Volume 3 — CHAPTER X.

OF THE RELIGION OF THE ILAHÍAH: IN FOUR SECTIONS.

Section I.—On the appearance of the Khalifet of God, and some of the miracles, called Burhan.

Section II.—On the dispute of the professors of different religions and creeds in the service of the lord, the Khalifet of God, and the Burahin of the Khalifet of God.

Section III.—On the virtues of the stars.

Section IV.—On the ordinances of conduct.

49 Section I.—On the appearance of the Khalifet of the All-Just.

An account of the lord Khalífet, “Vicar,” of God.—The author of this book heard from Khájah Masâud, the son of Khájah Mahmúd, the son of Khájah Mirshed al hak, who was a pious master of worldly concerns, what follows: “My honored father said he had heard from his noble ancestors, that the lord of the faith and of the world will appear; but he knew not whether that lord’s time was already come, or will come; meanwhile he saw him one night in a dream; when he rose from sleep, he went to the country where that august personage was born, that is on Sunday of the month Rajeb (the seventh Arabian month), in the year of the Hejira 949 (A. D. 1543), the lord Jelal eddin Akbar, the august son of Hamáyún Pádshah and of the praise-worthy Bánú Bêgam was born.” The writer of this work heard also in the year of the Hejira 1053 (A. D. 1643-4), in Lahore, from Mirzá Sháh Muhammed, surnamed Khaznín Khán, the son of shah Baigh Khán, with the surname of Khán Douran, a native of Arghún, who is said to have asked from the Naváb Azíz Kóka, surnamed Khán Aâzem, what observation he had to make upon the rumor current relative to the Lord, the inhabitant of the ninth heaven, as to 50 his being like the Messiah? He answered: “What the mother said, is the truth.”[35]

Section II.—On the dispute of the people of different religions.

In the service of the khalifah were two learned persons, the one a Sonnite, and the other a Shiâh, who both sought admittance at court. The emperor called them, and by their desire in his presence they endeavored to establish the truth of their respective religions. The Shiâh said: “It is evident that the Sonnites are without faith, because they do not acknowledge the prophet’s purity, and say that David caused Uriá to be killed.” The Sonnite replied: “This fact is equally mentioned in the Koran and in the Tóurít, ‘Pentateuch,’ explicitly and circumstantially.” A Jew was present, and affirmed: “It is certainly in the Pentateuch.” Upon which the Shiâh rejoined: “The Pentateuch is altered.” The Jew retorted: “We may as well, and with a better right, say that your book is altered, whilst there is no reason to be urged that the Pentateuch is corrupted.” The Shiâh had 51 no answer to give, and the author of this book saw in the treatises of several of the modern learned, that they have appropriated this answer to themselves. The Shiâh again said: “The godly Ali was a very learned and most excellent man, and never polluted his lips with wine, nor pork, nor any thing dressed by the infidels.” To which the Sonnite replied: “As with you the hand of an infidel is impure, and the Korésh all drank wine and eat pork, the prophet, who associated with them, eat the same food in the house of his paternal uncles, and so did the lord, the godly Ali.” The Shiâh had no suitable reply to make to this observation; he continued however: “In the Malul and Nahel, it is stated that the pure Fátima[36] declared, The palmgrove of Fedak[37] is my inheritance, as the lord of 52 the prophetic asylum committed it to me as a tamlík (hereditary property) during his life-time. But the prophet has said:

“‘We, the company of prophets, do not leave to our heirs what has been bestowed on us as a gift or as alms.’

“On the strength of which Sádik (Abu bekr) rejected her claim. But even were this tradition irrefragable, how could he reject the claim of a tamlík, if that tradition, by which the rejection of such an inheritance never takes place, be acknowledged to be right?” The Sonnite opposed to this: “The splendid lady had no witnesses that the law could accept; as the evidence of husband, or son, or grandson, is not admissible.” The Shiâh insisted: “Sádik was wrong. And the burning of the court[38] in sequel of the mortal 53 malady of the prophet; and the repentance which was the consequence of it? and the like, what dost thou say about it? Moreover, Omar’s impeding the writing of a last will in the mortal malady of the prophet, as the Imám Ismâíl Bokhárí[39] has related upon the authority of Abd-ulla, the son of Abas, that in his mortal malady the house of the prophet was full of his companions. He said:

‘Make haste, let me put down a writing for your sake, in order that, after me, you may be safe against error and deceit.’

“But Omar said: ‘The prophet is overcome by the malady, and his intellect is obstructed; the heavenly book, and the proofs of the text of the Koran are sufficient for us.’ On which account accumulated contradictions and conflicting discussions rose to such a height that the prophet said: ‘Leave me.’ The Sonnite resumed: The prophet himself declared:

54 ‘I am a man like you, but I speak from inspiration.’

“In eating, dress, repose, affliction, health, sickness, wounds, in life and death, his condition was that of mankind: thus, some teeth of the venerable were knocked out,[40] and in his last malady he was exceedingly suffering, so that in the violence of his pain he might have said things which were not consonant with a sound mind. On that account Omar forbade his writing.” The Shiâh remarked: “When the prophet had left the garment of mortality, Omar drew his sword, and threatened to kill whosoever would say that the prophet died, because he was still living; such a declaration, how can it be reconciled with his impeding the writing of the last will in the manner before said?” The Sonnite avowed: “Mankind is subject to error.” The Shiâh pressed further: “After the contention, when Osmân was appointed khalif, his relations of the family of Omiyah practised oppression under his authority, and he brought back Hakim, the son of Aś,[41] the son of 55 Omiyah, to Medina, from whence the prophet had banished him, so that he was called ‘the banished of the prophet,’ although Sádik (Abubekr) and Fárúk (Omar) had not called him. Further, Osman expelled Abázer from Medina; he also gave his daughter in marriage to Merván, the son of Hakim, with the fifth part of the spoils of Afrika, which amounted to forty thousand gold dinárs.[42] Besides, he granted security to Abd-ullah, the son of Serj;[43] although the lord of the prophetic asylum had ordered his blood to be shed; and he conferred on him the administration of Egypt; he consigned also to Abd-ullah, the son of Aamar, the government of Baśra, where he indulged himself in all sorts of shameful actions. Among the Umrás of his army were Máavíah, the son of Abi Safián, the collector of Shám (Syria), and Sâíd, the son of Alâaś, the collector of Kúfa. Afterwards, Abd-ullah, the son of Aamer; and Valíd, the 56 son of Akba Abd-ullah, the son of Sâd, the son of Abí Serj; all these trod the road of perverseness and unrighteousness.” The Sonnite had no convenient reply to make. The Shiâh continued: “The prophet sent three friends to fight to a place called Tabúk;[44] they disagreed: after which the prophet declared: ‘Whoever causes discord in the army or service, the curse of God be upon him.’” The Sonnite here fell in: “At the time of the prophet’s moving, it was not advisable to undertake the expedition designed; there was no disunion about the war among them; but only a discussion about the fitting out of the troops and the arrangements; whence a delay in this affair arose, on account of settling the proper order of march and other proceedings.” The Shiâh went on: “What the Sonnites attribute to God and the 57 prophet, cannot be ascribed to the lowest man.” The Sonnite asked: “What is that?” The Shiâh answered: “One of these things, stated in the book of your traditions, is that the lord prophet, having exhibited before Aâisha dance and disport, asked her: ‘Art thou satisfied?’ Such a thing cannot in truth be said of any body without disgrace. Besides, there are acts unbecoming of the prophet’s companions, such as Omar’s preventing Muhammed’s last will, and the like, avowed by themselves in their book; and yet they hold these men in high esteem!” Here the Sonnite observed: “What thou first settest forth about the prophet’s exhibition of disport, is nothing shameful; as to what thou sayest about bad customs, they belong only to thy own vicious opinion. Deniest thou that the prophet has said:

‘I am sent to settle the customs and manners.’

“If a fact has not existed or has not happened, why should it have been recorded?” The Shiâh called out: “It has been invented and formed into a lie.” The Sonnite objected: “Thus, according to thy opinion, the master of truth, Bokhari and the like, are tellers of lies, and thus they have transmitted lies! Why then, on their authority believest thou that Omar has prevented the making of the last will, and other such things, which, 58 according to thee throw blame upon the companions of the prophet? Therefore, in whatever of all these things according to thy opinion is unbecoming, thou shoulst believe that the master of truth, Bokhâri, and those like him, have told lies, so wouldst thou cease to cast reproach upon the companions and friends of the prophet; but if they spoke truth, then reckon also to be true, what they have attributed as praise-worthy to the prophet, and true what they have stated of the virtues of the said companions. Further, as to thy separating the prophet from mankind, it belongs, as it has been revealed by the divine text, to the creed of unbelievers to say, that the prophet should not eat nor drink.” Now the Shiâh grew warm, and said: “Is it not enough to attach to the lord prophet the blame of having listened to music and assisted at dancing; and now thou pretendest to prove the purity of the two Shaikhs (Abubekr and Omar) and of Osmán!” The Sonnite took up the controversy: “I said before that listening to music is reasonably not blamable, and even laudable, when a lawgiver also listens to it, and I observed, concerning customs and manners, that thou esteemest bad what thou hast badly understood. As thou refusest to approve dancing, what sayest thou about the interdiction of a woman from her spouse at the desire of the prophet?[45] 59 If thou holdest the example of customary acts reprehensible, there is nothing to be said about such an occurrence. And likewise, if the two Shaikhs had not been pure, the lord prophet would not have exalted their heads by matrimonial alliance; and the daughter of the lord Ali and the lord prophet would never have been in the house of the great Fáruk (Omar), and of the possessor of two lights (Osman). To open the road of contention is not laudable; and if not so according to thy opinion, explain this to me: since the lord, the lion of God (Ali) was informed of all the secrets of the hearts, why did he wage war upon Mâaviah, who was a Muselmán? and why was he the death of so many men, since causing death is by no means right?[46] It is likewise known 60 and admitted by you as true that, when one day a Muselman was selling garlic and onions upon the passage of the prophet, that venerable personage told him: ‘If thou wouldst sit down in a corner, retiring out of my way, it would be well.’ The man made an excuse, and the prophet passed on. Shortly after came Alí, who said to the man: ‘The prophet dislikes the smell of onions and garlic, therefore move out of his way.’ The man answered: ‘O Alí, the prophet told me to rise, and I did not move.’ Alí said: ‘At the prophet’s order thou didst not rise?’ He drew immediately his sword, and cut off the man’s head. Such an action is reprobated by the law, as the lord of the prophetic asylum forbade killing even the hostile unbelievers, saying:

“‘Do not exceed in shedding blood, even if thou be a conqueror.’

“And by historical accounts it is known that he has blamed Ibrahim for having driven an unbeliever from his board. Nushírván,[47] who was not crowned with the diadem of the right faith, is celebrated, 61 because he sat upon the throne of justice, and one of his most approved actions was, that he withheld his hand from an old woman’s house, which was an hinderance in the vicinity of his palace, and preferred to waste his own fields; and the lord of the prophetic asylum, because he appeared upon the field of testimony in the time of this king, exalted his fame and glory by these words:

‘I was born in the time of the just king.’[48]

“How can it be right to believe that the prophet, the last of the age, should be pleased with the destruction of a Muselman; he who would not disturb the people who, engaged in their trade and occupation, obstructed his passage? he who said:

‘He who kills willingly a believer shall have hell for eternal punishment;’

“He cannot have acted by that rule; he who declares:

62 “‘God will not give to a soul more trouble than it can bear;’

“Such an action is not that of a virtuous man; this however is related (of Alí) by your learned men, and likewise joking and buffooning, which indicates a want of dignity, degraded him.” The Shiâh said: “Nevertheless, he was certainly the most excellent of all the companions of the prophet.” The Sonnite asked: “In knowledge or in practice?” The Shiâh replied: “In both knowledge and practice.” The Sonnite resumed: “This we do not hold for certain; in what respect was he superior in practice to the chief of the believers, Omar?” The Shiâh answered: “Alí used to pray the whole night.” The Sonnite rejoined: “According to your own account, the lord Ali wanted a woman every night; and his custom, (called matâh)[49] was to engage one for a short time; and so many did he occupy, that he seemed an unceasing bridegroom;[50] how could a person so employed pray the whole night? unless in your religion you call praying what we call by another name.” The Shiâh interrupted him saying: “You are liars from the very beginning. Abu Hanífa, your great Imám, was a native of Kabul, and attached himself particularly to the service of 63 Imám Jâfr Sádik; at last he left him, and professed openly the religion of his fathers, who were Magi. A sign of the Magian creed was, that he thought it right to eat three times a-day, and to lay aside all choice of diet, as well as not to reckon the unbelievers impure, saying that impurity resides in the interior, if any where, and the like.”

The Sonnite remarked: “Thou thyself agreest that Abu Hanífa was a follower of the Imám Jâfr, therefore he most likely practised what was conformable to the religion of the Imám Jâfr. We do not admit that your people are attached to the religion of the Imám; we rather believe that they are Magi; for when your ancestors were conquered and subjected, they, by necessity, joined the Islámian, but mixed the right faith with the creed of the Magi: as it appears from the worship called nóu róz, which is a custom of the Magi; according to whom they likewise perform divine worship three times a day. They think it right to turn the head in praying to the left, which is turning off from the Kiblah (of Mecca); they assert that the five prayers every day are improper, as they are not able to perform them exactly; they maintain, however, as requisite those at midday, before sunset, and in the evening on going to sleep. In the same manner, they took the matâh, or temporary 64 matrimonial unions, from the Mazhdakian.”[51]

All the Shiâhs have founded their creed upon two rules: the first is the Bedas (Védas); these were promulgated with the view to surround us with power and magnificence, or with the modes of happiness, which brilliant prospects have not been realized; it was said that the lord of divine majesty dictated the Veda. The second rule is godliness; by which men are freed from all the propensities of nature. The Shiâhs are of this persuasion; and when they are asked about the manner of it, they say: By means of godliness we experience the non-reality of exterior things.

The Vedá treats of theology, and of what may appear contrary to divinity; it explains the will[52] which on the part of the perverse may be manifested contrary to the will of the (supreme) judge. The Véda moreover treats of practice: when an action tends towards one thing, and when, after or before its accomplishment, it turns towards something else.

65 The unbelievers, who are in opposition to the prophet assert, that he has adopted the morals of Amrál Kaîs[53] and mixed them with the Koran, that likewise he has frequently made use therein of the ideas of other poets, and even frequently gave place in it to the usages of paganism, with which he had been pleased. There are other controversies current. It will be best to attend to the following observation: What avail the doubts of the Shiâhs? They attack in their speeches the Vicars of the prophet; when the first party (the Sonnites) repress the answer to it upon their tongues, let the other party too refrain from dispute.

The arguments being carried to this point, the khalif of God dismissed the parties.

One day a Nazarene came to pay his submissive respects to the khalif of God, and challenged any of 66 learned among the Muselmans to dispute with him. The proposal being accepted, the Nazarene began: “Do you believe in Aisa (Jesus)?” The Muselman answered: “Certainly; we acknowledge him as a prophet of God; our prophet bore testimony to the divine mission of Jesus.” The Nazarene continued: “This prophet (the Messiah) has announced that after him many will appear who will pretend to a prophetic office; yet ‘believe not in them, nor follow them, for they are liars; but remain you steadfast and firm in my faith, until I come again.’ There is no mention of your prophet in the Gospel.” The Muselman replied: “Mention of him was in the Pentateuch[54] and in the Gospel,[55] 67 but your principal men obliterated it.” The Nazarene asked: “Do you possess that Gospel which is correct?” The Muselman avowed: “We do not.” Then the Nazarene resumed: “Hence your falsehood is evident; you deny the Gospel; for if you did not, you would preserve it, as we, who are Christians, preserve the Pentateuch, which is the book of Moses; but you keep neither the Pentateuch nor the Gospel, and if there had been mentioned in the Gospel any thing of your prophet, we would without doubt, according to the words of Jesus, adhere to it, because, in conformity 68 with our faith, our desire is to obey the precepts of Jesus. But now, whence can we know that your prophet is true?” The Muselman said: “From his miracles, one of which is the dividing of the moon.”[56] The Nazarene observed upon this: “If the dividing of the moon has taken place, the inhabitants of the world must have seen it, and the recorders of extraordinary things in all countries, and the historians of all nations would have written it down with the pen of truth. Now none, except Muselmans, give any information of it.” There was an Hindú present; the Nazarene asked him: “In the Kali yug, which is the fourth of your ages, has the moon been once divided?” And he addressed the same question to the Persians and Turks there present; all said: 69 “We have not seen any thing like it, in our historical accounts.” The Muselman remained confounded.

Another day, a Jew presented himself; the lord khalif of God placed the Nazarene in opposition to him for a religious discussion. The Jew began: “In the Pentateuch, there is no mention made of Jesus.” The Nazarene replied: “How not? Does not David say: ‘My hands and my feet fall off, and all my bones are counted.’ This is a prediction of the sufferings and of the crucifixion of Jesus.” The Jew remarked upon this: “Whatever David may have said of himself, and the All-Just have announced by his tongue, should all this be taken for a prediction of Jesus?” The Nazarene pursued: “But the conception of a virgin was predicted, and this virgin was Mary.” The Jew objected: “Amongst us, the virginity of Mary is not proved, as, according to your belief, before the birth of Jesus, she was married to Joseph the carpenter, and Jesus is said to be the son of Joseph the carpenter.” The Nazarene admitted: “This is true; but,” he added: “Joseph had never touched Mary.” The Jew opposed: “How is that proved?” And this was the question which the Jew repeated at every thing which the Nazarene brought forward, so that the latter was reduced to silence.

70 A learned philosopher came into the hall, where Hindus also were present, and three other learned men; a Muselman, a Nazarene, and a Jew: these were summoned, and ranged in opposition to the learned philosopher. The latter opened the discussion in this manner: “The divine mission of your prophets has not been proved, for several reasons: the first is, that whatever the prophet says ought to be conformable to reason; the second is, that he ought to be free from crime, and not hurtful to other beings. But Moses, according to the opinion of the Jews, was brought up by Pharâoh, and yet he caused him by a stratagem to be drowned in the waters of the Nile, and listened not to his repentance. What they say of the water of the Nile having opened a passage to Moses, is an error. Nor did he attend to the repentance of Kárún (Korah),[57] but, from covetousness of gold, he caused him to be swallowed up by the earth. Jesus permitted the killing 71 and ill using of animals. And Muhammed himself attacked the forces and caravans of the Koreish; he shed blood, nay, with his own hand put to death animated beings. He besides exceeded all bounds in sexual connexions, and in taking the wives of other men; so that, on account of his gazing, a wife was separated from her husband,[58] and the like are notorious of him. With these perverse qualities, how then shall we recognise a prophet?” All concurred in declaring: “By miracles.” The philosopher asked: “What are the miracles of your prophets?” The Jew answered: “Thou must have heard of Moses’s wand, which became a serpent.” The doctor immediately took up his girdle, breathed upon it, and it became a great serpent, which hissed and turned towards the Jew; but the philosopher stretched out his hand, and took it back, saying: “Lo, the miracle of Moses!” whilst the Jew, from fear, had scarcely any life left in his body, and could not recover his breath again. Now the Christian said: “The Messiah was born without a father.” The doctor replied: “You yourselves say that Joseph, the carpenter, had taken Mary to wife; how can it be made out that Jesus was not the son of Joseph?” The Nazarene was reduced 72 to silence. The Mahomedan took up the word, and said: “Our prophet brought forth the Korán, divided the moon, and ascended to heaven.” The philosopher observed upon this: “It is stated in your sacred book:

“‘And they say: We will by no means believe on thee, until thou cause a spring of water to gush forth for us out of the earth, or thou have a garden of palm trees and vines, and thou cause rivers to spring forth from the midst of this palm plantation; or that thou throw down upon the earth the heaven torn in pieces; or that thou bring down God Almighty and the angels to vouch for thee; or thou have a house of gold; or thou ascend by a ladder to heaven: neither will we believe thy ascending, until thou cause a book to descend unto us which we may read. The answer is in this way: Say, O Muhammed, pure is God the nourisher, I am but a man-prophet.’[59]

“From this an equitable judge can conclude, he who could not cause a spring of running water to come forth, how could he have shown the miracles which are related of him? when he had not the power of tearing the heaven in pieces, in what manner could he divide the moon? when he was unable to show the angels, how could he see Jabrííl with his own eyes? and his companions too did not behold him in the shape of an Arab; when he was unable, in the presence of unbelievers, to go to heaven with his body, how did he perform 73 the bodily ascension (ascribed to him in the Koran)? As he brought thence no writing, in what way came the Koran down from heaven?”

A follower of Zerdusht, who stood in a corner, now interrupted the philosopher, saying: “Maintain all this, but do not deny miracles in general, for our prophet too ascended to heaven.” The doctor replied: “You admit the existence of Yezdán and Ahrimán, in order that Yezdán may not be said to be the author of evil; but you also assert, that Ahrimán sprung forth from the evil thought of the all-just Lord; therefore he sprung from God, and evil originates from God, the All-Just: you are therefore wrong in the fundamental principle, the very root of your religion, and wrong must be every branch which you derive from it.”

A learned Brahman here took up the discussion: “Thou deniest the prophetic missions; but our Avatárs rest upon these missions.” The doctor said: “You at first acknowledge one God, and then you say that, having descended from his solitude, he assumed a great body; but God is not clothed with a body, which belongs to contingency and tangible matter. In like manner, you attribute wives to your gods. Vishnu, who according to some represents the second person of the divine triad, according to others, is acknowledged as the supreme God, is said to have descended from his 74 station, and become incarnate at different times, in the forms of a fish, a boar, a tortoise, and of man. When he was in the state of Rama, his wife was ravished from him. He was ignorant, and acquired some knowledge by becoming the disciple of one among the sages of India, until he was freed from his body; in the form of Krishna he was addicted to lust and deceit, of which you yourselves tell many stories. You state, that in this incarnation there was little of the wisdom of a supreme God, and much of the corporeal matter of Krishna: thus you compel mankind, who, capable of justice, are superior to all sorts of animals, to worship a boar or a tortoise! And you adore the form of the male organ as Mahadeva, whom many acknowledge to be God, and the female organ as his wife! You seem not to know that the irrational cannot be the creator of the rational; that the one, uncompounded, is incompatible with division, and that plurality of the self-existent one is absurd. Finally, by the worship of a mean object, no perfection can accrue to the noble.” By these proofs and arguments he established his theses, and the Brahman remained confounded.

Afterwards the philosopher addressed the assembly: “Know for certain that the perfect prophet and learned apostle, the possessor of fame, Akbar, that 75 is, the lord of wisdom, directs us to acknowledge that the self-existent being is the wisest teacher, and ordains the creatures with absolute power, so that the intelligent among them may be able to understand his precepts; and as reason renders it evident that the world has a Creator, all-mighty and all-wise, who has diffused upon the field of events among the servants, subject to vicissitudes, numerous and various benefits which are worthy of praise and thanksgiving; therefore, according to the lights of our reason, let us investigate the mysteries of his creation, and, according to our knowledge, pour out the praises of his benefits; and as, by the knowledge of the primordial omnipotence, we shall have found the direction to the right way, we shall, in proportion to our gratitude, be led to the reward of yon exuberant beatitude; if, by denying the unity and disowning the benefits of God we sink into guilt, shall we not be deserving of punishment? Such being the case, why should we pay obedience to any person who belongs to mankind as ourselves, and who is subject to anger and lust, and avarice and passion, and love of rank and power, even more than ourselves? If this mortal exhorts us to knowledge and gratitude, we may by the concurrence of our own reason obtain this advantage; but if he urges his precepts by what is opposite to reason, then 76 his speech is a proof of deceit; for reason demonstrates that the world has a wise creator, and that he, being wise, prescribes to the creatures a worship which to their reason does not evince itself as an evil; and whatever is proved bad, is not ordered by him. Now the law contains particulars which reason accounts as false or bad: such are conversations with God; the descent of incorporeal heavenly beings in human forms or in the shape of a tortoise; the reascension to heaven in an elemental body; the pilgrimage to particular edifices for performance of worship; the circuit (round the Kába), the entrance in it, the fatigue, the throwing of stones;[60] the acquitting one’s self of the pilgrimage to Mecca; the kissing of the black stone. If it be said that, without a visible medium, it is impossible to worship the all-mighty Creator, and that a place for the sake of connexion is to be fixed, it may be answered, that one who offers praises and thanks to God, has no need of a medium and of a place; and if a fixed 77 place were to be admitted, the forms of the stars above would be preferable. If it be objected, that this cannot be free from the detestable suspicion of paganism, whilst, certainly, a place among others having been fixed, which place, by distinction from them all, presents itself to them as particular, a predilection for it appeared proper. In like manner, after a computation of dimensions, geometricians and mathematicians determine a place which, with respect to the objects and points of a space, bears the same relation as the centre to a circle; then, without doubt, every portion of the circumference will have its particular relative situation with respect to the point of the centre; certainly, in consequence of this arrangement, all places so determined become referable to this particular place, and among the other places, shall be worthy of predilection.” To this may be answered: “This opinion agrees not with the ideas of many distinguished persons; for a great number confers upon the site of another place the attribute of being the middle, and distinguish it as such; which is evident from the books of the institutes of Brahma and of others, and by the necessity of pronouncing benedictions there. This also cannot be free from the suspicion of paganism: because one may suppose that God, the All-Just, is represented in the house, or is a 78 body, on which account people call it ‘the house of God.’ If it be so, or if the Kábah be situated in the midst of a country, other prophets may have chosen another place, such as the holy house (of Jerusalem), and the like; but this is but by error; thus it happened—that, at first, the lord Muhammed did not offer his prayers at the Kâbah. Since therefore the detestable suspicion of paganism rests upon all the worship of stone, earth, and bodies, then water, fire, and the planets, are objects more proper to be honored; and if a centre be desired, let it be the sun in the midst of the seven heavens. In like manner objectionable is the sacrifice of animals, and the interdiction of what may be proper for the food of men, and the admitting thereof by one prophet to be lawful what is forbidden by another. Thus, if it be not right to eat pork, why was it permitted by Jesus? if it was interdicted on account of pollution in consequence of the animal’s feeding upon unclean and nasty things, so the cock is objectionable for the same reasons. Similar to these are most other commands, and contrary to the precepts of reason. But the greatest injury comprehended in a prophetic mission is the obligation to submit to one like ourselves of the human species, who is subject to the incidental distempers and imperfections of mankind; and who nevertheless controls 79 others with severity, in eating, drinking, and in all their other possessions, and drives them about like brutes, in every direction which he pleases; who declares every follower’s wife he desires, legal for himself and forbidden to the husband; who takes to himself nine wives,[61] whilst he allows no more than four to his followers; and even of these wives he takes whichever he pleases for himself;[62] and who grants impunity for shedding blood to whomsoever he chooses. On account of what excellency, on account of what science, is it necessary to follow that man’s command; and what proof is there to establish the legitimacy of his pretensions? If he be a prophet by his simple word, his word, because it is only a word, has no claim of superiority over the words of others. Nor is it possible to know which of the sayings be correctly his own, on account of the multiplicity of contradictions in the professions of faith. If he be a 80 prophet on the strength of miracles, then the deference to it is very dependent; because a miracle is not firmly established, and rests only upon tradition or a demon’s romances: as the house of tradition, from old age, falls in ruins, it deserves no confidence. Besides, by the regulation of divine providence, occult sciences are numerous; and the properties of bodies without end or number. Why should it not happen that such a phenomenon, which thou thinkest to be a miracle, be nothing else but one of the properties of several bodies, or a strange effect of the occult art? As with thee, the dividing of the moon, of which thou hast heard, is a miracle, why shouldst thou not admit, as proved, the moon of Káshgar?[63] And if thou namest Moses, ‘the speaker of God,’ why shouldst thou not so much the more give this title to Sámerí,[64] who caused a calf to speak?

“But if it be said that every intellect has not the power of comprehending the sublime precepts, 81 but that the bounty of the all-mighty God created degrees of reason and a particular order of spirits, so that he blessed a few of the number with superior sagacity; and that the merciful light of lights, by diffusion and guidance, exalted the prophets even above these intellects. If it be so, then a prophet is of little service to men; for he gives instruction which they do not understand, or which their reason does not approve. Then the prophet will propagate his doctrine by the sword; he says to the inferiors: ‘My words are above your understanding, and your study will not comprehend them.’ To the intelligent he says: ‘My faith is above the mode of reason.’ Thus, his religion suits neither the ignorant nor the wise. Another evil attending submission to an incomprehensible doctrine is that, whatever the intellect possesses and offers by its ingenuity, turns to no instruction and advantage of mankind, whilst the prophet himself has said:

‘God imposes upon a man no more than he can bear.’

“And whatever the understanding does not comprise within the extent of reason, the truth of this remains hidden; and to assent thereto is silliness; because the doctrine of other wise men may be of a higher value than the tradition or the book of that prophet. Besides, if the maxim were inculcated 82 that prophets must be right, any body who chose could set up the pretension of being one; as silly men will always be found to follow him, saying: ‘His reason is superior to ours, which is not equal to such things.’ Hence have arisen among the Muselmans and other nations so many creeds and doctrines, as well as practices without number.

“Another defect is that, when the religion of one prophet has been adopted, and when his rule has been followed in the knowledge and worship of God, after a certain time another prophet arises, who prescribes another religion to the people. Hence they become perplexed, and know not whether the former prophet was a liar, or whether they ought to conclude that in each period mankind is to alter the law according to circumstances. But the knowledge of truth admits no contradiction; yet there exists a great number of contradictions in the four sacred books:[65] hence it appears that, in the first times, the true God has not made himself known, and that the first creed with respect to him had been wrong; thus, in the second book, something else is said, and in like manner in the third and in the fourth.

“In the sequel it became evident to wise men, that emancipation is to be obtained only by the 83 knowledge of truth conformably with the precepts of the perfect prophet, the perfect lord of fame, Akbar, ‘the Wise;’ the practices enjoined by him are: renouncing and abandoning the world; refraining from lust, sensuality, entertainment, slaughter of what possesses life; and from appropriating to one’s self the riches of other men; abstaining from women, deceit, false accusation, oppression, intimidation, foolishness, and giving (to others) opprobrious titles. The endeavors for the recompense of the other world, and the forms of the true religion may be comprised in ten virtues, namely: 1. liberality and beneficence; 2. forbearance from bad actions and repulsion of anger with mildness; 3. abstinence from worldly desires; 4. care of freedom from the bonds of the worldly existence and violence, as well as accumulating precious stores for the future real and perpetual world; 5. piety, wisdom, and devotion, with frequent meditations on the consequences of actions; 6. strength of dexterous prudence in the desire of sublime actions; 7. soft voice, gentle words, and pleasing speeches for every body; 8. good society with brothers, so that their will may have the precedence to our own; 9. a perfect alienation from the creatures, and a perfect attachment to the supreme Being; 10. purification of the soul by the yearning after God 84 the all-just, and the union with the merciful Lord, in such a manner that, as long as the soul dwells in the body, it may think itself one with him and long to join him, until the hour of separation from the body arrives. The best men are those who content themselves with the least food, and who sequestrate themselves from this perishable world, and abstain from the enjoyments of eating, drinking, dress, and marriage. The vilest of the people are those who think it right to indulge the desire of generation, the passion for wine, and banquetting with eagerness, as if it were something divine. As the mode which the perfect prophet and apostle, Akbar the Wise, has prescribed to his followers, is difficult, certainly the demons excite the spirit of brutish passion against his regulations; so that there are prophets who, captivated with lust, anger, pleasures of eating and drinking, costly garments, beautiful women, and engaged in oppression towards the children of one race, whom they call infidels, consider these practices not only as legal, but even as laudable, and tend towards them. So it happens that many learned men and their followers, who, for the sake of the world have chosen to obey these prophets, but in their heart deny them, and are aware of the falsehood of this sect, wait for an opportunity, with prudent regard to circumstances and a favorable hour, to 85 adopt the regulations of Akbar”.—Nobody in the assembly had an answer to give to the learned philosopher, who, after the effort which he had made, left the hall.[66]

The lord vicar of God said to his disciples, that, it is an indispensable duty to worship God, the all-just, and that it is necessary to praise those who are near him; among mankind, said he, none is higher in rank than the planets, to the station of which no man can attain. None except God, the all-mighty, is the wish of the godly man, that is, whatever the godly undertakes, the object of his wish in it is God; for instance, he takes some food, that he may be able to perform the service of God; performs that service, that he may not be slack and deficient in his duties to God; desires a wife, that he may give existence to a virtuous son, worshipper of God; pays veneration to the lights of the stars, because they are near God the all-just; and abandons himself to sleep, that his soul may ascend to the upper world. Finally, the godly man is at all times in the 86 service and obedience of the all-just, and at no moment is he negligent in pious practices. Moreover, he thinks himself bound to abstain from hurting living beings, and he respects all the creatures of God. He does not cut grass and green trees without necessity, nor pollute the ground wantonly, except on a particular place; he throws neither water nor fire upon vile spots; he blesses the stars; further in this disposition he accustoms himself to abstinence in speaking, eating, and sleeping; he constrains himself to many occupations: one of them is to close with his fingers the exterior organs; he dwells with veneration upon the image of the lord of fires (the sun), until he had carried this exercise so far that, by merely covering his eyes, the great object is present to him; then, whichever of the illustrious and mighty personages of Hind, or Iran, or Greece, or any other place, he wishes to see, that person presents himself to his view, and he sees lights, explores many ways, and makes himself master of the temporary and the eternal. The lord vicar of the all-just is called Ilahí, “divine,” by his followers, because in all their actions the object of their wishes is God; and the lord has received the divine mission to establish the worship of the stars, which are to be the Kiblah of the pious. In the ancient books of the Hindus and Parsis, without number, the excellence of the constellations is affirmed.

87 Náin Javet gave the information that, in the reign of the lord (Akbar) the learned assembled, and Makhdúm ul mulk gave the decision, that in this age it is not required to make the pilgrimage to Mecca; but that whoever makes it deserves punishment; for this reason; namely, because the road to Mecca by land passes through the middle of Irak, and by sea through Guzerat and the ports of the Farangis; by land it is unavoidable to hear unseemly speeches from the Kazel báshan; and on the voyage by sea to suffer much impropriety in the transactions and communications with the Farangis; because they have represented upon their papers[67] the image of Jesus and the picture of Mary, which bear a resemblance to idolatry.

His majesty Akbar said one day that he heard from Shaikh Abdul Nabí, that one of the chief lawyers of the Sonnites declared the taking of nine wives to be legal, whilst other learned men denied it, and quoted the passage of the Koran:

“Take in marriage such women as please you, two, or three, or four.”[68]

88 As even eighteen wives were said to be legal, then the learned gave the decision that it may be admissible, by the mode of matâh, “a temporary agreement,”[69] by means of which the obtainment of women is facilitated for a certain price; and this is permitted pursuant to the creed of the Imám Málik. The sect of the Shíahs assert, that a son begotten in consequence of matâh, is preferable to all others. Nakib Khan followed the footsteps of the Imám Málik, who at last declared the matâh legal by a public patent. The sect of the Shíáhs quote, in support of this, the following passage of the Koran:

89 “Your women are a field for you: approach your field as you may like.”

By which they pretend to show that any mode of coition is permitted.[70] Náin Javet said that, when the era of the Muselmans was fixed, the people had a bad opinion of the companions of the prophet, and wise men called all the laws “prisons,” and declared the centre of faith rests upon reason. Nobody disputed with them. Then arrived learned Farangis, and argued in their speeches. Shaikh Bhavan, so was called a learned Brahman from the country of Dekan, having conceived hatred towards his relations, became a Muselman, and obtained this name: he had the fourth Véda in his possession, and interpreted some precepts of this book, which contains many beauties, and a sentence like that of the Koran: “There is but one God;” and it was also stated therein, that whoever does not make this confession will not obtain salvation. In another place it was said that to eat cow’s flesh was, under certain conditions, allowable; and elsewhere it was ordained to bury, and not to burn, a corpse. Thus, the beforesaid Shaikh was triumphant over the Brahmans. But Náin Javet related that he has requested him to interpret this passage; when he had translated it, its meaning was completely contrary and opposed to 90 the sentence: “There is but one God,” and the restriction to eat cow’s flesh also was contrary to the custom of the Muselmans; and concerning the burying of the dead he gave a different account from that which is lawful by the faith of the Muselmans. His Majesty (Akbar), with all those present, laughed at the Brahman, and said: “Look at these Muselmans and Hindus, who among many conflicting arguments did not think to ask what was the meaning of the passages in question, and have praised me exceedingly.”

Mír Sáíd Sherif Amely came to the place of Daibálpúr, and waited on his Majesty (Akbar), who was then taking part in a public dispute between a number of young men with some theologians, about Mahmúd, and he reduced them to silence. The Emperor conferred also many favors upon the said Mir, and the controversy in religion went so far that even doctors in law were accused of infidelity; learned men and Sufies declared in the celestial court (Akbar’s), that wise and capable men existed in all religions: where then is the superiority and preponderance? More than one thousand years have not elapsed since this faith was established.

In like manner, a number of children were put in a place called Gangmahel, where every thing necessary was furnished to them; but none could articulate a letter; having remained there to their fourteenth 91 year, they were found to be dumb; which made it evident, that letters and language are not natural to man, that is, cannot be used unless they have been acquired by instruction, and it is then only that the use of conversation becomes possible. From this the conclusion was drawn, that the world is very ancient, and language of a long date, whence the Brahmans derive arguments founded upon reason and testimony for the truth of their religion and the futility of others.

The crown of the pious Shaikh Táj-ed-din, the son of Shaikh Zakríá Jondehení Dahluví, explained the exterior rites of the mystic doctrine; the system of the unity of the real being; and the precepts of the religion of Pharâoh, which is the Feśus ul hikem, the “bezels of philosophers,”[71] and the superiority of hope over fear. His Majesty Akbar liked the mode in which the Kings of Ajem performed worship; the Sufis, acknowledging holy personages as representing the Khalífs of the age, used to prostrate themselves before them, touching the ground with their foreheads; this was intended to mark the secret meaning that the angels had once adored Adam. The truth is, that the wise are the terrestrial angels, who worship an holy personage as a Khalífah, “vicar,” of God; and for having attained to this dignity, 92 they venerate him under a similar character, and call him also their Kabâh and Kiblah: because the heart of a just man is the heart of the all-just God, and it is to its door that they turn in the worship of God; in that sense Yâkúb and his sons prostrated themselves before Yúsef.

Shaikh Yâkúb, a grammarian of Kashmir, who was a spiritual guide of the age, related, as from Aín alkasa Hamdání, that Muhammed is the manifest name of a guide, and Iblis the manifest name of a seducer. Mulla Muhammed Yzedí blamed the three khalifs, and reviled the companions of the prophet and their followers; he seduced people to the faith of Shíâhs, and, having brought forth chapters of the Gospel, he drew from them a proof of the third person of the Trinity as being true, and confirmed the religion of the Naśaránains.

As his Majesty (Akbar) showed himself a friend of all men, he gave orders to the Nawab, the wise Shaikh Abu ’l Faźil,[72] who frequently witnessed the 93 prodigious deeds of the emperor, to interpret several foreign works, and instead of the common sentence, “Bismilla,” etc., he adopted another, viz.:

The Rájah Birber conceived in his mind that the sun is an object all comprehensive; that he causes the ripening of the grain, of the sown fields, of the fruits, and of all vegetables; and gives splendor and life; likewise, fire and water, and stones and trees, all are manifestations of God; he gave the mark on the forehead and the zunar. The learned brought it nearly to certainty that the sun, the great, the exalted luminary, is the benefactor of the world, and the protector of monarchs. The Yezdánian said, that the sun is the world of spirits, the self-existent being; and the sun of the world of bodies is a luminary (a soul)[73] which is the Khalifah, “the vicar,” of God. A sect of the fire-worshippers stated also that the learned entertain conflicting opinions about the existence of spirits, of unity, and the self-existing being; and other sects denied this; but no denial is 94 possible about the existence, the splendor, and the beneficence of the sun. His Majesty, Akbar, as he was ordered by God, used to read prayers, containing the praise of the sun, in the Persian, Hindi, Turkish, and Arabic languages, among which all was one prayer which is proper to the Hindus, and which they sing at midnight and at sun-rise. Besides, the emperor forbade his subjects to kill cows and to eat their flesh because medical men have declared that cow’s flesh causes itch, dry scab, leprosy, elephantiasis, and the like diseases, and is difficult to digest. The Hindus say also that, as many advantages are derived from the cow, it is not right to kill it. The Yezdánian maintained that it is tyranny to kill harmless animals, and a tyrant is an enemy of God, the Almighty. But the learned of the time showed in the book Serat´ ul mustakím, “the right road,” composed by the Imám Majeddin Muhammed, son of Yàkub, son of Muhammed, Fírózábádí,[74] that what is known

“The most excellent meat of both worlds is flesh.”

This has not been firmly established, and in the subject of the excellence of hersiah, a kind of pottage, 95 nothing appeared, nor on the subject of the virtues of the white cock;[75] and on the subject of bastards it is known:

“The illegitimate son has no access to paradise.”

This was not firmly established, and is futile. His Majesty, the khalífah of the all-just, proclaimed himself the joyous tidings, that cows ought not to be killed.

In like manner, the fire-worshippers, who had come from the town of Nóusarí, situated in the district of Gujerát, asserted the truth of the religion of Zoroaster, and the great reverence and worship due to fire. The emperor called them to his presence, and was pleased to take information about the way and lustre of their wise men. He also called from Persia a follower of Zardusht, named Ardeshir, to whom he sent money; he delivered the sacred fire with care to the wise Shaikh Abu ’l Faźil, and established that it should be preserved in the interior apartment by night and day, perpetual henceforth, according to the rule of the Mobeds, and to the manner which was always practised in the fire-temples of the Kings of Ajem, because the Ití set was among the sentences of the Lord, and light from among the lights of the great Ized. He invited likewise the fire-worshippers from Kirman to his presence, and questioned them about the subtilties of 96 Zardusht’s religion; and he wrote letters to Azer-Káivan, who was a chief of the Yezdáníán and Abádáníán, and invited him to India; Azer-Káivan begged to be excused from coming, but sent a book of his own composition in praise of the self-existing being, of reason, the soul, the heavens, the stars, and the elements; as well as a word of advice to the King; all this contained in fourteen sections: every first line of each was in Persian pure derí; when read invertedly, it was Arabic; when turned about, Turkish; and when this was read in reversed order, it became Hindí. The Nawab, the wise Shaikh Abu ’l Fazil placed a full confidence in Azer Káivan; he called the inhabitants of Ajem and Arabia “infestors of roads,” and the people of Islám “accursed.” The wise Shaikh Abu ’l Fazil said in Fatah púr to Abd ul Káder Bedávaní: “I have to complain of the authors of books for two reasons: the first is, that they have not explicitly enough written the account of ancient prophets, similar to that of their own prophet; the second is, that nothing remained of the industrious men whose name is not mentioned in the Tazkeret-ul-awlía, ‘the Story of the Saints,’[76] and the Nafhát alúns,[77] 97 ‘the fragrant Gales of Mankind,’ and the like; and the family of the prophet, what was their guilt that their names were not admitted into them?” Abd ul Káder gave no satisfactory answer. Ghází Khán Baddakshi, who had not his equal in logical science, treated explicitly and laboriously in sections of the just Imám (Alí), and established by investigation his superior merit in other treatises; and other learned men exercised their sagacity upon this subject.

In the month Rajeb of the year of the Hejira 987 (A. D. 1579), the Emperor Akbar was ordered (by Heaven) to fix the sentence: “There is but one God, and Akbar is his Khalifah,” to be used. If the people really wished it, they might adopt this faith; and his Majesty declared, that this religion ought to be established by choice, and not by violence. In this manner, a number of men, who were more pious or wise than those of their times, chose this creed according to their conscience. The command came from God, that the attachment to the cause of the Lord God and to one’s master has four degrees, 98 which are: sacrifice of property, life, reputation, and religion. The command of the Ilahi, “divine,” faith means that, in case of an indispensable conflict, if one does not sacrifice all he possesses, he must renounce these four degrees. Further, it is the divine command, that one may relinquish something of the four degrees, but never make an abandonment of his God.

The Emperor further said, that one thousand years have elapsed since the beginning of Muhammed’s mission, and that this was the extent of the duration of this religion, now arrived at its term.

Another of his ordinances abolished absolutely the obligation of bathing after pollution by spermatic emission. The sages said that the most exquisite and best part of a man is maní, “sperm,” and that the seed of creation is pure. What sense is there that, after the common natural secretions bathing be not required, whilst the release of a quantity of delicate matter is subject to an entire ablution? Yet it is suitable to bathe before indulging sexual propensity.

It is equally absurd to prepare food for the spirit of a corpse, which then belongs to minerals: what sense is there in it? Yet the birth-day of a person is justly made a great festival, and called “the banquet of life.” Moreover, when one’s soul has attained the full knowledge of the primitive cause, and has left its mortal garment, this day also is devoted to rejoicing, and named “the day of union.”

99 On account of the difference between the era of the Hindus and that of the Hejira used by the Arabs, the Emperor introduced a new one, beginning from the first year of the reign of Hamáyún, which is 963 of the Hejira (A. D. 1555-6); the names of the months were those used by the Kings of Ajem; and fourteen festivals in the year instituted, coinciding with those of Zardusht, were named “the years and days of Ilahí.” This arrangement was established by Hakím Sháh Fattah ulla Shírází. On account of hearing so many disputes of the learned in the midst of the multitude, the custom of reading the comments on the Koran and the science of religion and law, were laid aside, and in their place astronomy, physic, arithmetic, mysticism, poetry, and chronology became current. The people of Ajem used to repeat frequently these verses:

Khaja abd ul látíf,[78] who was one of the distinguished personages of Maverah ul naher, gifted with the talent of subtile distinctions, raised doubts upon the truth of the saying:

100 ‘The neck of the lord Muhammed is similar to the neck of an idol.’

If that prevailed, then idolatry would be laudable. In like manner, the tradition about the she-camel straying far off,[79] which is published in the Sír, “acts and deeds;” then the assault upon the caravan of the Koraish, in the beginning of the Hejira;[80] also demanding nine wives,[81] and the interdiction of women from husbands according to the pleasure of 101 the prophet, and this taking place;[82] the companions giving up their body; which is to be known by reading the book Sír; further, the appointment of the three first khalifs;[83] the affair of Fadek;[84] the war of Safín;[85] the victory of the Shiâhs; and the defeat of the Sonnites: all these topics are subject to reflection.

At a convivial meeting on the new-year’s festival, a Kási and a Mufti were inclined to drink cups of wine. Shaik Abu ’l Fazil, as a counterpart to the explanation of the verse of the Koran, called “the throne,”[86] composed a sermon in two parts. He also translated the Mahábharat, which is the history of the wars of the ancient Hindu chiefs. Some learned men denied absolutely the affair of Muhammed’s 102 marriage night with Sidíkáh,[87] and blamed the deed of David concerning Uriah’s wife.

When the Sultán Khajah, who was one of the Ilahian, was about to leave this world, he said to the emperor: “Let not your Majesty bury me as if I had been an adorer of Divs.” On that account he was placed in a tomb with lamps, like a person of distinction, and a lattice was left towards the great majestic luminary, the splendor of which purifies from of all sins. Further, orders were issued that, in imitation of the kings of Ajem, low people may be prevented from reading the books of the wise, and from the pursuit of sciences. By other ordinances, the affairs of the Hindus were to be decided by learned Brahmans, and those of Muselmans by their own Káśis. Likewise the followers of other religions and persuasions received orders, that the head of a corpse may be laid in a tomb towards the east, 103 and its feet towards the west; and that persons, even in their sleep, may dispose themselves in that direction. It was further ordained, that the Ilahian may not apply to any other sciences of the Arabs but to astronomy, arithmetic, physic, and philosophy, and not spend their life-time in the pursuit of what is not reasonable. The interdiction of slaying cows was confirmed. It was also regulated, that a Hindu woman is not to be prevented from burning with her dead husband, but that the sacrifice ought to take place without violence used towards, or abhorrence shewn by, the widow. Another regulation was that, whoever eats with one whose profession is the slaughter of animals, should have his hand cut off; but only a finger, if he belong to the people of his house.

Again, a woman who is going about in narrow streets or in market-places, without having at that time her face veiled, ought not to be approached by her husband; and a woman of improper conduct, who quarrels with her husband, ought to be sent to the place of prostitutes, whose business it is to offer themselves for sale. In addition to this, in times of distressing famine, a father and a mother may happen to sell their children under age; when they find themselves in better circumstances, they must be allowed, by giving money, to rescue their offspring from the bonds of servitude. Moreover, a Hindu 104 who, in his infancy, without his will, has been made a Muselman, if later he chooses to return to the faith of his fathers, is at liberty to do so, and is not to be prevented from it; also every person is permitted to profess whatever religion he chooses, and to pass, whenever he likes, from one religion to another. But if a Hindu woman, having fallen in love with a Muselman, wishes to adopt his religion, she can be taken by force and delivered up to her family. And likewise a Muselman woman, if she has fallen in love with an Hindu, and wishes to adopt his faith, is prevented from it, and not admitted in his caste. Finally, the erection of a temple of idols, of a church, of a fire-temple, and a sepulchral vault, ought not to be impeded, nor the building of a mosque for the Muselmans.

Sader Jehan adopted the Ilahi religion. Acbar called the harmless animals the beasts of peace, and showed abhorrence to their slaughter. He mixed the best and purest part of every religion for the formation of his own faith. Mulla Tersún Badakhshi, who was a Muselman of the Hanifa creed, informed me, in the Hejira 1058 (A. D. 1648-9), that one day he went on a pilgrimage to visit the sepulchre of Akbar, the inhabitant of heaven; there, one of his friends, having hurt his foot in climbing up the holy tomb, set about reviling the khalifah of God. The companions said: “If the blessed Emperor, 105 now in heaven, have any power, that man will certainly come to some misfortune.” Soon after, indeed, he broke a toe of his foot by a stone which had fallen down from a crevice of the wall. In one of Akbar’s works we find, that it is indispensable to worship God, the all-just, and necessary to praise the beings near him; that none of mankind rise to the rank of stars, as men are not equal to the dignity of celestial luminaries. The Emperor inculcated on his followers, that a godly man ought to know no other object of his wishes but God, the Almighty; that is, whatever business the godly undertakes, his wish in that business ought to tend towards God.

Section III.—Upon the virtues of the stars, according to reason, manifestation, revelation, and tradition.

Aghátho démón,[88] or Shís, and Hermes al hermes, or 106 Idris,[89] and the philosophers said, that the Almighty Author created the celestial bodies and the stars in such a manner that, from their movements, effects may be manifested in the nether world, that is to say, the events below are subject to their motions, and every constellation, and every degree of altitude has its particular nature; which being known by experience, and information having been collected about the qualities of the degrees, the celestial signs, and their influences, it is in this manner evident that they are near the all-just; and that the house of prayer, the Kâbah of truth, and the Kiblah of conviction is heaven. The wise men believe, that every master of fame worshipped one of the stars: thus Moses worshipped Saturn, as Saturday 107 is holy to the Jews, and Moses vanquished the magicians and enchanters who are subservient to Saturn; Jesus worshipped the sun, on which account Sunday was sanctified by him, and finally his soul united with the sun; Muhammed worshipped Venus, wherefore he fixed upon Friday as a sacred day: as he would not reveal this meaning to the common people, he kept it secret; but it is evident from the prophet’s customs that he held Venus in great veneration; one of these was his passion for perfumes and the like.[90] We find in the histories of the Persians, that Ferhósh was a king in the time of Abád, and had poets without number about him; out of them all he chose seven; each of them, on one day of the week, recited his verses to the king. On Sunday, which was consecrated to the great luminary, the monarch used to go to the Kermábah[91], and on his return from thence, having approached the august image of the great fire, and there performed his worship, he betook himself to his palace. The chief of the speech-adoring bards, called Shedósh, came then into the royal presence. As the King professed the religion of the Yezdáníán, who never hurt an harmless animal, they brought, on this day 108 sacred to the sun, Sirdín, that is “rice,” and Perdín, called in Hindostan pahatí, before the King, and peas in the shell, which were then stript of their integuments. The King asked Shedósh: “For whom is this food?” The poet answered: “For the friend who, for the sake of retirement, is naked from head to foot.” The monarch, being pleased with this answer, filled the poet’s mouth with precious pearls of the purest water. The Queen, named Shuker, averting her heart from the King her husband, attached it passionately to the sweet composer of melodious speeches. When night came on, Shuker, believing that the King slept, went out by stealth. The King too followed her steps. When Shuker arrived at the house of Shedósh, many words occurred between them. Then the poet said to her: “A woman fears nobody; on that account she ought to be feared. Thou hast left Ferhosh, the King, and wilt devote thy affections to one like me!” Upon these words, the woman returned home without hope, and Shedosh turned his face to the image of the sun. But his looks fell upon one of the maids who were adorers of the sun, and desired her to converse with him; the maid, indignant at such a proposal, having approached the image of the sun, said: “I am thy worshipper; and this is not the time for associating with men: this poet of the King addressed to me an improper 109 speech.” When Shidósh came to the image of the sun, he found himself afflicted with a malady, and returned ashamed. Afterwards he went to the King, who, having seen him the night before in company with Shuker, said: “Shidósh, if thou speakest not the truth, thou shalt be put to death: what didst thou mean by saying that a woman fears nobody?” Shidosh replied:

The King was pleased with this speech, and bestowed Shuker on him as a gift; whatever excuses Shidosh offered, the sovereign did not listen to them; wherefore the poet brought the king’s wife to his house. But, from disease, his flesh began to diminish, and he was so far reduced as to be unable to leave his house. Thus it was, until the son of the king came to visit his father, and requested to see the royal poets. The King, having convoked six of them, ordered that Shidosh should recite his verses sitting behind a curtian. Shidosh, having heard this order, demanded at the very moment that a fire should be kindled, and in the midst an iron chain adjusted to suspend a seat above the flames. He resolved to himself from thence to address his praises to the majesty of the great fire, the sun; if he received them with favor, so much the better; if not, to throw himself into the fire, and so 110 to obtain his due. He then got upon the seat, and began to chaunt the verses which he had composed in honor of the sun: at this very time his leprosy disappeared. But, before he had ended his poem, his followers thought the great luminary would not grant his wish; and the poet, from fear of his life, would not throw himself into the fire; therefore, pulling the chair by means of the chain, they precipitated it into the flames. But after falling, he felt the fire had no effect upon him, and although dejected, remaining in his seat, he terminated his praise; then coming forth, he approached the King, and recited the verses which he had composed for the occasion; he subjoined: “O King, I have not been guilty of any vile deed on this occasion; but on the same day, at the time when the women approach the image of the sun, I also went there, and the guards did not know me. But the rebellious spirit had his play with me, so that, supposing a virtuous woman I beheld to be unmarried, I spoke improper words to her; on that account I was punished; but at the same time I held Shuker as a mother.”

Hóshang, the King, in the work Bahín ferah, “the highest dignity,” which is written to inculcate the duties towards the sanctity of the stars, states great miracles of every luminary. We read likewise, in the Mahábharat, that the Rája Jedeshter 111 (Yudhishthira)[92] attained the fulfilment of his wishes by worshipping the sun. As the Mahábharat is all symbolic, we also find there that the sun, having appeared to him in the form of a man, announced to him: “I am pleased with thee; I will provide thee with food during twelve years, then for the space of thirteen years thou wilt obtain a wonderful empire.” And the sun gave him a kettle, saying: “The property of this kettle is, that every day all sort of food in such quantity as thou wishest, comes forth from it, under the condition that thou first distributest it among Brahmans and Fakirs, and then among thy valiant brothers, the Kshatriyas.” Herodetes, the author of the history of the Yúnán (Greeks), stated that in a town of Rúmí there was in a temple an idol in the shape of Iskalápíús, which was known under the image of Apú, that is “the sun,” and that, whatever question they addressed was answered by him.[93] 112 The raiser of this figure was Iskalápíús. In the opinion of the Magians of Rúmi, it rendered oracles, because, having been made in strict dependency on the observation of the motions of the seven planets at the most suitable moments, it was constituted in such a manner that one of the spirits of the stars descended into it; and therefore answered any question asked from him. The name of this figure was Saklapes.[94]

The Sabeans believe that in some of their idols a white hand appears. Further, the wise men of Persia, Greece, India, and the Sabeans, all acknowledge the stars as the Kiblah, and the blessed Emperor (Akbar) also received divine commands with regard to them.

In the histories of the Turks is to be found that Jangiskhan[95] worshipped the stars, and several 113 things of wonderful meaning were connected with his person. In the first line was that which they call the state of washt. Some of the spirits of the stars were his assistants. During several days he was in a swoon, and in this state of senselessness all that the world-conquering Khan could articulate was Hu, hu! It is said that on the first manifestation of this malady, he obtained union with spirits, victories, and revelations of mysteries. The very same coat and garment which he first put on were deposited in a wardrobe, there sealed up, and kept by themselves. Every time that the illustrious Khan fell into this state, his people dressed him in that coat, and every event, victory, purpose, discovery of enemies, defeat, conquest of countries, which he desired, came upon his tongue; a person wrote down every thing, and put it into a bag which he sealed. When the world-seizing Khan recovered his senses, every thing was read to him and he acted accordingly, and every thing he had said took place. He possessed perfectly the science of divination by means of combs, and having burnt them, gave his decisions in a manner different from that of 114 other diviners who paid attention to combs. It is said that, when this conqueror of the world fell into the hands of his enemies, he recovered his liberty by the assistance of Amír Shír Khán, who, having given him a mare of Kirang, enabled him to join his men, who had already despaired of his life. Tulí Khán, who was then in his infancy, said one day: “My father, sitting upon a mare of Kirang, is coming near.” On this very day, the Khan returned in that manner to his camp. When the Turks saw the wonders of his acts, they opened freely the road of their affection to him. Such was his justice and equity, that in his army nobody was bold enough to take up a whip thrown on the road, except the proprietor of it; lying and thieving were unknown in his camp. Every woman among the Khorásánián, who had a husband living, had no attempt upon her person to fear. Thus we read in the Tabkat Náśeri, “the degrees of Naśer,”[96] that when Malik Táj-ed din, surnamed the King of Ghór, returned 115 with the permission of Jangis Khan, from the country of Tálkán to Ghór, he related the following anecdote: When I had left the presence of Jangis Khan, and sat down in the royal tent, Aghlán herbí, with whom I came, and some other friends, were with me, a Moghul brought two other Moghuls, who the day before had fallen asleep when on the watch, saying: “I struck their horses with the whip, rebuking them for their guilt in sleeping, yet left them; but to-day I have brought them here.” Aghlan faced these two Moghuls, asking them: “Have you fallen asleep?” Both avowed it. He then ordered one of them to be put to death; and that his head should be tied to the hair lock of the other the latter then to be conducted through the camp, and afterwards executed. Thus it was done. I remained astonished, and said to Aglan: “There was no witness to prove the guilt of the Moghuls; as these two men knew that death awaits them, why have they confessed? If they had denied, they would have saved themselves.” Aghlan Herbí replied: “Why art thou astonished? You, Tají Khan, you act in this way, and tell lies; but, should a thousand lives be at stake, Moghuls would not utter a lie.”

Jangis Khan raised Oktáyí Khan to the rank of a Khalif, “successor.”[97] Châtayi Khan, who was his 116 elder brother, in a drunken fit dashed his horse against Oktáyi Khan, and then hurried away. When he became sober, he reflected upon the danger which would ensue from his act, and that the foundation of the monarchy might be destroyed in consequence of it; therefore, presenting himself as a criminal, he said to his brother: “How could a man like me presume to measure himself with the King, and dash his horse against him! Therefore I am guilty, and confess my crime. Put me to death, or use the whip against me: you are the judge.” Oktáyi replied: “A miserable like myself, what place should he take? You are the master: what am I?—that is, you are the elder, I the younger, brother.” Finally, Chengháyi, presenting him nine horses, said: “I offer this as a grateful acknowledgment that the King did not exercise his justice towards me, and that he forgives my crime.”

When Oktáyí Khan dispatched Jermághún, a commander 117 of a district furnishing ten thousand men, with an army of thirty thousand warriors, to reduce the sultan Jelal eddin,[98] king of Khárazim, at the time of the breaking up of the army, he said to one of the Omrás, who was subordinate to Jermaghún: “The great affair of Jelal eddin in thy hand will sufficiently occupy thee.” Finally, this Amir, having fallen upon the Sultan Jelal-eddin in Kurdistan, destroyed him completely. The liberality and generosity of Oktáyikán was as conspicuous as the sun. When Tayir Baháder, in the year of the Hejira 625 (A. D. 1227) moved the army of the Moghuls from Abt´al to the country of Sístán, they besieged the fort Arak; at that time the plague manifested itself among the Moghuls, so that, at first, a pain was felt in the mouth, then the teeth moved, and on the third day death ensued. Malik Sálakín, 118 the governor of the fort, fixed upon the stratagem that seven hundred young men should lie in ambush: who, when they should hear the sound of the war-drum from the eastern gate, opposite which they were placed, were to break out from the ambush, and fall on the back of the enemies. Conformably with this plan, in the morning the eastern gate was opened, and the Muselmans were engaged in the assault; but when the drum was beaten, nobody came forth from the ambush: after three watches, a man was sent to bring intelligence from that quarter, but he found them all dead.

The world-conquering Jangiz Khan, at the time of his wasting away, said to his sons: “Never deviate from your faith, nor lend your powerful support to other religions; because, as long as you remain firmly rooted in your faith, your people and companions will acknowledge you as the chiefs of their faith, and count you as the leaders of worship; but he who changes his religion for that of others, being a chief of the faith, may be still considered as a chief by the people of the new religion; but in the eyes of his own people will lose that dignity: because he who passes over with you to another faith will esteem as chiefs those of the new faith; besides, he who remains attached to my faith will also be displeased with you for not having continued in the religion of his fathers.” 119 To sum up all, as long as they conformed themselves to the last will of the Khan, they were powerful; but when they deviated from his counsel, they sunk into distress and abjection. The stars were favorable to them in every thing.[99]

It is related: Kík Khan, who was of the family of Chaghaty Khan, was one day walking with noblemen of his suit in the plain, travelling about in the desert. At once, his looks fell upon bones; at the same moment he became thoughtful, and then asked: “Do you know what this handful of bones says to me?” They replied: “The King knows best.” He resumed: “They demand justice from me as being oppressed.” He demanded information about the history of these bones from Amír Hazárah, who held this country under his dependence. This governor inquired of Amir Sadah, who administered this district under him; and after reiterated 120 investigations, it became clear that, nine years before, a caravan had been attacked at this place by a band of highwaymen, and plundered of their property, a part of which remained still in the hands of the guilty. At last it was recovered from the murderers, and restored to the heirs of the slain who were in Khorásán.

It is said that, when an army of the Moghuls was occupied with the siege of the fort of Imbál, in which were the mother and several women of the king of Khárarem, nobody had ever given information that the garrison was distressed for want of water. Although a quantity of rain-water was collected in the reservoirs, so that during years they had no need of spring-water, yet at the time when the Moghuls were encamped before the place to reduce it, no rain had fallen, and one day not a drop of water remained in the reservoirs; the next day the women of the Turks and Naśer eddin, with thirsty lips, compelled by necessity came down to surrender; but at the very moment that they arrived at the foot of the fort, and the army of the Moghuls entered it, a heavy rain began to pour down, so that the water ran out from the ditches of the fort. When this intelligence was brought to the Sultan Muhammed, sovereign of Khárazem, he become insensible, and when he recovered his senses, he died without being able to utter a word.

121 Upon the whole: as long as the Sultans of the Moghuls preserved the worship of the stars, they conquered the inhabitants of the world; but, as soon as they abandoned it, they lost many countries, and those which they kept were without value and strength.[100]

Section IV.—Upon the sayings of his Majesty (Akbar), dwelling in the seventh heaven.

First, the ordinances of conduct which the Nawab, the wise and learned Shaikh Abu ’l Fazil wrote, with the pen of accuracy, by orders of his Majesty, dwelling in heaven, in order that the governors of the countries occupied by his sovereignty, and the clerks, may pay attention to their execution.

This is “God is great;” this is the patent of the Ilahí faith: and the ordinances of conduct are a work of instruction, which sprung from the fountain of benevolence, and the mine of kindness of sovereignty, 122 and according to which the regulators of the royal offices, the managers of the Khalifa’s court among his fortunate sons, the gentle-minded princes, the Omrahs, high in dignity, all men of rank, the collectors of revenues and the Kótwals may settle their practices; and in the arrangement of important affairs in great cities and in villages, and in all places maintain their authority.

The principal point is summarily this: that, in all transactions, they may endeavor to deserve the divine favor, by their usages and pious practices; and that, humbly suppliant in the court of God, without partial complacence to themselves and to others, they may execute the law in their proceedings. Another point is, that they may not too much like their private apartment; for this is the manner of the desert-choosing durvishes; that they may not accustom themselves to sit in the society of common people, nor to mix in large crowds; for this is the mode of market people; in short, that they may keep the medium between the two extremes, and never forsake the just temperance; that is, avoid equally excess in dissipation and retirement. Besides, they are enjoined to venerate those who are distinguished by devotion to the incomparable God; to take the habit of vigilance in the morning and evening, and particularly at midnight; and at all times, when they are free from the affairs of God’s 123 creatures, to occupy themselves with perusing the books of the masters of purity and sanctity, and the books of moral philosophy, which is the medicine of spirituality and the essence of all sciences; such as Ikhlák Naseri, “the Ethics of Naśery;”[101] and manjíat wa mahelkat, “the Causes of Salvation and Perdition,” Ahyáyí âlúm ál dín, “the Revival of the Sciences of Faith;”[102] the Kimíáyi Sâadet, Alchymy of Felicity;”[103] and Masnaví, “the poetical compostion of the Máulavi of Rúm,”[104] so that having attained the highest degree of religious knowledge, they may not be liable to be moved from their station by the fictions of the masters of deceit and falsehood; as in this state of dependence the best sort of worship is, after all, the most important 124 concern of creatures; that, without being influenced by friendship or enmity, without regard to relations or strangers, they may with an open forehead raise themselves to a dignified rank; further, that they may, to the extent of their power, confer benefits upon the religious mendicants, the miserable and indigent, particularly upon the pious recluse in a corner, and upon the saints, who, straitened in their expense and income, never open their lips for a demand; that, being in company with the pious hermits seeking God, they may beg their benediction; besides that, having weighed the faults, errors, and crimes of men in the balance of justice, they may assign to each his proper place, and by the balance of well-founded appreciation bestow retribution upon each; that by the judgment of sagacious men they may find out in the crowd him whose faults ought to be concealed and passed over, and him whose guilt is to be examined, proclaimed, and punished; for there are faults which deserve greatly to be repressed, and others which are to be treated with great indulgence; it is required that, to show the right way to the disobedient, they use advice and gentleness, harshness or mildness, according to the difference of rank and season; when advice remains without effect, then imprisoning, beating, maiming of members, and capital punishment may be inflicted, according to the diversity 125 of cases; but in putting a man to death they ought not to be too rash, but rather employ an abundance of considerations:

“A head once severed cannot be refitted to the body.”

Whenever practicable, they ought to send the delinquent worthy of death to the King’s court, and there represent his case. If keeping him be likely to occasion an insurrection, or (sending him to the King’s court) become the cause of trouble, in this necessity he may be executed; but flaying alive, or throwing a man under the feet of an elephant, which is practised by violent kings, ought to be avoided. The treatment of every man is to be conformable to his rank and condition; because to a high-minded man a severe look is equivalent to death, whilst to an abject person, even flagellation is nothing. Besides, remission is to be made to any body who, by his genius, knowledge, and virtue should have acquired consideration, and when the magistrates observe in his conduct any thing unbecoming in their opinion, they ought to tell it to him in private. If one of the historians of the times relates something wrong, they are not to rebuke him severely for it; for a rebuke is a barrier upon the road of truth-speaking; and he upon whom the incomparable God has conferred the aptness of speaking truth, deserves to be accounted precious: 126 for men are excessively weak, and those who are of a mean origin and depraved, have no inclination to speak truth, but choose to submit to every sort of abjectness. He who is of a good disposition is cautious that nothing in his speech may be disagreeable to the ears of his master, and that he may not incur disgrace. But the man of noble sentiments, who prefers his own loss to the advantage of others, possesses the science of the philosopher’s stone. Administrators ought not to be fond of flattery, as many affairs are left undone on account of flatterers; nor ought they, on the other hand, to ill treat those who are not flatterers, as a servant may also be obliged to say unpleasing things.

The judges should attend personally, as much as possible, to the examination of the plaintiff (verse of Sâdi):

The plaintiffs ought to be examined in the order in which their names are inscribed on the list, in order that he who came first may not be subject to the inconvenience of waiting. The disposal of precedence or delay is not to rest with the first registrars of the court. If a person be accused of acting criminally, the judges ought not to precipitate his punishment; for there are many eloquent slanderers, and few well-intentioned speakers of what is 127 right. During the period of anger, they ought not to let the bridle of reason slip out of their hands, but act with calmness and reflexion. It becomes them to grant privileges to some of their friends and servants, who are distinguished by great wisdom and devotedness. At the time of overbearing grief and affliction, when the wise abstain from speaking, let them not exceed either in words, silence, or imbecility. They should be sparing with their oaths, as much swearing raises a suspicion of lying. They ought not, to accustom themselves to offend an interlocutor by evil surmises or by bad names: for these are vile manners. Finally, it is their duty to show solicitude for the promotion of agriculture, the welfare of the cultivator, and the assistance of tenants; in order that, from year to year, the great cities, the villages, and towns may rise in prosperity, and acquire such facility of improvement that the whole land may be rendered fit for cultivation, and consequently the increase of population be carried to the utmost.

These ordinances, separately written, are to be communicated to every agent of government, that they may apply their minds to the execution of them; in short, having given notice of them to all subjects small and great, the magistrates ought not 128 to deviate from them under no circumstance nor in any manner: and to prevent the soldiers from entering the houses of the inhabitants without their permission; besides, in their proceedings, they should not rely upon their own judgment, but ask the advice of those who are wiser than themselves; not obtaining this, they ought nevertheless not to desist from seeking advice; as it happens frequently that even the ignorant may indicate the road of truth, as it was said (by Sadi):

Moreover, advice is not to be asked from many persons: for, right judgment in practical life is a particular gift of God; it is not acquired by reading, nor is it found by good fortune. It may also happen, that a set of ignorant men opposes thy endeavors, and causes irksome embarrassment in thy way, so as to retain thee from the dictates of thine own reason, and from the right-acting men, whose number is always small.

The magistrates are also directed never to charge their sons with a business which belongs to servants; and never to be a guarantee for what is done by their sons; as thou canst easily find amends for what passes between others; but, for what occurs 129 to thee a remedy is difficult. It may become thee to listen to excuses, and to look with half-shut eyes at some faults; for there is no man without guilt or defect; rebuke sometimes renders him but bolder; sometimes depresses him beyond measure. There are men who must be reprehended at each fault; there are others in whom a thousand faults must be overlooked; in short, the affair of punishment does not suit the dignity of the important concerns of royalty, and is to be carried with calmness and judgment to its proper aim. A governor ought to grant all facilities to God-fearing and zealous men, and to inquire from them the good and the bad, never ceasing to collect information: for royalty and command borrow security from vigilance. He ought not to oppose the creed and religion of the creatures of God: inasmuch as a wise man chooses not his loss in the affairs of this perishable world, how in those of religion, which is permanent and eternal, should he knowingly tend to his perdition? If God be with his faith, then thou thyself carriest on controversy and opposition against God; and if God fails him, and he unknowingly takes the wrong way, then he proves to himself a rule of erroneous profession, which demands pity and assistance, not enmity or contradiction. Those who act and think well, bear friendship to every sect. Besides, they avoid excess in sleeping and eating, without 130 deviating from the measure of what is necessary, so that, rising above the relinquished step of brutishness, they attain a distinguished rank of humanity. Let it be recommended to watch by night as much as possible; never to show violent enmity towards any man; and to beware of making one’s bosom the prison-house of rancour; should it nevertheless take place from the infirmity of human nature, let it soon be stifled: for, in the interior of our soul resides the true agent, the unparallelled God, and raises tumultuous strife for the sake of provoking the investigation of truth.

A governor should disdain laughing and joking: he should always be informed of every occurrence by spies; but never rely upon the information of one of them, because truth and disinterestedness are rare among them; therefore, in every affair, let him appoint several spies and intelligencers, who are not to know each other; and, having written down separately the account given by each of them; compare them with each other. But the notorious spies are to be dismissed and discarded from his presence, nor access granted to persons of mean birth and depraved habits, although this sort of people may be usefully employed against other bad men; but he should never let the account-book slip out of his hands, and always entertain in his heart suspicion against this class of men, that they may 131 not perhaps, under the guise of friendship, usurp the place of honest men. Let him observe those near him and his servants, that they may not, on account of their approaching him, oppress others. He ought to be on his guard against the flattering-tongued liars, who in the garb of friendship act the part of real enemies, as disorders are occasioned by their agency. Great personages, on account of abundant occupations, have little, but these malefactors have a great deal of leisure; therefore, from all sides and quarters, precautions against the latter are required. To cut short all prolixity, a governor ought to find men worthy of confidence, and pay the greatest attention to the promotion of knowledge and industry, so that men of talent may not fall off from their high station among men. He ought besides to favor the good education of the old families of the royal court.