s. per cwt., it is obvious that the manufactured article might be imported to us at full 50 per cent. cheaper than the raw material can be obtained on our own soil. Let us compute this on the large scale; comparing the manufactured articles, and making allowances for the fair value of the raw materials in either country.

£

A ton of wax candles of Indian manufacture, even at the high price of 80 rupees (i.e. £10.) per maund of 82lb. would be 260

Freight, shipping, charges, and insurance, per ton 25

Wharfage, &c., on landing, per ton 5

——

Total 290

A ton of wax candles of European manufacture, at £28. per cwt., equal to 5s. per lb. 560

——

Difference in favor of the Indian candles, per ton £270

——

Raw wax may be had at Calcutta for about forty rupees per maund, or rather under £7. per cwt. which brings the ton to 140

Freight, &c., as above 30

——

170

175Whereas, the raw wax produced, in England, generally sells for about 3s. 6d. per lb. or £19. 12s. per cwt., or, per ton 392

——

Giving a balance in favor of Indian wax, of, per ton £222

I have not made any allowance for duties; but it will be seen from the above very simple calculation, that a very heavy impost might be laid on either the raw material, or the manufactured article, without reducing the profit so low as to leave no encouragement to the speculator. Let us, however, set it down at £60. per ton, which is an enormous sum, and say, that, in consequence of the great importation, wax should fall one-third in price. This fall would reduce the ton of candles to £380., from which deduct the £60. duty, and there would be left £320.; so that, after paying the £290. of cost and incidental charges, no less than £30. would remain as the net profit on each ton. If we, in like manner, take one third, say £132. from the £392. to result from the sale of the raw material, and £40. more for duties, we reduce the net profits from £222. to £50. In either way the speculation is highly interesting, and requires only to be thoroughly examined to insure attention. I am not, at this moment, prepared to say what may be the amount of duties collected on wax, or of the excise on the manufacture of candles, but 176apprehend that it must fall very short of what might be realized if wax candles were more generally used in the houses of opulent persons. Some forty years ago, when wax candles sold for three shillings per pound, they were in great request. If, however, we calculate for the importation of 3,000 tons of wax annually, in its raw state, paying a duty of £40. per ton, we should find a result of no less than £120,000.

The foregoing estimate stands entirely on the present high prices of wax in India, but which might, by proper regulations, be reduced to one-third. Thus, if it were stipulated that the rents of certain districts should be payable, to a particular extent, in crude wax, at a fixed valuation, the quantity brought to market might, I am fully confident, be equal to what I have already stated, viz. 500,000 maunds, or 18,750 tons, which, taken at £200. only per ton, when landed, would give a national benefit equal to £3,750,000! and a revenue of £650,000. arising from the duty, at £40. per ton on the raw material!

When it is recollected how dependent we have been on other nations for a supply of tallow; and that, on an average of peace and war, we pay nearly £80. per ton for foreign tallow; also, that one wax candle of equal weight will burn out two of tallow; it should seem evident, that the importation of wax from our settlements abroad, as well as from various Indian islands, 177in which it is abundantly produced, should become an object of national consideration. The very unpleasant scent attendant upon the use of tallow, and its great aptitude to gutter in so hot a climate, occasion its use to be confined to those Europeans whose circumstances may not permit them to use wax. This occasions all who return from India, after long residence there, to be extremely incommoded by the smell of mould candles; the smoke of which is, to them, peculiarly offensive, and strongly calls to mind the cheraugs, or oil-lamps, in common employ among the natives, and in the zenanahs of Europeans.

The whole of the doors and windows being thrown open, during the evenings especially, it would be impossible to prevent the current of air, passing through every part of the interior, from extinguishing the several lights, were it not that large glass covers, called shades, were applied by way of preventives. Some of these shades are made to stand on pillars, or pedestals, generally of wood, with brass ferules, and having broad plinths, either square or circular, to prevent their being easily overset.

The other kind of table-shade is by no means so convenient as that just described, it being an irregular tube, standing on its base, or broader extremity; and, though spreading in the centre, drawing narrower toward the upper part. This 178kind requires to be much longer, so as to shelter the flame of a candle standing on a candlestick, which should not, properly, be more than six inches in height. The inconveniences by which this shade is attended are self-evident; as it cannot be carried about, or lifted, in toto, as the pedestal shade may be. Those lights which are affixed to the walls, either on sconces, or brackets, or that are suspended from hooks, are generally on the same principle; with this necessary difference, that oil is chiefly burnt in such, by means of a small glass tumbler half filled with water, on which the oil floats, and supports a very slight tin tube with four tin wings, to each of which a piece of cork is affixed. During the rainy season, when insects of every description are beyond credibility numerous, it is often absolutely necessary to remove all lights from the supper table; otherwise moths, flies, bugs, &c., would be attracted in such numbers as to extinguish them altogether, but, at all events, to prove extremely obnoxious. When the lights are retained on the table, it is customary to place the candlesticks in soup plates, &c., filled with water: by this means, such insects, especially the stinking-bugs, which fly with great force, are often precipitated and drowned: it is not unusual to catch whole platefuls in this manner, which would otherwise continue to torment the company. 179Nothing can exceed the irritation produced by these bugs when they get into the hair, or between the linen and the body! Nor are they in themselves innocent; for, though they neither bite nor sting, such is the acrimony they possess, that, if bruised in such manner as to leave any moisture on the skin, great heat, and sometimes blisters, followed by excoriations that do not quickly heal, may take place. The same effect is produced by the urine of lizards, which frequent the interior of houses, and may often be seen in great numbers crawling about the walls, or on the ceiling, (if we may so term the roofs already described,) in pursuit of the smaller and more delicate insects, which they snap up with great dexterity and greediness. It is really amusing to observe with what sagacity and care they approach their prey, and with what rapidity they dart forth their long tongues armed with gluten. With respect to frogs, toads, and, occasionally, snakes, patrolling about the skirts of the apartments, even of the best houses in the country, they must be put up with as matters of course; as must also the alighting of cock-roaches on the face while at table, or at cards, &c.: nor, indeed, must the resident in India be very squeamish in regard to bats, which freely indulge in aëriel circuits over the heads of the company, on which, too, they now and then find it convenient to halt awhile, without undergoing 180the previous ceremony of obtaining permission. These all appear terrible drawbacks, but are scarcely noticed after awhile: so strong is the power of habit. Certainly a very considerable portion of the enjoyments, which might otherwise be indulged in, are, in a manner, proscribed by these nuisances; but, whether it be owing to that ennui generally prevalent, or to that kind of reconciliation which takes place between the pest and its sufferer, may be difficult to determine; we, however, see all the old residents treat insects, frogs, toads, &c., with great indifference; though, to be sure, when a snake, of whatever class, makes his entrée, an astonishing degree of activity, far beyond what the former lethargic symptoms could indicate, suddenly prevails.

I have several times seen large snakes coiled, or rather twined, among the Venetians of bungalow windows, and have observed that the grass-snake, which is of a beautiful green, with a reddish head, is partial to secreting itself under the leaves of tables, and, in situations of that description, where it may be easily dislodged, or touched, by accident. Such a propensity is peculiarly obnoxious in a serpent whose bite is generally fatal. This snake may occasionally be seen twisted round the smaller boughs of trees, whence, if disturbed, it drops with great readiness, and proceeds along the tops of the grass 181with admirable celerity, and, owing to the similarity of its color, scarcely allowing the dazzled eye to follow its course.

The Cunjoors carry a great variety of serpents about the country, which they are in the habit of exhibiting to families for a mere trifle. Some, such as the adjghur or boa-constrictor, which has been known to reach the immense length of thirty feet, destroy by the extent of their bite, or by compression; while the lesser species seem to be provided with poison to make up for their deficiency of bulk. The skeleton of an adjghur was found near Chittagong, about forty years ago, having in its fauces the skeleton of a full-grown deer; the horns of which, it was supposed, had occasioned the suffocation of its unwieldy devourer. I have seen one of this kind that required eight men to lift him into his basket! An operation to which, either from habit, or fatigue, it submitted with great resignation. The covra capella, is the same as the hooded-snake of America, thus designated from a peculiar spreading of the throat when in a state of irritation, so as to give it much resemblance to a flounder, but with a curious figure extremely similar to a pair of spectacles, which, being under the throat, is fully exhibited as the snake rises, as he is wont to do, nearly half his length, before he darts upon the object of resentment. These snakes are peculiarly 182venomous, and, though averaging from three to five feet, are seen to attain a larger size. I have shot four in one day, namely, two males, of a black, or deep bottle green; and two females, ordinarily of a clay color; which measured from six to nine feet. A few years ago, I saw one exhibited by the Cunjoors, or Saumpareahs, (i.e. snake-men,) which actually measured about thirteen feet! The daumeen grows to a large size, perhaps eight to twelve feet, but has no venomous teeth, or fangs. He lashes with his tail, coiling into a bow, and awaiting the approach of dogs, men, &c., before he lashes; which he does with such severity as often to cut the integuments very deeply. The natives entertain an opinion that the tail of this snake is venomous; and it might be supposed, from the almost certainly fatal effects produced by its operation, that it were so; but I have always attributed the mischief occasioned thereby, to that laceration produced by a very rough scaly body, such as the tail is, proceeding with great force over parts well known to be peculiarly irritable; occasioning a strong tendency to that most horrible affection the tetanus, or locked-jaw, from which not one in a thousand recovers. The covra manilla rarely grows to more than fifteen or eighteen inches, and is of a mottled appearance, very indicative of its deleterious property: if I err not, its bite is invariably fatal. 183The double-headed snake receives that name from its body being nearly cylindrical, the tail terminating in a short cone, resembling a second head. This snake is chiefly seen in hilly countries, but is occasionally washed down by the annual floods, to the plains, where it is found in drains and hollows, from which it does not appear to be over-well qualified to escape. Its average length may be from two to three feet, and its thickness, or circumference, from four to six inches.

It may be acceptable to my readers, while upon this subject, to be informed of the antidote; viz. the volatile alkali, or eau de luce. A few drops of this diluted sufficiently in a wine glass full of water, if taken in time, and repeated every two or three hours, or even more frequently, has been known to counteract the venom after its effects had been so fully ascertained as to leave but little chance of recovery. I never went out shooting without a small bottle of this, closed by a ground stopper, in my tin box of apparatus. Fortunately, although I have been repeatedly in imminent danger, and had snakes dancing the hayes all around me, no occasion ever presented itself for having recourse to my precautionary bottle!

The following extracts, from a very interesting communication made by W. Boag, Esq. to the Asiatic Society, will set this matter in a 184proper form, and qualify any person to judge of the danger, from the several symptoms prevalent, in ordinary cases, when the venom takes effect. It may be proper to premise, that many who have been bitten by snakes of the worst description have not been affected; merely owing to the thickness of their cloathing, by which the noxious fluid has been absorbed.

Mr. Boag informs us, that ‘The symptoms which arise from the bite of a serpent, are, commonly, pain, swelling, and redness in the part bitten; great faintness, with sickness at stomach, and sometimes vomiting, succeed; the breath becomes short and laborious; the pulse low, quick, and interrupted: the wound, which was at first red, becomes livid, black, and gangrenous; the skin of the wounded limb, and sometimes of the whole body, assumes a yellowish hue; cold sweats and convulsions come on, and the patient sinks, sometimes in a few hours, but commonly at the end of two, three, or four days.

‘This is the usual progress when the disease terminates fatally; but, happily, the patient will most commonly recover; a reflection which should moderate the fears of those who happen to be bitten by snakes, and which, at any rate, should, as much as possible, be resisted; as the depressing passion of fear will, in all cases, assist the operation of the poison.

185‘The volatile alkali is the remedy mostly employed by physicians, both in India and in Europe; but the belief which formerly prevailed, that it possessed some specific power, which corrected the poison, seems to be now very generally relinquished; and it is now acknowledged to have no other action than that ascribed to it by Mr. Williams, (of Benares,) of stimulating the vascular system to a more vigorous exertion.

‘The calces, or, as they are more properly called, the oxyds of some metals, as arsenic, mercury, and silver, have been made use of; the efficacy of which, as remedies in this disease, merit a more attentive consideration.

‘We are indebted to Fontaua for any knowledge we possess regarding the use of the lunar-caustic; which is a preparation of silver in the nitrous acid; and, considering the length of time that has elapsed since his publication, and the advantages resulting from its use, it is wonderful it has not excited more general attention.

‘He first mixed the venom with the lunar-caustic, applied this mixture to a wound, and found that the venom was rendered entirely innocent, while the corroding power of the caustic was diminished. He next wounded a variety of animals, with venomous teeth, scarified the wounds, and washed them with a solution of lunar-caustic in water: by this means, 186the lives of the greatest number of the animals were saved, though they were such as he knew to be most easily killed by the poison, and the death of others was retarded. He also tried a weak solution, of the same remedy, internally, with remarkable success, and, upon the whole, he congratulates himself in seeing his labors at length rewarded, by the discovery of a true specific remedy for the bites of serpents.

‘A ligature should, as soon as possible, be made above the part bitten, so as to impede, but not entirely to stop, the circulation of the blood; for the bite of a serpent is, for the most part, superficial, and the poison is carried into circulation by the smaller vessels on the surface; the wound should then be scarified, and washed in a solution (rather weak) of the lunar-caustic in water.’

Mr. Boag recommends a warm bath for the limb bitten, and thinks the addition of a small quantity of nitrous acid would produce excellent effects. He speaks of it only as a suggestion, and, where time may admit, and the means be at hand, there certainly ought to be a fair trial made of so promising a theory: the misfortune is, that, owing to the great heat of the climate, and the dread ever entertained of the result, all the symptoms proceed with rapidity. That gentleman speaks of several hours elapsing between the accident, and the fatal termination; but my 187own experience satisfies me, that not one in ten of those bitten during the hot months, and especially when at work, or heated with travelling, &c., survive more than one hour: I have, indeed, seen various cases, in which half that time was the utmost; and could adduce some instances of persons dying within the quarter of an hour.

Though snakes certainly, for the most part, endeavor to avoid the human race, they have been known to come very fiercely to the attack. No doubt, when this has happened, some previous irritation has occurred, or they have been pursued by the ichneumon; (i.e. the benjy, bissy, or neoule,) which is to be seen wild in every part of India, and may, at times, be found contending with snakes of great bulk. This active little animal, the natural enemy of all serpents, as well as of the smaller kinds of vermin, worries his opponent by incessant feints, as though he were about to seize its throat, and, in time, so fatigues, as to render it unable to resist with its primary celerity and caution. When the snake is in that state, the ichneumon rushes forward, and, by seizing its throat, or the back of its head, soon lays the envenomed reptile lifeless at its command. It sometimes happens that the ichneumon receives a bite, when he immediately relinquishes his object, and seeks among the neighbouring verdure for some root, of which he eats, and, after rolling 188himself in the soil, returns to the charge with unabated keenness. Should the snake have retired, the little quadruped speedily scents him out, and rarely fails to revenge himself for his past danger. What it is the animal has recourse to, never has been ascertained; of course, remains among our other important desiderata. The ichneumon is not only domesticated with facility, if obtained at an early age, but becomes extremely affectionate. Neither rats nor snakes will enter a house in which a tame ichneumon is retained, and allowed, as is usual, to range about at pleasure. The Saumpareahs, or snake-men, keep one, or more, for the purpose of exhibiting their feats in the attack of snakes.

It is wonderful how accurately a Saumpareah will ascertain, merely by smelling at a hole in a wall, &c., whether a snake be within. If such should be the case, the reptile’s fate may be considered as decided; for, what with the music of a rude species of oboe, and the allurement of various drugs, in which dunneah, a species of coriander, among which snakes delight to bask, are prevalent, he soon comes forth, and is either taken in a bag, or by an assistant snatching hold of his tail with one hand, and sliding the other with great rapidity up to its throat; which, being constricted by the grasp, occasions the fangs to be exposed: these being extracted, the captive is added to the stock of innocents.

189Though diminutive, in regard to corporeal extent, the musquito may be considered a most formidable enemy to the repose of almost every thing possessing animation, but especially to Europeans; whose manner of living generally gives a considerable tendency to general, as well as to local, inflammation. In this I speak relatively; for, when we compare the habits of our countrymen with those of the natives, we shall find that a very great difference prevails, and that, what we might in Europe call moderation, may, in Asia, very properly be construed into excess. This difference is so great, that, in ordinary cases, the physicians’ first care is to lower the temperament of his British patient, thereby to repress the usual tendency towards inflammation; especially in persons of a plethoric habit, or lately arrived from Europe; while, on the contrary, it generally requires some effort to keep the frugal native from sinking under that typhus to which he is most subject.

Musquitoes generally remain inactive during the day, retiring to the borders of some muddy pool, or stinking drain, where they deposit their ova, which, in a few days, produce a noxious million, that may be seen in their several stages, at most times of the year, and especially during the hot season, when such puddles are often both replete with, and covered by, young musquitoes.

190These unpleasant companions not only make a very disagreeable humming, but thrust their trunks, the same as the common knat does his proboscis, between the threads of a stocking, &c.; and, while sucking the blood of their victim, cause a very smarting sensation, which does not immediately cease; if scratched, a musquito-bite will usually rise into a small white, hard lump; which, on further provocation, proceeds to suppurate; frequently degenerating into very obstinate sores. Instances have occurred of very serious consequences being entailed, by an unguarded indulgence granted to the nails at the moment of irritation.

Every bed, (commonly called a cot,) is furnished with a set of inner curtains, made of gauze, manufactured for that purpose in several parts of Bengal, and known by the name of koppradool. These curtains, being very thin, and generally of a green color, serve not only to debar access to the musquitoes, but, without much obstruction to the air, offer a pleasant medium between the eye, and any glare which may either enter directly from the exterior, or be reflected by the walls; which, in most houses, are white, as already explained in describing the European architecture of the East.

It is always expedient to have these curtains put up before it is dark; otherwise musquitoes, being then on the wing, will, if possible, find 191their way to the interior; whence it is not very easy to fan them out. Besides, by this easy precaution, it is not very practicable for snakes, or rats, to get under the pillows, or into the bed; situations in which they have occasionally been found. The rats are often induced to burrow into the pillows, which are usually stuffed with the silky-cotton called seemul, wherein the seeds are left, and, by their oily nature, attract this description of vermin in particular. The females sometimes resort to it when about to bring forth their young: hence, it is not uncommon to find the old lady in possession of a pillow, or bolster, or, eventually, of the mattress; especially if no person has slept on them for a few nights. On board budjrows, rats are often very troublesome, destroying boots, shoes, &c., without mercy: I have frequently felt them, during the night, attacking the powder and pomatum at the back of my head. Of this the cock-roach also is very fond, but the sensation it produces is nothing more than a tickling, as though the fingers of another person were introduced among the hair; whereas, a rat makes a more desperate attack, often giving a strong pull, or, occasionally, knawing at the accumulated grease, which adheres to the head itself. Though I made it a rule always to have my bed-cloaths stripped off, and my pillows turned over, before I got into bed, nothing of the serpent kind was ever 192discovered, though many rats and mice were at times dislodged. Other persons have not been so fortunate; my own experience has made me acquainted with various instances of snakes being found in beds whereon gentlemen were about to repose. A very curious circumstance happened many years back, of a lady being called by her servant to see a snake that lay very contentedly between two of her infants, which slept on a small cot. It may be readily supposed their perilous situation produced the most dreadful anxiety. With great fortitude, and presence of mind, she directed the menial to go to one side of the bed, and to seize one of the children by a leg and an arm, while she did the same with the other; and thus to snatch them away. This was a bold measure, and possibly saved the little ones from injury; but, had the mother caused a chaffing dish to be brought into the apartment, and set thereon some milk to boil, the smell of it would instantly have caused the snake to creep out, for the purpose of partaking of his favorite food. Though all snakes are peculiarly fond of a certain warm temperature, inclining to summer heat, they will, in general, take to the water very freely, especially when pursued. Many persons pretend to distinguish such as are venomous, by their aversion thereto; but such is very fallacious. I have repeatedly seen covra capellas 193dart into puddles, and ponds, with seeming eagerness. It is extremely dangerous to proceed along path-ways, leading through grass covers, or jungles, at night; as, at that time, numbers of snakes will quit the heavy grass for the purpose of lying in the current of air, which necessarily proceeds along those paths whose sides are confined, perhaps to the height of several feet, by grass and underwood, and cause them to resemble the vistas cut through coppices, &c.

From what has been said above, many may be led to suppose, that, in India, every step is attended with danger; and, that neither the day, nor the night, offers security. This certainly is not always the case; but I should strongly advise every person to act throughout with caution; and to suppose these dangers I have described to be imminent. This, though it may not be comfortable, will generally insure safety. With regard to scorpions, centipedes, &c., too much circumspection cannot be used. In some parts of the country they are very numerous, capable of inflicting great pain, and of producing very severe local inflammation. Instances have been known of serious indisposition having been induced by the stings of scorpions in particular. The young ones are generally of a yellowish, or dun, or clay color; as they advance in growth, they gradually become darker, until they acquire 194a bottle color. Though very rare, I have seen a few of these which measured nearly eight inches from the mouth to the point of the sting, which much resembles a large dark-colored thorn from a rose-bush. There are, however, two kinds of scorpions, of which that species above described is certainly the most formidable; fortunately, it is seldom to be seen in places much frequented: the other kind may often be seen by dozens in the folds of a tent, &c., laid by in a dark place among old rubbish; and, not unfrequently, in the cracks of old mud walls. Many a poor servant, in walking about a house at night, or in rummaging among old stores, gets stung by the beeçhu (scorpion). The part affected generally swells, and smarts, or, rather aches, considerably: but the remedy is easy; a rag moistened with vinegar affording speedy relief. The same application is equally proper in case of being bitten by a centipede, called by the natives kaungoojer; from the opinion entertained that it is apt to creep into the ear. That such may have taken place, cannot be denied; but it would, I believe, prove extremely difficult to produce a well-authenticated instance. The centipede is by no means calculated for such an insinuation; he being of some breadth, and growing, rather quickly, to such a size as must preclude the possibility of his getting into the ear: I have seen several measuring nine and ten inches in 195length; and as broad, though not above a third so thick, as a man’s finger: we may consider half those dimensions to constitute the ordinary bulk.

Wasps and hornets are every where abundant during the whole year: the latter commonly nestle in the ground, or in the hollow of a tree, or perhaps form a small cell in some corner, or under a thatch, and there deposit their larvæ. The former are sometimes seen in such numbers as to occasion considerable uneasiness; they not only make their nests within the walls of bungalows, if, by means of cracks, or of distances between wood-work, they should find the opportunity, but boldly construct their combs within the apartments; sometimes attached to a cornice, but most generally in one of the upper corners of a window frame, so as to have ready means of retiring. The destruction of these intruders is not always practicable, without considerable danger. The best mode is to cover a man well up in a blanket, and to place on his head a pot of embers, on which a lump of sulphur is laid; so that, by standing under the comb, the fumes may stupify, or at least expel, the wasps; after which the comb may be removed without difficulty. The greatest danger is when the wasps take possession of some spot very near to the thatch; for instance, if they attach their dwelling to one of the rafters. When it is 196considered, that half the thatches are extremely decayed, and take fire like tinder, it must be obvious how delicately the operation should be managed: in such case, a slow match, made to contain a large portion of sulphur, and fastened to the end of a pole, is, perhaps, the most secure device; for, if a single spark were to fly into the thatch, it probably would, like Doctor Slop’s wig, be ‘nearly consumed before it were well kindled!’

Bees are by no means so bold as wasps and hornets, but they frequently take possession of some bush, or even of several parts of a hedge around a garden, especially one well stocked with flowers; rendering it unsafe to approach that quarter. The combs are sometimes large, but may, perhaps, on the average, when full, weigh from four to ten pounds. No bees are domesticated in India; at least I never heard of an apiary of any description; though, from the great abundance of food to be had at all seasons, it might prove very easy to maintain them properly. The truth is, that wild honey is so cheap and abundant as to preclude the necessity for taking any further pains to obtain it, than merely cutting the combs away from their thorny defences.

Bugs, such as infest our beds in Europe, are beyond imagination numerous throughout the East. Every charpoy, (or bedstead,) of whatever 197size, or description, in use among the natives, swarms with them! Hence, it is next to impossible to prevent their getting among the furniture, and especially into the boxes, drawers, &c., in which cloaths are kept; and the most careful, cleanly person, may sometimes find a stray bug crawling upon his linen, or lying concealed among the plaits. Musquito curtains are, on this account also, very useful; but they should be searched daily, lest any stragglers, &c., be on them. Perhaps the best defence against these nasty tormentors, is that in general use as a preventive against the visits of ants, centipedes, &c.; viz. causing the four posts of a bed to stand each upon a stone, perhaps a foot in diameter, and five or six inches deep, wherein a deep trough is cut, which, being kept full of water, insulates each post. Some use metal pans, which certainly have a neater appearance, and secure the carpet, mat, &c., from being injured by the damp; which sometimes will find its way, more or less, through stone, however hard.

The natives rarely have posts to their bedsteads; though a few, occasionally, affix a kind of tester, by means of a staple, at the head; those who could afford the best furniture, and every convenience, are more pleased when attended by a slave, or menial, who, with a small punkah, (or fan,) gently agitates the air, and 198keeps off flies and musquitoes. It scarcely need be pointed out how offensive such a practice may occasionally prove, and that when the servant drops asleep while performing his tedious office, the master generally will be awaked. Some, of the natives especially, cannot go to sleep without being lulled thereto, by means of an operation called by Europeans shampoing. This consists in a gentle pressure of the feet and legs, as also of the arms and hand, or, occasionally, of the body also, between the hands of the operator, who passes either slowly, or rather rapidly, according to the fancy of his, or her, master, from one part to another. That considerable relief is obtained from shampoing, cannot be doubted; I have repeatedly been restored surprizingly from severe fatigue, as well as from a certain langor and watchfulness, common in hot climates, and no doubt proceeding from indigestion, or from a nervous affection, merely by having my feet gently pressed in this manner. It is curious, that Captain Cook should have found this custom to be prevalent in the Island of Tongataboo, where it is called ‘toogey-toogey,’ in allusion to the beating of a drum with the fists. Now, the common small drums used in India, which are suspended in front of the body, are called ‘doog-doogies,’ and, in some places, the natives of India, shampo, by beating with the fists, calling the operation, not by the 199common term debounah, (or pressing,) but doogaunah. It is a question whether the latter term be a corruption, or a derivative from the doog-doogy. A similar practice obtains in Egypt, and, indeed, throughout the Turkish empire; especially at the baths, where shampoing is considered a matter of course. If my memory be correct, Captain Cook was relieved from a severe rheumatic complaint by an operation of this description; with this difference, that, in lieu of soothing pressure, the parts affected were not beat gently, but squeezed forcibly, between the hands. I have somewhere read, that gouty pains were in like manner removed; but should conclude, that such could only be flying pains; for the tenderness of parts locally attacked by the gout, could not, I apprehend, be invaded, without subjecting the party to excruciating torture.

Setting apart the benefits which may occasionally be derived from shampoing, we may consider it as one of those luxuries which, like the hookah, the snuff-box, the brandy-bottle, &c., become so habitual as to plunge us into indescribable uneasiness whenever they may be out of our reach; of course, it is prudent to avoid being shampoed, except when a kind of restlessness, or watchfulness, is induced by excess, of any description. In such case, immediate relief is often of great importance; but it may be proper 200not to have recourse to the indulgence except on emergency, since its effects are gradually lessened by repetition, and the want of a menial to perform the operation may cause much irritation and disquietude.

The greatest attention is requisite to aërate every apartment in a proper manner daily; without that precaution, all the aids of champoing, of musquito-curtains, water-pots, bathing, &c., will be of little avail, as fevers and obstructions of the liver invariably follow, whenever the atmosphere within a chamber is allowed to become foul: I know not, indeed, any thing more weakening, or more destructive to the constitution, than sleeping in one that is deficient in point of ventilation; and to continue in such, after being, in any degree, indisposed, is little less than absolute insanity! Nothing will be found to contribute more to health than sleeping cool; adverting, at the same time, to the precautions already laid down, not to place the cot so that any forcible current of air should pass over it, lest perspiration be obstructed, and the worst consequences be induced. The winter months will often dictate the use of one, or perhaps two, good thick blankets; while the summer heats will cause the rejection of all bed-cloathing above the body; occasioning the general use of long drawers, which, for the most part, are made of thin silk, or of fine calico: some have them 201made with feet, thereby effectually preventing musquitoes from biting in that quarter, but, to me, such were always extremely unpleasant.

During the hottest part of the year, many dispense with their shirts, but retain their banians, or under-shirts, the skirts of which are confined by the long drawers, which are usually fastened by a drawing cord of silk. Early rising is particularly to be recommended, for the purpose of taking exercise before breakfast. Among military persons this salutary practice is generally inculcated malgré lui; and, among civilians, ought to be so, by the additional motive of having the forenoon devoted to office attendance, or to whatever duties may demand notice.

The amusements offered to Europeans in India are by no means numerous, nor are they of any continuance; the climate, the localities, and the occupations, of all, rendering it impossible to partake of such variety, or in such comfort, as we enjoy in Europe. Calcutta can boast of a very tolerable theatre, centrically situated, and spacious enough to contain as many spectators as are generally to be found within the town. This was built about fifty years ago, by subscription, in shares of one thousand rupees each; but, owing to the very heavy expences incurred in getting up plays, which formerly depended entirely on the penchant of gentlemen, who performed 202all the characters, both male and female, the debts became so very heavy, that the concern fell into disrepute, and the shares were sold for half their original value.

It may seem strange, that, while no performers of any description were employed, the house should get into debt; and, that since hirelings have been engaged, it should have been in a more flourishing state. The enigma is, however, easy of solution. Gentlemen of property, fashion, and consequence, were not easily controlled; they would have new dresses for every character, and were to be kept in humour by good suppers after each rehearsal, some tickets for their friends, &c., &c., &c.; so that, when all was reckoned up, the receipts were invariably less than the disbursements. It is true that a gold-mohur (2 guineas) was the price of a box admission, that the pit was half a mohur, and the gallery a quarter of a mohur; but the house was rarely full, and there were rarely more than ten pieces performed during the whole year, and those generally in December, January, and February. The house had cost a lac of rupees (i.e. 100,000, equal to £12,500.) in building, and fitting up; therefore, there was a constant demand for interest, at twelve per cent., equal to £1,500. yearly; that, however, was commuted into silver tickets, which necessarily 203diminished the receipts; causing the shares to sink from money speculations into mere family conveniences.

The heavy incumbrances brought on by the above inconsiderate measures, occasioned a necessity for letting out the theatre to any person who would conduct the amusements in such manner as might prevent matters from growing worse. This accordingly was done, and a spirit of enterprize was created in the manager thus appointed by a majority of the proprietors, whereby a great encrease took place in the performances, which became chiefly dependant on professional persons engaged at liberal salaries; while, at the same time, few gentlemen in the Company’s service contributed the aid of their talents. This secession was occasioned by the marked displeasure evinced by Marquis Cornwallis towards all who took parts in the dramas: it threatened to close the doors of the theatre. A competition arising about the same time, produced an effect which accidentally sustained the speculation, by causing an interest, indeed, a spirited party, to be formed, in favor of the old house, which, in a very short time, triumphed, and caused the opposition to give up.

With respect to the merits of the gentlemen performers, much may be said: there certainly were among them some who might have 204appeared before a London audience without any fear of disapprobation. The names of Fleetwood, Messink, Norfor, Golding, Bigger, Call, Keasberry, Robinson, &c., &c., will long be remembered by the lovers of the drama; nor will they be easily effaced from the memory of those in whose hearts their merits, as members of society, were deeply impressed. The scenery was originally furnished from England, under the auspices of Garrick, who sent out Mr. Messink for the purpose of regulating the theatre at its out-set. Since that time, various additions have been made by different artists of acknowledged ability, among whom, Mr. Battle may be noticed as possessing superior talents, both in that important branch, and in the representation of various interesting characters. It is, however, to be expected, that, notwithstanding the great encrease of the European population, by whom it is almost wholly supported, the theatre must be sold off. This, though a severe privation, where every item in the catalogue of public amusements is highly appreciated, will not fall heavy on the proprietors. The facility with which the edifice might be converted into a superb suite of offices, or into a magnificent dwelling, would insure them the re-payment of their money; especially as the quantity of land reserved around it, for the accommodation of palanquins, &c., is extremely valuable: indeed, that alone must be 205worth full the aggregate amount of the shares at their ordinary value; which has generally been about forty or fifty per cent. under par.