Introductory material (continued 3)

Still later, imperfections had to be noted; but that does not show, by any means, incapacity on the part of our builders. It happens even in these times, both at home and abroad, that the best yards launch vessels which are not up to their best work or which may need changes.

Admiral Schryver’s complaint (DE JONGE, Vol. IV, Chap. I, p. 116) denouncing the incapacity of our constructors seems to be neither founded nor deserved. It is a question here of a headstrong naval officer, imbued with his own ideas and holding only contempt for those of others (DE JONGE, Vol. IV, Chap. I, p. 116), rather than a man thoroughly conversant with our naval architecture. Still, as it has been shown further back, it was not alone during the time of the Grand Pensionary Jean De Witt, and of the illustrious Colbert, as De Jonge tells us (Vol. IV, Chap. I, p. 120), that foreigners came to learn shipbuilding from us; much later still, in 1780, France sent her sons to our yards and it is assumed that it was only under the reign of Louis XVI (1774-1793), that the French navy could throw off Dutch influence entirely.

Our country followed attentively, however, the progress made in France and England in the art of naval construction, as is testified to by the translation of Du Hamel du Monceau’s work (appeared in 1757), and the passage therein contained announcing, for later on, a translation of the work of Mungo Murray, the famous builder of the shipyard at Deptford. It is not known whether this latter translation ever saw the light, all the same, it is clear to my mind, from what precedes, that works appearing abroad were read by us.

It has been shown that drawing was used in connection with shipbuilding at the middle of the XVIIIth century. Hence shipbuilders had broken with the old Dutch method of being guided by lines drawn by ribbands.

The lowest gun ports of ships were placed too near the water; complaint was first made against this by us. The same complaint was soon heard in England where the situation was not remedied, however, until the end of the XVIIIth century, when the French builders were copied. (HOLMES, p. 126).

A certain amount of time went by before Great Britain adopted the improvements made in shipbuilding by the French.

Mr. de Jonge, relying on foreign quotations, states that the Czar Peter-the-Great seems to have learned shipbuilding, properly so called, in England. FINCHAM, the historian, even relates (History of naval architecture, p. 69) that the Czar Peter preferred English to Dutch construction. Mr. Koenen remarks, in regard to this, that this preference could, at most, only have had to do with war ships. Be this as it may, it is settled that Peter-the-Great resorted, all the same, to Dutch vessels, builders and seamen to form his fleet which, three years before his death, included 41 men-of-war carrying 2106 guns and 14,900 men, which made the Swedes say (DE JONGE, Vol. IV, Chap. II, p. 152, and M. KOENEN, pp. 93-95): “We see nothing Muscovitish about the Muscovite fleet unless it be the flag. We have to fight a Dutch fleet, commanded by Dutchmen, manned by Dutch seamen and spitting out Dutch powder from Dutch guns”.

It may be asked then whether the Peter-the-Great would really have called on the Dutch builders if he had been able to find better among the English.

What explanation is to be made as to why our shipbuilders were abandoned about the middle of the XVIIIth century?

The size of ships was constantly increasing in England and in France; and the fleets of foreign powers were ever becoming stronger, while in our country, the shallowness of passes, rivers and ports, prevented the construction of ships which, by their size, could vie with those of other lands. (VAN YK, p. 14). All the writers of the period point out this situation of which the realness has been shown by means of a few figures.

The disadvantage resulting from the relative shallowness of the Dutch passes was felt as far back as the end of the XVIIth century, and this disadvantage could only become more marked as time went on. Meanwhile, the necessity of building more powerful ships, carrying as many as 90 to 95 guns, became a matter of serious importance. In order to avoid drawing too much water, it became necessary to make the ships fuller, but this also made them heavier and poorer sailers, consequently they were but poor fighting instruments in the hands of our brave admirals. Is it then to be wondered at that the latter complained about them bitterly? In spite of all our courage, the shallowness of our approaches to the sea, to say nothing of the financial situation, made us yield before the foreigner.

This inferiority is wrongly blamed on the Dutch shipbuilders of the day. Naturally, many of them held on for a long time to the old ways, as is shown by Du Hamel du Monceau, in the following terms at page 287 of his work: “The habit of copying mechanically and servilely what was done in the past, has produced all these rules of proportions observed in determining the main frame, the description of models and their designs.” And this author adds this interesting detail: “Every ship-carpenter kept these rules as a family secret”.

The Dutch builders had no affection for the pen; WITSEN himself has already called attention to this; they were afraid of publishing their secrets, lest they might see their work carried off by others. It was only a few years ago that an engineer engaged in shipbuilding refused to let me see the drawings of one of his ships; he too feared lest his models should be imitated.

How, then, could it be expected that ships should already be built according to scientific rules, at the middle of the XVIIIth century, when in France, which was ahead of all other nations in the matter, these rules were not taken up until 1740? Le Musée de Marine du Louvre says in speaking of the XVIIIth century: “It (the vessel) is built in accordance with scientific principles which began to become known in 1697, but which scarcely date from before 1740 and which bring about a great resemblance among the ships of all countries so soon as they are intended for navigating the high seas, as originality no longer exists except for coasting vessels attached to their own shores.” (See, among others, M. BONGEUR, 1746, XXIII.)

It was not, then, attachment to tradition, but the natural condition of our passes which kept us from building vessels of war as good as those built abroad. This is what Mr. DE JONGE forgets, while at the same time he attaches too little weight to practice, which still enjoys, even in our time, a great authority even in the matter of shipbuilding. So this honorable writer arrives necessarily at forming, in regard to our builders of the XVIIIth century, an unfavorable and undeserved judgment.

The decline of shipbuilding along the “Zaan”, for example, was not the consequence of the ignorance of our builders; this cause must be attributed above all to the silting up of the river and of the mouth of the IJ. This occurrence no longer allowed ships of any importance to be taken to sea except at great cost and trouble. (LOOSJES, De Zaandamsche dorpen, p. 194.—M. KOENEN, p. 95.)

III 15

In order to bring out the difference existing between the French and English styles and the Dutch style, I have placed on one plate of my album the various main frames. This drawing is sufficiently eloquent by itself, still, I must once more call attention, in passing, to the differences which distinguish these various styles. These differences existed at first in the shape and composition of the main frames; then, the English vessels had less sheer, were less high and were not square at the stern. (VAN YK, p. 17.) The English seem also to have used crossed riders, instead of stanchions with vertical faces, to save working; but this process was considered less practical from the point of view of stowage. (VAN YK, p. 17 and figure A, p. 18.) They gave their ships loof (WITSEN, p. 126) and broad sides (“dick in den buik”, as WITSEN says on p. 207), the reverse of what was done for the Dutch vessels. “The Dutch ships”, says HOLMES (p. 110), “excelled all others in one respect: that they were the first in which the absurd practice of an exaggerated ‘tumble home’ or contraction of the upper deck was abandoned. This fashion”, he said further on, “was still carried out to a very great extent by the English and to a less extent by the French and Spaniards”.

HOLMES speaks also of the light draught of our vessels. He expresses himself on this subject as follows on page 111 of his work: “In consequence of the shallowness of the Dutch harbours, the draught of their ships was also considerably less than that of the English vessels of corresponding force”.

The English had at their disposal docks for the construction of their ships (WITSEN, p. 206, column I.); they used neither ribands nor shores. Before laying down their ships, says VAN YK (p. 19), they so prepared the models as to give them the shape desired. For this purpose, and before starting construction, they laid out the frames at full size on a floor. This process was, therefore, born in England.

The laying out of the full scale drawings was only adopted with us at the middle of the XVIIIth century. Before this time, only models and ribands were used in our country, as is still the present practice for building the smaller wooden vessels and many fishing boats.

This new method, however, was not introduced without trouble; and the more so as there was doubt of success in applying it to the Dutch ships, which, as VAN YK says (p. 19), “had rounded sides, to allow them to glide over the water, and sharper angles than the English ships” which had a more regular contour.

The Swedes and Danes followed the Dutch method in the main. (VAN YK, p. 20.) Their navy was copied after ours (DE JONGE), but their ships were not so full and drew more.

The honor of having endowed the shipbuilding art with scientific principles belongs wholly to the French. All the nations, even the Dutch and the English borrowed these principles from them about the middle of the XVIIIth century. It was however only at the end of this century that the French method for calculating and designing ships forced its way everywhere.

The Netherlands, in addition to their war fleet proper, had a very large merchant marine. (KOENEN, p. 90.) This latter it is said, included, at the beginning of the XVIIth century, 20,000 vessels which had all been built in Holland and, flying the Dutch colors, furrowed the seas in all directions. At the end of this century, when we must have already lost many of our over-seas possessions, the total tonnage of the English merchant marine amounted to 500,000 tons; that of our country was 900,000 tons, and all other nations together had 2,000,000 tons. (GROEN VAN PINSTEREN, Handboek, § 303.—KOENEN, p. 160.)

Our merchantmen obtained quickly a great perfection. Full proof of this can be found in the observations made by Sir Walter Raleigh (1552-1618) about the Dutch ships, in which, as he remarks, a large amount of freight could be stowed while, at the same time, they required a smaller crew than that found necessary for the English ships. (KOENEN, p. 86.)

Our merchant vessels, among which especially “flutes” were met with, were copied by the English and French.

Flutes were used preferentially as freight carriers. The following, for example, is found in Le Musée de Marine du Louvre: “The navy has always had transports for supplying squadrons; they were called at first flutes or transports and later were known as ‘corvettes de charge’”.

In order to give an idea of the number of vessels in use at the end of the XVIIth century, I have given below a few figures taken from Mr KOENEN’s work, p. 160, which he, in his turn, has borrowed from “VAN HOOGENDORP.—Bijdragen tot de huishouding van den Staat”. (Vol. I, p. 183.)

In 1783, there were in the provinces of North Holland and Friesland: 50 flutes of 400, 450 and 500 lasts (1 last = 2 tons) sailing to Norway and the Baltic Sea, as well as for France and Spain; 30 flutes of 250 to 280 lasts; 18 flutes of 160 to 180 lasts frequenting the port of Archangel, the Mediterranean and the West Indies and having served originally for the Greenland fisheries; then 16 craft of 160 to 180 lasts and 80 howkers or galliots, of which 13 were of 300 to 350 lasts, 18 from 240 to 280, 12 from 200 to 220, 17 from 160 to 180 and 20 from ___ to 150, which sailed to Archangel, the Baltic, the Mediterranean and the West Indies. There were also, 60 frigates “snauwen” and brigantines, of which 10 of 150 to 200 lasts; 30 from 100 to 140 and 20 from 70 to 90 lasts; 5 “hekbootschepen” of 200 to 300 lasts and 140 vessels including howkers, frigates “snauwen” and brigantines varying from 60 to 300 lasts. Finally there were still 36 vessels frequenting the East and West Indies, 150 “kuffs” and smacks of 50 to 70 lasts, 90 “kuffs” and galliots of 70 to 100 lasts and, at the end, 120 galliots, (howkers) and “kuffs” of 100 to 150 lasts; in all, 819 vessels.

There should be added to this number, for Leeuwarden: 20 “kuffs” and “smacks” varying from 50 to 100 lasts and over; for Groningen, 30 vessels of 50 to 70 lasts; for Harlingen, 9 vessels of 100 to 150 lasts, 1 of 180, and 3 from 200 to 300 lasts; for Makkum, 14 ships of 60 to 100 lasts and over; for Workum, 2 of 60 to 70, 24 of 80 to 100 and 23 of 100 lasts and more.

Bolsward, Woudsend, Drylst, Dokkum, Sneek, Grouwsloten, etc., counted together 30 ships of 50 to 70 lasts; 40 of 70 to 100 and 50 of 100 lasts and above. Finally, Lemmer had 40 vessels of 50 to 100 lasts and upward.

There were also a large number of vessels of less importance, such as hoys, etc. having a carrying capacity of 20 to 30 lasts, and a not smaller quantity of fishing boats, which were not included in the above figures.

There is found thus a total of about 1105 vessels exclusive of small boats.

But it was not the mere number of ships which was large; there existed at the same time, as could be seen by the different denominations, a great variety of types of ships.

Merchant vessels, in particular, will be taken up in the next chapter. But, before leaving the ships of war, let it be once more remarked that, from the beginning of the XVIIth century, our country had its frigates. This type of ship was unknown among us before this time, but circumstances had forced its use in the end.

The inhabitants of Dunkirk had caused us heavy losses; from 1631 to 1637, they had captured at Maassluis more than two-hundred fishing vessels valued at over a million florins. (DE JONGE, Vol. I. p. 373.) In order to carry on their piracies with greater impunity, they had obtained from the Mediterranean a ship of fine lines which, although not large (it carried only 6 to 12 guns), was none the less a fine sailer; it was the frigate.

In order to struggle more effectively against the inhabitants of Dunkirk, we too began to build the vessel in question and their number increased rapidly under the urgent advice of our great Admiral Tromp. (DE JONGE, Vol. I, pp. 388 and 389.) Later on they were built of larger size.

III 18

As has just been said the frigate was imported into France by the inhabitants of Dunkirk; thence it passed into England, in 1741, (HOLMES, p. 121); all the same, this latter country had already had some of smaller size in 1646.

The frigates played an important part in the Anglo-American war.

Fire was one of the greatest enemies of wooden ships. Hence recourse was had to this element from the earliest times, in order to destroy an enemy’s fleet. It was not enough to throw burning pitch; more effective means were invented and the Ancients were already using fireboats to set fire to the hostile fleet.

Time will not be wasted in conjectures about the fireships of the Ancients, which could only have been ordinary vessels. A summary description will rather be given of those used in the XVIIth century they being the only ones mentioned in Witsen’s well known work, pp. 166 and 167.

Vessels of rather small size acted as fireboats, preferentially flutes or pinnaces. Later, “spiegelschepen” of 70 or 80 lasts were used. These vessels had a smooth continuous deck in which were made holes having an area of about 1.5 square feet. A trough starting from the poop ran forward for the entire length of the vessel, with side troughs leading athwartships, in a word, a train was formed which would let the fire run easily and quickly throughout the ship. For this purpose, the troughs were filled with a mixture composed half of gunpowder by volume, quarter of saltpetre and the remaining quarter made up of equal parts of resin and sulphur, the whole mixed with a little linseed oil.

The troughs thus filled were covered with shavings which, in their turn, disappeared under faggots of light branches soaked in a mixture of resin, cod-liver oil, powder and saltpetre. In addition to this, the vessel was filled with other inflammable materials; the deck and the inside walls were smeared with grease and covered with a layer of finely powdered resin.

Sometimes the fireships were loaded with open barrels filled with shavings soaked in tar. Special care was also taken that all ports and hatches should be left open so as to give plenty of draught.

In order more surely to have the fireship catch the enemy’s vessel, strong grapnels were attached to the end of the bowsprit and to the ends of the yards; these grapnels could be detached by means of ropes laid along the ship.

In order to deceive the enemy and to save appearances, quaker guns were stationed in the ports. Two iron guns only were placed aft for defence against attacks.

A large trap was made in the poop to allow the crew to quit the vessel, after having lighted the fire and let go the grapnels, and to get away in a launch attached to the fireship underneath the trap.

The service with fireships was naturally a perilous task, so only the bravest men were selected for this duty and they, on account of the great danger incurred, received double pay.

In case of need, the fireships were started straight at the enemy, so that the latter’s ship was taken face on and not by the side. Under these conditions, the rigging of the two vessels became entangled at once and it became impossible then to separate them.

The fireships were only old ships as a rule, yet new vessels were sometimes employed, for the construction of which, as Witsen says, “a very ordinary, very light and very inflammable wood was used.”

Externally the fireships did not differ from ordinary vessels; anything else would not have been practical, because the enemy would have recognized them at once under these conditions. Their crew was as few in numbers as possible and every precaution was taken to allow it to leave the vessel as soon as the latter was well on fire and had reached the desired point.

II 158 II 101

The changes made in our war ships during the XIXth century are sufficiently well known; consequently it will not be necessary to dwell on them. Nothing more will be said than this: that the sheer of these vessels became less, that the stem and the sternpost approached more nearly the vertical and that the old ornaments disappeared almost entirely.

II 165

Toward the end of the XVIIIth century, the rounded shape of the stern was adopted, according to the English fashion. It was the death blow to the old square stern ship, but already, long before that, it had been called ship of war. This new denomination changed nothing in its construction.

Our shipbuilding had gone to pieces under the French occupation, and the continental blockade completed the ruin. Still, toward the end of the first half of the XIXth century it succeeded in reviving. It is true that in 1824 only three ships, measuring in all 1440 tons, were built; but, in 1827, this number had already gone up to 59 vessels with a total tonnage of 19,758 tons. These data relate only to vessels of more than 100 tons. (KOENEN, p. 101.)

In 1853, says M. Koenen, there were in the province of Groningen 89 shipyards for both inland and ocean navigation. In Friesland, there were large yards at Harlingen and at Lemmen devoted exclusively to the construction of sea-going vessels. In North Holland, ocean shipping was under construction at Amsterdam, Medenblik, Monnickendam, Muiden and Nieuwendam. Shipbuilding was flourishing at Rotterdam, Schiedam, Alblasserdam and Dordrecht.

In this same year, 1853, adds the author above named, 125 ships built in our country were registered, and our merchant marine included 1971 vessels with a total tonnage of 224,432 lasts (= 448,864 tons).

Steam, too, had appeared among us during the first half of the XIXth century and sailing vessels for this reason were relegated to the background. The adoption of iron for the frames of ships also brought about great changes; but the importance of this new material was not everywhere sufficiently taken into account, and many shipyards which continued to hold to building in wood underwent a rapid decline. Others, on the contrary, which had taken up iron construction from the moment of its appearance, became largely prosperous and contributed greatly toward maintaining the ancient fame of our naval architecture.

The first iron ship turned out in the Netherlands was built by Fop Smit, who appears also to have been the inventor of iron masts. The first Dutch steamboats were built at Feyenoord (1834-1835) in the yard which now belongs to the Society of Naval and Mechanical Constructions. (See Gedenkboek Kon, Instituut van Ingenieurs, p. 209, etc.)

The revolution wrought by the introduction of steel in the construction of war ships is sufficiently well known; but these vessels have lost all character of their own and they can no longer be recognized except by the flag which they fly. Such is the present situation for ocean navigation, and such will also be the situation for inland navigation. Here too steel has been adopted for the construction of the frames of vessels, and the old forms are passing away to give place to types which will soon be in general use.

But, when that time comes, river boats will also have lost all national character and search will be made in vain to know what were the characteristics of the past. And yet, in spite of the uniformity which even now exists, the vessels which Holland has turned out can still always be recognized by their solid and elegant forms.

And may it thus ever be; may our builders ever carry higher the fair fame of Dutch naval construction; and may Dutch capital also continue to second them and to understand that the strength of our land lies in a flourishing marine. But the latter needs in its turn excellent lines of communication; the XIXth century, as we all know, has seen the rise of new communications by water and the improvement of the old lines; the obstacles, arising from insufficient depth in the channels leading to our commercial centres, have disappeared, and it has become possible for us to compete with foreign nations in the arena of the construction of large ships.

It was seen in the preceding chapter that it was not until the second half of the XVIIth century that the construction of vessels of war, as such, was begun in Holland. Up to that moment merchant ships were equipped and used for military purposes. In proportion as commerce developed and as dangers from enemies at sea increased, the armament of merchant ships became more and more important. So, personal interest was the cause of partially equipping merchantmen as men of war. It was for this reason that the East India Company built ships which may be considered as types of the kind.

Consequently it was just the largest merchant vessels which were most changed as time rolled by. The old types are, therefore, no longer found in this category of vessels; it is among the small craft that they are best preserved.

The oldest type of Dutch ship is the “Koggeschip” (Cog) from which are descended the “Krayers” and “Hulken”. These vessels are all clinker built. The “Barges”, “Baertsen”, etc. appeared in the XVth century. Their planking was smooth. They gradually drove out the “Krayers” and “Hulken”, from which they really differed little in form.

At the end of the XVth century are found the “Kraak” (carack or galleon) which came to us from the nations of the South, just as we took from them the “Spiegelschip” (a square-sterned vessel) at the close of the XVIth century. The names of “Barges”, etc. now give place to the “Koffen” (koffs) and “Smakken” (smacks); but the old forms do not disappear by reason of this fact; the same types of vessels merely change their name as the result of a few changes in details. It is thus that of the “Tjalken” (tialks), which are not mentioned by Witsen although they existed in his day and were then called “Smalschepen” or “Wijdschepen”. Several other examples of this sort could be given. The likeness of form is even so striking that, at the beginning of the XIXth century, our fleet still showed perfectly the types of Witsen’s time. The changes introduced were merely those of detail.

In examining the old types, which are now still in use, it is well not to lose sight of the fact that our ships have, during the XIXth century, increased greatly their length and beam and proportionally also their draught as the result of the improvements of our navigable highways and the digging of new channels.

The result of this has been the falling off of certain types, to which the appearance of iron in shipbuilding has also largely contributed.

For other types, the improvement of the navigable highways and the creation of ports have brought about their complete disappearance. Thus the construction of the “Bommenhaven” will soon have, as its consequence, the total disappearance of the old “Bommen” of which more will be said further on (fishing boats).

The smaller boats will give, under these conditions, the best idea of the old forms, and, as has been seen in what precedes, the most beautiful specimens will be found among the fishing boats. The fishing vessels best reveal the origin of the forms of our ships, so a special chapter will be devoted to this kind of craft.

It has been seen that the essential difference between merchant ships and men-of-war was marked by the narrow deck of the former which allowed the size of the crew to be reduced (WITSEN, pp. 54, 263, 266), and it has been told that the Dutch were always quoted as examples in this matter. It is thus that the “Vliebooten” (flyboats) appeared, the precursors of the “Fluiten” (flutes), which are known in England by the name of the “Dutch Flight”.

Trips both to northern and southern countries give rise to changes from which are developed a great number of types of boats all of which are derived, however, from a same fundamental type. WITSEN writes on this subject (page 53).

“Noortsche deelhaelders laeden het meest wanneer na den vierkante hellen, kooren schepen en die op stukgoederen aenleggen, als ze rondtachtig zijn en veel springen. Oost en Noortsvaerders die grove waeren laeden zijn grooter in ’t gemeen als die stukgoederen wijnen en diergelijke laeden gelijk ook de zouthaelders”[14].

These are all variations of a same type of vessel.

When the size of ships increased, it was necessary to make them still more bulging on account of the limited depth of the arms of the sea, and this brought about the disappearance of differences in the fundamental forms.

Thus we read in VAN YK (page 348).

“Maar als men hiertegen aanmerkt dat wegens de doorgaans ondiepe gronden en lastvoerens wil alle schepen van tijd tot tijd vierkanter werden gebouwd sulks dat heden desen aangaande niet so veel onderscheid tusschen d’een en d’andere soort van schepen als wel voor dezen gevonden werd. Want een hedendaags welgebouwde kaag sal in Lasten te voeren ’t Smalschip dat in Lengte, Wijdte en Holte daaraan gelijk is, weinig wijken willen. En de Damschuit die wel gemaakt is sal den Damlooper bijna ook evenaren konnen.”[15]

The narrow deck of merchant vessels had still another origin which referred to the way of gauging vessels and gave rise to the construction of strongly bulging ships.

WITSEN says (p. 160) on this point:

“Het uitbreecken deser schepen (Noortsvaerders) voor en achter bracht hier in den schipper profijt aan dat ze vele goederen meer stouden als de maat der schepen hielt.”[16]

This applies especially to boats going to load wood or grain at the Baltic ports, on account of the tolls which had to be paid to the King of Denmark, tolls of which the amount was determined by the treaty of 1647, by calculating the capacity of the vessel in terms of the length, the beam on deck and the depth of hold. But, when this treaty was modified in 1666, this unsightly way of building and this exaggerated bulging gradually disappeared (werd dit mismaekt bouwen en geweldigh uitspringen achterwege gelaten). (WITSEN, p. 160.)

III 16

Nevertheless, the construction of large numbers of merchant ships with narrow decks was still persisted in and, even at the beginning of the XIXth century, “Fluitschepen” (flutes) are still met with. A beautiful model of one of these “Dutch Flights” exists at the museum of antiquities at Dordrecht.

The greater bulging of merchant vessels kept pace with the straightening of the sternpost and stem. On another side, the idea that the volume of the submerged part of a vessel should be reduced to a minimum, was abandoned toward the end of the XVIIth century.

II 149 II 153

The straightening of the sternpost brought about the shortening of the beakhead which, at the beginning of the XVIIth century, measured one-fifth of the total length of the vessel and only one-eighth of this length at its end. This difference is clearly seen by comparing the Zierikzee model with that of the “Bleijswijk”. The beakhead, which had come down to us from ancient times (VAN YK, p. 103), was used only “als Heimelijke gevoeg-plaatsen” (as a W. C.) for the crew, and those who had been guilty of some unimportant misdemeanor were also shut up there, as VAN YK says (p. 104), “des devotie des overspelenden zeewaters” (at the mercy of the waves).

Fire was the great enemy of our merchant ships. The stoppage of leaks was also more difficult for these vessels than for men-of-war because it was impossible, as a rule, on the former to reach the leak from the inside and through the cargo.

Water tight bulkheads did not exist, but, for all that, the stoppage of the leak was none the less indispensable. WITSEN tells us how it was all handled (p. 276), and, after explaining how a fire was put out, he continues thus:

“Wanneer een geschoten gat onder water van binnen niet gestopt kan worden, hetzij den last in den weg is of anderzins, wordt een man buiten boord met een prop in de hant op een plankje gezet, daar een dreg aan vast is, die hem onder water haalt. En aldus stopt of dekt hij de opening. Men geeft hem een geoliede lap in den mont on het water uit het lichaem te weeren”[17].

Before going on to the classification, properly so called, of the principal categories of vessels which have just been sketched out, a few more remarks, about the ship in general and a few details in particular, should be made.

The old builders of wooden vessels determined the ship’s length by the work for which it was intended. This length was measured from the forward side of the stem to the after side of the sternpost. The beam and the depth were deduced from the length; the beam being taken equal to one-fourth of the length, and for the depth, one foot was taken for each 10 feet of length, at the point where the vessel’s height was least. It was only for esthetic reasons that the sternpost was made higher than the stem.

When the keel was laid down, the sternpost and the stem put up, the wing transom was made fast to the fashion timbers, then the main frame and the frame at the junction of the stem were reared. Another frame was raised between the main frame and the sternpost. “Centen” (thin flexible boards, called ribands in English) were then made fast to these frames so as to determine in this way the shape of the ship and to deduce therefrom the other frames.

According to VAN YK (p. 77), these boards are not called “centen”, but “certen”, because the form of the vessel is fixed by means of these boards and made “certain”. Other authors pretend that the word comes from “Kanten” or “Kenten” from the word “bekendheid” (knowledge).

The shape of the ship was thus determined by trial after having settled, in the first place, on the main frame and the length. The smaller the vessel, the more sheer it had and the more ribands were required exactly to determine its shape.

On the other hand it was customary to give the ship some sheer (zeegte), that is: to make it higher at the ends than at the middle. This sheer was obtained, after setting the ribands, by means of sheerstrakes of which the fastening was begun at the lowest point of the height of the ship. These sheerstrakes rose forward at the rate of 1 inch for every 6 feet of length, and aft at the rate of 5 inches for every 6 feet. The wales which served to protect the ship were laid according to the sheerstrakes. The sheer in large vessels (spiegelschepen) was gradually reduced and the effort was made insensibly to build ships with a flat deck in imitation of England and later of America. The sheer still exists in boats for inland waters, like the “Tjalken”, “Poonen”, etc. Only one wale or bend is used for small vessels, the larger ones, such as the “Tjalken” and “Smakken” require three bends superposed.

It is noticed, as a rule, that the bends became lighter in the XVIIIth century, just as did the sternpost and the stem. The engravings which show boats prior to 1500, show also several equidistant bends, and it was only at the end of the XVIth century that the single bends of later days are seen to appear. Moreover, it is certain that the improvement of the navigable highways was one of the causes of the lighter construction of ships.

These old engravings show that the planking is in very short pieces so as to avoid marked curves; but, in order to give, all the same, sufficient stiffness to the vessel, many bends became necessary.

II 138

In the old shipbuilding, where the pieces of the planking nailed together clinker ways make the construction more solid, the bends were exceptional. The old “Koggeschepen” (Cogs), for example, had none, but the reproduction of a small boat preserved at the church at Diemer shows them.

These wales are then supported by round wooden brackets which are still found in a few old “Poonen”.

In the matter of the wales, the rule was that when the vessel was seen from in front they seemed to be convex, with the convexity on top, whereas, seen from the side, they look concave, that is, with the convexity underneath.

It has been said in what precedes that the method of ribands (“centen”) was abandoned for large ships, about the middle of the XVIIth century, and that, after that time, work was done from sketches in putting up the frames and in building the ship.

The rudder was handled by means of a tiller, and on large vessels this is often held up by a piece of wood (luierwagen) which is still seen on many small inland vessels.

In order readily to work the tiller of large vessels, a hole was cut in the poop deck immediately over the free end of the tiller in its middle position. A lever passed upward through this hole and was hung on a pivot of which the axis lay fore and aft. The lower end of the lever was attached to the free end of the tiller while the upper end was loose. By swinging the top of the lever to one side or the other of the ship, a corresponding motion was given to the tiller and so to the rudder. This manœuvre was, naturally, not easy in heavy weather and required assistance. A pulley, around which ran a rope or steering line having one end made fast to the tiller, was set in the deck so as better to operate the rudder. (WITSEN, p. 274, 2d column.)

This rope, which was served by two men, formed with the pulley the precursor of the steering wheel which appeared on the continent in the XVIIIth century, after having been already in use in England, as certain authors try to make out.

It is claimed sometimes that the rudder could only swing a little to either side. This, however, is a mistake. WITSEN says, as a matter of fact, p. 58: “The greater the swing of the rudder, the harder is the manœuvre”. It is evident that Witsen would have said nothing about the swing if it had been small. It follows clearly from the quotation from VAN YK (p. 121) in regard to the “luierwagens” that the helmsman must have put forth a great deal of strength: “Hij (de luierwagen) diend om de Roerpen, aan ’t vooreinde t’ ondersteunen nademaal deze, wegens deszelfs langte, om sig selven te dragen immers om ’t geweld dat de man te Roer daaraan verrichten moet, uit te staan; al te zwak soude wezen”[18].

Finally, M. Bouguer (1746) says in his work, p. 83, “that the rudder should make with the prolongation of the keel an angle of about 55° 44´, etc.”.

Hence it is incorrect to say that the swing of the rudder could only reach a few degrees. (PARIS, vol. 4, p. 221.)

Furthermore, vessels should be able to come about more quickly in our rivers, with their narrow channels and small depth of water, hence the rudder should be able to swing more than a few degrees.

On small inland boats, the rudder is frequently lengthened on reaching shallow water. This elongation was made by means of an isolated board or a movable part (VAN YK, p. 221), a thing which happens still very often at the present time.

If the tiller can be turned entirely above the bulwarks, which is called in Dutch “geen statie voeren” (without statie), the vessel is said to have a draai over boord in contradistinction to vessels with “statie”. The “statie” means the part of the bulwarks which rises above the tiller[19].

The tiller passes in this case through an opening in the “statie”, which prevents the rudder being brought hard over.

The length of the lee-boards is taken at twice the depth of the hold.

As many rivers and lakes are lacking in depth, the length of the lee-boards is reduced for inland vessels, in order to prevent them from touching bottom, consequently their width was increased.

The lee-boards for the ocean and for the rivers of Zealand are long and narrow.

New modifications were made in the rigging of vessels toward the middle of the XVIIIth century. The small bowsprit disappeared in order to make place for the fore-masts which have remained in use since that time.

III 145 etc.

The rigging of the large vessels is sufficiently well known. It is desired merely to dwell on the fact that fore-masts have been placed wrongly on various models of the XVIIth century.

A vessel of which the planking is rabbetted into the stem is called a “vaartuig”. The “Aak” (ake) is a boat without a stem and its planking forms a plane up to the bow. The planking ends then at the plane in front. If this occurs for a “Tjalk”, there is obtained what is known as an “Aak Tjalk”.

When the after deck is raised so as to come up to the level of the main rail, the vessel is said to be supplied with a “paviljoen”. Thus, for example, a “Statiepaviljoenpoon”, is a “poon” with a raised deck. If the after deck be not raised, the vessel is simply a “Statiepoon”.

Vessels can be grouped, then, in the following way:

CLASSIFICATION OF SHIPS

I. WAR VESSELS.

II. MERCHANTMEN. A) For over seas trade; B) For coasting trade and tidal streams.

III. FERRIES.

IV. BOATS FOR SUNDRY USES AND NOT BELONGING TO THE PRECEDING GROUPS.

V. BOATS FREQUENTING THE UPPER PARTS OF RIVERS (BOVENLANDERS). A) For the Rhine; B) For the Meuse; C) For the Upper Rhine and the basin included between the Rhine and the Meuse.

VI. FISHING VESSELS. A) For deep sea fishing; B) For the coasting and river fisheries.

I. WAR VESSELS.

In the matter of the evolution of the war ship, properly so-called, the reader needs merely to be referred to the preceding chapters.

Before about 1675, there were, as a first war ship proper: the Pinasschip (Pinace) and later the Spiegelschip (a square stern ship). The square sterned Spiegel disappeared and then round sterns were again taken up, whence resulted the war ship called Schip van oorlog. At the beginning, this class of vessels was made up exclusively of ships with two decks. At the end of the XVIIth century, however, a few types with three decks were built in the Netherlands.

Use was often made of the “Fluitschip” (flute or transport), of ships of the East India Company (“Oost-Indische Compagnie schip”), of “yachts” (“Jachten”) and of various sorts of vessels of less importance, as auxiliary war ships, and of tenders (“Boeier”), galliots (“Galjoot”), galeas (“Galeas”), “Bommen”, kuffs (“Koffs”) and smacks (“Smaks”) as coast defence vessels.

All these vessels belong rather to the category of merchant ships and will be described in the next chapter.

Among the types imitated from abroad there may be mentioned the Fregat (frigate), and later the Brik (brig), the Schooner and the Bark.

II. MERCHANT VESSELS.

A) For over seas navigation.

The oldest merchant ship was the cog “Koggeschip”, from which are descended the “Hulken” and “Krayers”. The planking of these ships is clinker laid. Then vessels were built with more nearly rounded bottoms and the carvel-built side appeared in the second half of the XVth century. The resulting type was the Barge or “Baertze”.

Meanwhile, the construction of castles was begun on these ships, just as on the old cogs. These castles became gradually more important, imitating what had been done on the Spanish, Portuguese and Genoese ships. A type of vessel which, in accordance with the Spanish model, carried large castles was the Carack or Galleon (“Kraak”)·

This vessel disappeared from our country in the course of the XVIth century, at the end of which appeared the flyboats (“Vlie or Vlietbooten”) called later Flutes (“fluiten”).

These vessels departed from the preceding types by having a marked tumble in of the topsides. Hence the hull was full and the deck was narrow. The flutes were the merchantmen “par excellence” up to the beginning of the XIXth century.

The “Spiegelschip” also appeared toward the end of the XVIth century; it acted as a merchantman in the same way as the similar vessel of the Mediterranean. This vessel was called, at the beginning of the XVIIth century, Pinnace (“Pinasschip”).

The Pinnace became more rounded in the second half of the XVIIth century; it carried also a more nearly vertical stern and a smaller beakhead. From it came the East India Company’s ship (“Oost-Indisch Compagnie Schip”).

The flutes continued to hold their own alongside of the various types of vessels, but changes were made to adapt them better to the use for which they were intended, and so it was that the Noordvaerder or Walvischvaerder (whaling ship) and Oostvaerder (vessel of the Baltic Sea) made their appearance.

Small “Spiegelschepen”, having a lighter rig than the others, appeared elsewhere in the XVIIIth century under the name of Rinds (“Snauschepen”).

Two other types of large fishing vessels for the open sea were built, viz: the howker or hoy (“Hoeker”) and the bush (“Buys”) which will be found under the chapter of fishing vessels.

Still another ship comes to us from abroad as a merchantman: the Frigate, while the Tenders (“Boeiers” or “Kromstevens”) had been imitated already from models of the French navy.

These vessels appeared in the XVIIth century as the result of the traffic with the city of Rouen (WITSEN, p. 164, 2^nd col.).

From combinations of these types of vessels among each other or with smaller types have arisen certain kinds of boats called by the following names: the “Boot”, which was nothing but a small flute having a “draai-over-boord” stern; the “Hekboot”, derived from the pinnace and the Galliot; the “Katschip” (cat-boat), from the tender and flute; and finally the “Stokker”, which had the bow of a “Spiegelship” with the stern of a howker.

Let it be remarked in passing that it is hard to separate clearly navigation over seas from navigation along shore, for even small kuffs (“koffen”) have been chartered for the Indies in many cases.

The distinction made here between navigation over seas and navigation along shore bears especially on the original destination of the vessels.

B) For navigation along shore.

The largest types of vessels for navigation along shore were represented by the galliot (“Galjoot”) and the galeas (“Galeas”); then by the kuff (“Kof”) and the smack (“Smak”).

The “Damloopers”, the “Smalschepen” and the Wijdschepen as well as the “Friesche turfschepen” (the peat boats of Frisia) belonged to the family of the smacks.

These boats all came from a single type and differed only in some detail, of which local needs forced the adoption.

The family of the smacks gave rise to the hoys (“Tjalken”).

The hoys were found especially in Friesland and in Groningen. In the province of Holland, where they underwent a few slight changes, they were called Schuiten.

In Zealand, their deck was narrower and they were called “Poonen”.

In North Holland they were designated as “Jacht” (Yachts). Contrary to what was done for the “Poon”, the bottoms of these boats were not so wide as those of the hoys. On the Belgian Scheldt, they were rather finer and known by the name of “Pleiten”, or of “Otters” for the smallest ones.

Eastern Frisia had similar vessels; they were called “Motten” and bore some resemblance to the “Kuffs”.

There is still to be found a very old type of merchant vessel, descended from the old fishing boats and called “Ever” or “Bremerkahn”.

Independently of the family of the hoys, there has existed from the most distant times, in Overyssel, a distinct type of vessel which in the XVIIth century, and in Witsen’s time, included the “Potten” and “Pujen”. Changes were made later in these vessels and they are still met with at the present time under the name of Snijboon (literally: French or string bean) from which is descended the pram (“Praam”). The same shape, but with reduced dimensions, is also found in the “Somp” and the “Pegge”.

The type of these vessels is distinguished from that of the smacks by the shape of the bow and stern which are tapering while these parts are rounded in the smacks.

Many combinations have also been made in this class of vessels; they have given birth amongst others to the “Koftjalks”, the “Praamaaks” and the “Aaktjalks”. The Tenders (“Boeiers”) should also be mentioned, but these vessels had scarce any resemblance to the old “Kromstevens”.

Finally, let the “Kraken” be again mentioned, from which all characteristics common to the Spanish caracks had disappeared. They were very strong hoys with quite straight lines, which gave them less sheer.

III. FERRIES.

The ferries properly so-called included the Pontoons, among which may be mentioned: the Gierpont, the Kabelveerpont, the Jaagpont (for ferrying horses), the Halve Pont (pontoon using a sail); the Pijper (small pontoon) and the Overhaalpontje (skiff).

Other kinds of boats were used as ferries, such as the Veerhengsten, which belonged to the family of the “Hoogaarsen” (see fishing boats), the hoys, the “Schuiten” and the “Poonen”, all of them types of vessels already met in what precedes.

IV. BOATS FOR VARIOUS USES BUT NOT BELONGING TO THE PRECEDING GROUPS.

It is needless to say that the groups of boats I, II, III specified above include also a large number of small craft, intended for local use, which all come down from the same fundamental group; their destination only varies.

Among the more important of these are the “Bokken” found as much in Holland[20] as in Frisia. To this family also belong the Groningeraardappelpramen (prams used in Groningen for carrying potatoes), the Frisian Snikken, with a raking stem and similar in this respect to the Haarlemmermeerplompertjes (small boats on Haarlem Lake).

When the sternpost has a good deal of a rake the boat is called a Westlander and when vessels of this class have a strake less, like the dredging boats of the Hague, they form the “Bokken”, which must not be confounded with those which have been already mentioned.

Near Vollenhove, to the north of Overijssel, there is still to be met a well known small boat, the Punter, descended probably from the Haaringschuitje (a small boat used for the herring fishery) of the Zuiderzee. The Groenteschuitje from Hoorn (for transporting vegetables) is exactly like it. These vessels are narrow and have a great deal of rake in the stem and the sternpost.

The same origin must be attributed to the Utrecht pram and to the Kromme Rijnaak, but the length of these boats is proportionately greater when compared with the beam.

Outside of the preceding types, there are still found the “Snik” or the Gondel of North Holland, which very much resembles the “Oude Kinderdijksche Hoogars”, as well as the “Oude Vischschuit van Aalsmeer” (very old fishing boat from Aalsmeer).

Setting aside a very considerable number of small Schouwen which are nothing but covered and flat ferry boats, which already appear in the old engravings, there are still to be met in Holland the “Schiedamsche schouwen” or the “Melk en Spoelingschuiten” (boats used to carry milk and the residuum of fruits from which the juice has been pressed out). They are long flat-bottomed boats with flat bow and stern.

A special family of boats is made up of the “Barges” and “Trekschuitjen” (literally “boats hauled from the shore”) which exist all through the Netherlands. Almost all these boats are alike; they came originally from Holland and spread all through the rest of the country as fast as the canals were built.

The “Trekschuiten” are still particularly in vogue in the province of Drenthe, but the construction of railways and tram lines is slowly driving them out.

There are still other vessels, the Baggeraken (dredging lighters) which are very common in the Netherlands.

The special conformation of our rivers and arms of the sea required constant dredging to maintain the depth of the ports and navigable passes; but they were far from possessing such perfected machinery as have the modern dredges: the “Hand-” or “Hijschbeugel” (hand dredge) was the only apparatus used for dredging in former times.

The boats used for this purpose went under the general name of “Baggeraken”. The best known type was the flat (“Vlet”), or the “Baggeraak” still called the Sliedrechtsche Aak.

Even now, the “Boeieraken” are still often used for dredging. These vessels belong to the type of round bottomed craft. Other boats of a special kind used at Dordrecht for the same purpose were known by the names of: Vreeswijksche Zandlichter and Dortsche Zandschuit (boats used for dredging sand and having a great analogy with each other). They were used almost exclusively for dredging the ballast used by ships starting for sea. They have now almost wholly disappeared.

Bokken are used almost exclusively for dredging and for taking out sand from the downs in the West of the country and in the region of the Rhine. Their shape is almost identical with that of the “Westlanders” but there is no planking above the planksheer. In the province of Utrecht, the Slijkpramen are used for the same purpose. They correspond to the “Kromme Rijnaak”, the general type of the Utrecht boat. In the province of Groningen, mud is carried by the “Groninger Slijkpraam”, or “Vlotpraam”, a narrow boat with a rounded bottom which has nothing in common with the “Overijselsche praam” and which does not resemble it in any way.

The forerunner of our dredges is the old Moddermolen (literally, mud mill) or Moddermolenschip used at Amsterdam since 1575.

The Zolderschuiten and the Schouwen, now called “Bakken”, may be mentioned as very old boats. Vessels of this sort were supplied, in 1829, with trap doors in the bottom, whence come Klepschouwen or Onderlossers (literally: boats discharging through the bottom).

Finally, it is proper to mention also, in the class of vessels under consideration, the pleasure boats, or sailing Yachts, for which the Boeierjacht (in South Holland) and the Tjotter (in Friesland) are used as Dutch types.

It is important to note here that pleasure boats are most generally called “Yachts”, even though these vessels have frequently no resemblance to the Yacht properly so called. Hence the name does not always mark the type.

V. VESSELS FREQUENTING THE UPPER PARTS OF RIVERS (BOVENLANDERS).

All vessels which frequent the upper rivers are called generally “Bovenlanders” be their shape what it may.

These vessels, in spite of the interest which they offer, have rarely aroused attention; WITSEN devotes only a few words to them and calls them simply “Aaken” or “Samoreuzen” (p. 170, col. 2), and VAN YK also gives them this latter name (p. 318).

A) Boats of the Lower Rhine.

The Rhenish boats are of no uniform type. Those which frequent the lower part of the river (below Bonn) differ from those which circulate on the Upper Rhine and its tributaries, save for a small craft found on the Neckar which corresponds with the type below.

The fundamental type of the downstream section is represented by the Dorstensche Aak, and this latter has produced the Stevenschip.

These types, originating in the part of Western Germany of which Dorst is the centre, were imported into our country and have existed there for a very long time. This is why the “Geldersche Samoreuzen” are already mentioned in the XVIIth century. Although badly shown, they are to be seen also on old engravings. They are seen circulating on the Lower Rhine and the Waal where they are called Hollandsche Aaken and Stevenschepen; even now, they are still built in North Brabant where they have been in existence for a very long time.

These types of vessels came from the West of Germany (Westphalia) and entered the Netherlands by way of the Lower Rhine and the Waal, and through the North-West of North Brabant. They are not met with on the Meuse, or on the Lower Waal below Tiel. Aaken have been built on a small scale along the Merwede, and at other points of Holland, where this same type was again found in the old clinker-built “Turfeiker” which seems now to have disappeared entirely. The hulls of all these craft were made in the beginning by overlapping planks, hence it was the old mode of construction used on the Baltic Sea. These vessels were all long, narrow and flat-bottomed, like the “Bovenlanders”.

B) Boats of the Meuse.

The Meuse boats, also long and narrow, form a special class of which the type differs completely from that of the Rhenish craft just mentioned.

The Whalemajol, the Whalepont and the Maaspont, as well as the smaller Spitsbek and the Herna, may be mentioned as fundamental types. All these types are found on the Belgian Meuse and in our country as far down as Roermond.

Small vessels called Bovenmaasche Aaken or Hedelsche Aaken, frequently used as dredging flats, are frequently found on the Lower Meuse in the Netherlands. The shape of these craft is different from that of the Meuse boats just mentioned from which, however, they are descended, but their rudder corresponds rather with that of the Rhenish craft which circulate above Bonn.

C) Boats of the Upper Rhine (above Bonn and inclusive of the regions West of the Rhine and East of the Meuse).

The fundamental type is here the Keen, and with it are found the Keenaak and a boat of more recent date, the Slof.

One of these types of boats was introduced at ’s Gravenmoer, in the XIXth century, because it appeared suitable for exploiting the osier beds at Biesbosch, but since then many changes have been made in the stern and the rudder.

None of these types has its origin in the Netherlands.

The “Hagenaar”, like the “Turfeiker”, corresponds to the “Dorstensche Aak”.

There is also found on the Upper Rhine, as well as on the Meuse, a boat called the Bunder which dates only from the XIXth century.

Aside from the “Bunder”, the hulls of the types of craft which have just been mentioned are clinker built. The vessels mentioned under letter B above must also have been clinker built formerly, judging by what old boatmen say and by what is seen on an old engraving of a Whalemajol, belonging to the collection of Mr. Van Gijn, as well as by what is shown on a stone, which dates from the end of the XVIIIth century, placed in the front of a house in Sint-Pieterstraat at Maastricht and representing a Herna. It is impossible to say whether carvel-built or clinker-built hulls existed at the same time, or whether the former are of more recent date. It may be assumed, however, that clinker-built hulls are older than the others.

It is interesting to note that a type which closely resembles the Herna is still to be found on the Adriatic sea, especially the Rascona already described and represented in Paris’s well known work (vol. II, n^o 86); this vessel is still steered by means of the old “Slurriem” (steering oar).

VI. FISHING BOATS.

A) For deep sea fishing.

The Buys (bush) and the Hoeker (howker), together with the Scholschuit, the Basanschuit and the Zwartewaalsche Gaffelaar should be mentioned as old types of Dutch boats intended for deep sea fishing.

The Hoekerbuis and the Kwee are descendants from the first two.

The “Sloep” (sloop), the “Logger” (Lugger) and the “Kotter” (cutter) come to us from France. It is important also to mention in connection with deep sea fishing the whale boats for which the Noortsvaerders were formerly used; these latter belong to the type of the “Fluitschepen” (flutes) already mentioned among the merchantmen.

The oldest vessel of the Noortsvaerders class is the Egmonder Pink, which gave birth to the Bom and to the smaller Garnalen Schuit (shrimp boat). These boats were so built that they could be grounded on the beach. After the fishing port of Scheveningen was finished, there appeared a new type of vessel descended from the “Logger” and the “Bom” and known by the name of “Loggerbom” or sometimes “Lelybom”.

B) Near shore and river fishing.

The great majority of fishing vessels is devoted to ordinary or near shore fishing. The dimensions of these craft were formerly much smaller than those of the vessels of the preceding group (at the present time, aside from the “Garnaalschuitjes”, some are built even larger). Their names are innumerable and so different that they give no idea either of their form or kind.

The fundamental types of the group include:

a) The Schokkers, built on the model of the ordinary “Schokkers”. To them also belong the “Wierschuitje”, the “Steeckschuit”, the “Henget” and the “Hoogaars”.

The “Akes”, which are met with in most of the types of boats (the “Aaktjalk”, for example) are also found, under the name of Tholensche Schouwen, in the class of vessels considered.

These craft are much like the Beyerlandsche Schuitjes and form, in a way, a sort of transition to the Vischboeicraakjes.

b) The Botters as well as the Vollendammer Kwakken, the Ronsen, the Pluten and the Platjes van Maassluis.

A third group is formed by short round-bottomed little boats of which

c) The Knotsen of Antwerp are the prototypes. The “Bollen”, and the “Lemmerjachten” or “Lemmeraaken” belong to the same group.

Finally, a fourth group is formed of vessels having a greatly raking stern and sternpost, called

d) Haaringschuiten to which the widely scattered Punters also belong.

In conclusion, there may also be mentioned several types of small fishing boats, which frequent exclusively our inland rivers and canals, and present very often more or less marked resemblances to the types given under the letters a to d. They are the following:

The Visscherschuitje van Aalsmeer; the Gondel; the Vischboeiertje; the Woudrichemsch Vischschuitje; the Prikschuit; the Steekschuit van de Biesbosch and the Strooperschuitje.

Many rowboats of the most varied types, as well as old “botters” no longer fit for sea, and “schokkers” from the Zuiderzee, serve also for fishing on the inland navigable highways.

DESCRIPTION OF TYPES OF VESSELS

A few sketches, taken from old engravings and descriptions, have been added to the plates of this work. They give an idea of the development of the ship from 1200 to 1600 inclusive. Reference is made, for more details in regard to them to the preceding chapters. As the drawings refer to the period subsequent to 1600, they are all made in accordance with the working drawings.

As has been repeated many times over, the old forms will have to be sought in the small types of vessels. Ships of war will, therefore, be set aside, while large merchant men will receive only a passing mention.

THE PINNACE.

II 146 III 8 III 9

The Pinasschip (pinnace) is the oldest vessel of which we have any exact description extant. It dates from the first half of the XVIIth century and disappears at its close. This ship had a raking stem, a much developed beakhead and a square stern. The square stern and the beakhead come from the South; furthermore, this vessel is descended from the one of the XVIth century; its size however was greater and it carried cannons.

THE FLYBOAT.

II 148 III 19

The Vlieboot (flyboat), which is found as far back as 1600, is very bulging and has a narrowed deck. From this type is derived the “Fluit” (flute) which bulges still more in order to profit by the way in which boats used to be gauged in Denmark.

An ordinary “flute” was 130 feet long, 26½ feet beam and 13 feet 5 inches deep. It had no beakhead at first, but the larger flutes, built later on, had one in imitation of the square sterned ships.

These vessels were used for various purposes and underwent many changes on this account. It is for this reason that the “East Indian flute” was more strongly built than the one which traded in the ports of the Baltic Sea. Let it be said, among other things, that the iron futtocks of the channels are doubled in order to reinforce the rigging, while their projections aft are made larger so as to obtain more spacious staterooms. In the matter of this enlargement, they were strengthened from the inside by means of iron ribs and bands (WITSEN, p. 159). In the beginning of the XVIIth century and until 1640, these vessels and generally all East Indian ships were built open forward and without quarters for the crew, whose bunks and hammocks were placed on either side of the ship.

The flutes were known as good sailers. Their slender construction gave little hold for the wind; they carried three masts and the well known rigging of the XVIIth century. Those which went for grain in the Baltic Sea, were rather smaller than the others; they were called “Oostvaerders” or “Oostervaerder”. Their dimensions were: length, 125 feet; beam, 25 feet; depth, 12 feet; or else: 115, 23½ and 11½ feet; or again 100, 22 and 11 feet; and carried cargoes respectively of 200, 150 or 100 “lasts.” (1 last = 2 metric tons). Most of them had no beakhead. Some idea of the importance of our traffic with the Baltic Sea can be formed when it is stated that, in 1604, 400 “Oostvaerders” were lying at the same time in front of Amsterdam. In less than a fortnight they were unloaded, reloaded and ready to retake the sea. (WITSEN, p. 448.)

The “Noordvaerders” or “Noortsvaerders” were also flutes, but two feet deeper than the “Oostvaerders”, because more space was needed for loading the wood (WITSEN, p. 160) which they had gone to seek in Norway. Their beam was, as a rule, one-fifth of their length. They were massive and solid like the “Oostvaerders”. (WITSEN, p. 53.) but had no beakhead. When the continual wars are considered, the vessels trading with the Baltic Sea had smaller crews than those trading with the West. (WITSEN, p. 160.)

THE KATSCHIP.

II 217

The “Katschepen” are descended from the “boeier” and the “fluit”. They are therefore vessels of marked curves. As they were often used in shoal water the bottom was very flat and, furthermore, it was very angular all around the edge. They were known as poor sailers, but they carried a large cargo. WITSEN says (p. 163) that their slowness earned for them the name of “asses” rather than that of “kats”.

It had no beakhead; there were a forecastle, and a cabin. The tiller, which was manœuvred underneath the cabin, had no extension bar. These vessels were built most generally of pitch-pine.

All the types mentioned above have the stern of a flute, that is to say: they are square sterned, which is characteristic of the old Dutch naval construction.

THE OOST-INDISCH COMPAGNIESCHIP.

II 151 III 11

The pinnace gave the “Oost-Indisch Compagnieschip” (ship of the East India Company). Its stern was rounded. As a merchant ship, it was heavily armed and was often used as a man-of-war in case of need. The plate of our album showing this vessel gives a good idea of the form and construction, hence, more detailed explanations are superfluous. Let it be mentioned only that the stern is very much ornamented, that there is a beakhead and that the length of the deck is greater than that of the “flutes”. It carried three masts and the ordinary sails and rigging.

II 159

The vessel of the same kind, but smaller in size and with two masts only, was called “Snauwschip” (rind). It is met with frequently in Flanders. WITSEN counts the rinds as among inland vessels (p. 170).

THE BOEIER.

II 191 II 194

The “Boeier” belongs to an isolated type of boats carrying on their traffic especially with Rouen. It was a flat-bottomed vessel with keel and lee-boards, as it frequented shallow rivers as much as the sea. The lee-boards reached two feet below the keel. The stem was much curved, whence their name of “Kromsteven”.

Judging by the old engravings, the boats of this class had a very high “statie”, which recalls rather the construction of the Mediterranean than that of Holland. Besides, the “Boyer” is not a purely Dutch type, and it is probably descended from a Mediterranean type, modified to suit the needs of our country.

Boeiers were built at Rotterdam as “draai-over-boord” with doubtless a raised deck astern, for WITSEN says that they had a small lodgment under the rudder (p. 164.) This author speaks wrongly of a “boeier” or of a “galliot”, for this latter is an entirely different kind of vessel. The “boeiers” were about 86 feet long, 20 feet beam and 9½ feet depth of hold.

THE HOEKER (hoy).

II 227 II 228 II 230 III 21

The “Hoeker” (hoy), originally a fishing boat, was already a great deal used toward the middle of XVIIth century, as a merchant ship with one, two or three masts. It was a sea-going vessel, built very solidly, and later equipped for the East Indies, in spite of its relatively small size. It was 80 feet long. The large hoys had a cabin on deck.

THE BUIS (Bush).

II 221 III 113

The “Buis” (bush) was also used as a merchant vessel, which sometimes carried three masts, although originally it was only a fishing boat.

The “hoy” and the “bush” will be spoken of again among the fishing vessels. It will be superfluous to say that neither “boeiers”, “hoys” nor “bushes” carried a beakhead.

There should be mentioned also the following three types of vessels which are descendants of those which precede:

THE HEKBOOT.

The lower part of this vessel is that of a “flute” and the upper part that of a “pinnace”, that is to say: a vessel having a broad deck which increases its capacity.

THE STRAETSVAERDER.

This vessel is a rather large “flute” which carries a beakhead (WITSEN, p. 168). (A large number of names referring to a same type of vessel arise in this way).

THE STOKKER.

The Stokker is a massive ship with two decks. It has the bow of a “Spiegelschip” and the stern of a “hoy”.

We have received from abroad:

THE FRIGATE.

III 18

The frigate occupies an important place especially at the end of the XVIIIth and beginning of the XIXth centuries. It has been seen in the preceding chapter how it came to us. This vessel, rigged in different ways, bore various names, such as: “Gaffelschoener”, “Brigantijn”, “Schoenerbrik”, “Brik”, “Bark”. Reference is made in this connection to the various plates of the collection relating to rig.

THE GALLIOT.

When one reads that the King of Denmark stopped, in 1587, more than 600 Dutch ships in the Sound, ships which had all left the Vlie in a day as related by Hendrik Rantzon; see WITSEN, (p. 36), it must not be imagined that they were all large vessels. It is very probable, on the contrary, that most of them were no larger than the kuffs and hoys of the present time. It is easy to form an idea of the characteristic appearance of the Zuyder Zee, at this period, where the many fishing vessels then in use swarmed about all these ships. The Zuiderzee is well and rightly named therefore the cradle of our shipbuilding art. The little coast towns of the Zuiderzee, with their glorious past, are its witnesses.

Hence, there will be no cause for astonishment that, in the course of the many wars waged between Holland and Friesland and Gelderland, innumerable battles should have been fought on the Zuiderzee. Thus, for example, a naval battle was fought in 1504 between Holland and Gelderland, which was described by Wilhelm Hermszoon, an Augustine monk (WITSEN, appendix, p. 19). This author relates that the Gelderlanders came down the Zwarte Water with a large number of “Kochevers” to surprise the Hollanders, who had seven armed boats. He adds that the Hollanders understood war better than the Gelderlanders, for the latter used only the bow, the cross bow and the sling, and that finally, the largest of the Holland ships having grounded, the Hollanders succeeded in frightening the Gelderlanders so much by firing their arquebusses, that they made them give up the fight.

The same author relates, at another place, that, on the advice of the Spanish merchants, the inhabitants of Amsterdam caused a ship called “Galeoot” to be laid down and that a year was required to build it. This ship could be propelled by sail or with oars. It was handled by 32 rowers. It was called the “Terror of the Zuiderzee”.

II 241 III 58

These narratives are interesting in this that, in telling about the battle of the Zuiderzee, a “Kochever” is spoken of, which proves that the “Koch” or “Kogge” and the “Ever” are closely related. They also show that the “Galliot” came to us from abroad. The “Galliot”, like the “Ever”, is still met with to-day; but it is no longer handled by oars.

Our ships of the XVIth century were much smaller also than those of the states to the South; our navigation toward the Baltic was almost exclusively coasting and required smaller vessels.

II 225 II 226 III 20

The “Galjoot” (galliot) of the XVIth century was built still later in large numbers, and, besides, it is mentioned at all subsequent times. It is probable however that the “galliots” were built later with a more rounded hull like all our ships, for that matter. It is to be noticed, in any event, that the “galliot” of the XVIIIth century displays great analogy with the ordinary “Koftjalk”.

The side of the galliot is more nearly straight and the castles fore and aft are higher. (LE COMTE, p. 18). The vessel is 85 feet long, 21 feet beam and 11 feet deep. The stern and the bow are more rounded than they are in the boeier (WITSEN, p. 165). The vessel therefore, is one which may not be classed among the Dutch types. The main mast, in one-and two-masted galliots, was placed at one-third the length of the ship from the stem. The ship is a “draai-over-boord”. It had at times the stern of a “flute”, in which case it was called a “Bootschip” or simply a “Boot”. At other times, the upper part was that of a pinnace with a converso[21] so as to increase its cargo capacity. Again it can be noted how most boats can be brought back to a fundamental type. It is in this way that “advies Jachten” are often spoken of in history. This was merely a generic name for all kinds of vessels employed for the same purpose and including, especially, the “galliots”. (WITSEN, p. 165.) These vessels were then built with finer lines and greater sail power so as to be able to move more quickly. The “galliots” had generally two masts of different heights and, exceptionally, they had three. They had no beakhead. They carried lee-boards at the beginning. Their capacity varied from 160 to 300 tons. There are still a few left, trading on the Baltic Sea, but they are smaller, having an average length of 19 metres, a mean width of 4.50 m., and a depth of 2.20 m. They too will soon disappear and give way to the steel “Kofs” and “Hoys”. (LE COMTE, p. 22.) The name “Galliot” is probably of Italian origin. (KOENEN, p. 140.)

THE GALEAS.

II 239

The “Galeas” like the “galliot”, belonged to the largest types of vessels used for navigation near shore. The name alone indicates a foreign origin for this kind of vessel, although they were frequently found in Holland. Their mode of construction also shows the same origin. Most of them were built at Königsberg, Stettin, Stralsund, etc. They gauged up to 100 and even 260 tons. (LE COMTE, p. 35.)

The galeas traded especially between Holland, England and France. They drew from 8 to 14 feet (2.26 to 3.96 m.) Like the “galliots”, they had two masts, as a rule. Their build was very much like that of the “Kotter” (cutter) and the “Sloep” (sloop).

Hence it was an exotic type of which, a few specimens are still met with on the Baltic Sea, and which made its appearance later, probably under the influence of the naval construction of the peoples of the South. (In the Mediterranean: the names of Galeazza, Galeona, Galeota, are still found).

THE KOFF.

II 218 III 22

The “Koff” (kuf) is a purely Dutch type mentioned neither by WITSEN nor VAN YK. It seems to date from the end of the XVIIth century and later it replaced, in many cases, the “flutes” and the “cat-boats”. (LE COMTE, p. 10.)

The forms of the kuffs are very much rounded and show in this way their affinity to the “smacks” and the “hoys”. They are flat-bottomed with a square bow or, as VAN LOON says (p. 64), “stomp rond” (round and bluff). Later, some were built with finer lines.

They are solid ships and withstand storms very well, whence the saying: “Koffen en Smakken zijn waterbakken” (Kufs and Smacks are reservoirs of water). I cannot partake of the opinion of Mr. Koenen, who claims that “Kof” is descended from “Kog” because the “Kofs” made their appearance much later than the Kogs and are descendants from small inland boats. They are, as a rule, vessels of light draught, 72 feet long, 17 feet wide and 8 feet, 3 inches deep. Their capacity varied from 100 to 300 tons. They have ordinarily two masts, the larger being at one-third the length of the vessel from the bow. They are provided with a slightly raised deck aft without “statie”. The small “Kofs” have lee-boards, the large ones, none.

Making the bow of these vessels finer was begun in the XIXth century (VAN LOON, p. 65), and this caused their old characteristics to disappear. It was desired to give to them, in this way, greater steadiness in steering. These vessels are still built in the province of Groningen, where they originated. Now, they are made, however, as are the “hoys”, with a more rounded bow. Formerly they were also met frequently in the province of Holland; they ran not only to the Baltic Sea, but also to Norway, England, Scotland, Ireland, France, Portugal and the Mediterranean and even to Rio de Janeiro. (LE COMTE, p. 11.)

THE SMAK.

II 216 III 23

The “Smak” (smack) is as interesting a vessel as the “Kof” which it resembles a great deal. It is a pure Holland type, bluff and flat and very stable on the water. Le Comte calls it the sister of the “Kof”. The shape of the “hoy” is found clearly again in this type. They are not fine either at bow or stern, and resemble exactly the old engravings of the “Smalschepen” and “Wijdschepen” and the “Turfschepen”! Furthermore, they belong to the same family with these last, but they are rather more strongly built as they are intended to make longer voyages. The “smack” is the type of Frisian vessels. It carries a “statie” and lee-boards. The main mast is at one-third of the boat’s length from the bow and it carries also a small mast at the stern in the “statie”. These vessels are generally 80 feet long, 22 feet wide and 9 feet deep. Their capacity varies from 70 to 140 tons. They traded with France, England, even with Lisbon, to say nothing of their traffic with the Baltic Sea. They were, however, especially built, as LE COMTE says (p. 12), to sail across the “Wadden” to Groningen, Friesland and East Friesland. Witsen does not mention the “smack”.

II 210 II 209

If the design of the “smack” be compared with that of the “Wijdschip” mentioned by WITSEN (p. 171), it is seen at once that it is a question here of a mere change of name. Nor is there at bottom any essential difference between the “Smalschip” and the “Wijdschip”. VAN YK says (p. 308) that the only difference between the two types was this: the “Smalschip” was so narrow that it could go through the city of Gouda, while the “Wijdschip” had to go around. Hence they are two like vessels which differ only in dimensions. If now, the designs of these boats be compared with those of the “Turfschepen”, a perfect resemblance is again to be noted. It is at the end of the XVIIIth century that the generic name of “hoy” is given to all these vessels, thus imitating what was done in Friesland.

THE SMALSCHIP AND THE WIJDSCHIP.

II 210

The “Smalschip” had the following dimensions: length, 60 feet; beam, 16 feet; depth, 14 feet: those of the “Wijdschip” were respectively: 70 feet, 20 feet and 8 feet 2 inches. These vessels carried a “statie”.

THE DAMLOOPER.

The “Damlooper” was a vessel of the same type as the preceding but so built that it could pass through the lock of the “Leidschen Dam”. VAN YK gives its dimensions as follows (p. 312):

II 212

“’T Schip (de Damlooper) zal lang zijn 56 voeten, wijd dat de zwaarden afhangen, het rakende en echter gemaklijk door de Duikers van den Leidsen dam kan gebragt werde, zo sal dat schip op de bovebuitekant van de Kimmegang of wentelstrook, so wijd als op ’t Barkhout wesen moeten en ten minsten van binnen tegen de zetwegers gemeeten zijnde elf voeten en een duym wijdte hebben.”[22]

The capacity of the vessel is given further on as 18 last (= 36 tonnes).

The lock of the “Leidschen Dam”, which is in question here, was built under authority of the provincial Act of 1617 and reconstructed in 1648. This lock, like the one of the Gouwe, dating from the XIVth century[23], was only replaced in 1885, by a new lock of 7 metres clear width and with a depth of 2.20 m. on the mitre sills. The provincial States of South Holland had the following inscription placed on a stone in the lock keeper’s dwelling of the “Leidschen Dam” in order to commemorate the event.

“In 1885 is de verbetering der vaart tusschen Rijn en Schie door de Staten van Holland ondernomen. Hier waar de naijver der steden tot 1648 slechts een overtoom en daarna een verlaat van 3.80 m. wijdte en doorvaarthoogte van 2.20 m. gedoogde, hebben zij deze sluis wijd 7 meter met beweegbare bruggen bevolen”[24].

Hence, the existing obstacles were only removed in 1885. It was therefore up to this time that the “Smalschepen” and “Wijdschepen” and the “Damloopers” had any reason to exist. They are no longer mentioned, however, in the XIXth century, the “hoys” being then almost exclusively spoken of. Hence, it is here again merely a change of name without any change of form in the vessels. All the same, the inland boats underwent an important modification in the course of the XIXth century. Indeed, VAN LOON tells us (p. 69): “The angular forms of the bow and stern gave way to the more rounded forms of these parts of the vessel and of the hull in general”. This gave the boat a generally regular and smooth shape. These angular shapes are no longer found save in a few old “Poonen” and “Schuiten”. The old engravings give a good idea of this angular construction which, on some of them, is so deep that it would be believed that the planking outside was clinker laid.

Hence it is seen that, in the XIXth century, a certain number of vessels, which had been known previously by different names, were all included under the generic name of “hoy”.

THE TJALK.

III 26 III 29

The “Tjalk” or “hoy” properly so called, is a native of Friesland and of the province of Groningen. Its capacity varies between 30 and 80 tons, but sea-going hoys, measuring up to 200 tons, are built, however, in the province of Groningen. The essential difference between a Groningen and a Friesland hoy is this: the former has a “draai-over-boord” and the second a “statie”. The Friesland vessel is sometimes called “Friesche Praam” if its lines be a little more nearly straight. (LE COMTE, p. 17).

Furthermore, the stem of the Frisian hoy has a greater rake. Like our inland boats, the “Tjalken” were rigged formerly with sprit sails which, during the XIXth century, were replaced nearly everywhere by the ordinary fore and aft rig. They generally carry a single mast, but some large “hoys” have, at times, a second small mast on the “statie”.

THE SCHUIT AND THE POON.

II 252 II 254 II 236 III 40 III 43 II 211

The “Schuit” is for South Holland what the “hoy” is for Friesland and the province of Groningen, and the Poon for Zeeland and the island of South Holland. There is very little difference between the “Poon” and the “Schuit”; each of them recalls the Dutch type of the “smack” of which the lower part is rather fuller. Hence the deck is rather less wide than the bottom, and the “Poon” has a greater sheer than the “Schuit”, of which the deck is more nearly flat. Both of these vessels have a “statie” but the “Poon” has often a “draai-over-boord” and a slightly raised deck in the stern. These characteristics are rarely found in the “Schuit”.

They are very strong vessels and, above all, very steady in heavy weather. One peculiarity of these vessels lies in the fine point which terminates the stern. This point is thrown back a little and should point toward the hounds of the mast (upper part where the standing rigging is fastened to the mast). This same point is found among the boats which frequent the Belgian Scheldt, with the exception of the hoys.

THE KAAG.

III 24

Alongside of the Schuit, there is found in North and South Holland, especially about Amsterdam, the Kaag which resembles the “Poon” closely. The hull of the kaag has sides which do not fall in as much as do those of the “Poon” and therefore, it forms a sort of transition between the hoy and the “Poon”. This vessel is much used as a light boat and is rigged with a sprit. Some are met with, however, carrying gaff sails; they are then called Gaffelkaag or Gaffelschip. The kaag is of about the same size as the “Poon” and the hoy. The “Schuit”, the “Poon” and the “Kaag” kept their angular shapes until the end. It is useless to dwell on the fact that the kaag also carries a “statie”.

The last three types of boats also kept longest the round hatchways which were formerly in general use.

THE STEIGERSCHUIT.

The Steigerschuit (literally: landing boat) was often met with in the XVIIth century. The boats of this category were small Schuiten, Poonen or Kaag, used in ports and along rivers to carry passengers and freight back and forth between the landings on shore and the large vessels. The name shows the use and the type of boat.

THE YACHT.

III 44 III 45

If boats with a narrow deck were built in South Holland and Zeeland, narrow bottoms were preferred, on the contrary, in North Holland. This boat was then called “Yacht” a Noord Hollandsche Yacht.

It is generally about the size of a small hoy. In order to classify the preceding vessels in accordance with their bottom width, it would be necessary to begin with the “Yacht”, then to take the hoy and, finally, the “Poon”.

Its more narrow bottom and its more converging sides make the Yacht look more slender and more swift than the “Poon”.

The bends of the Yacht show a great deal of sheer with a straight element at the middle. The Yacht has a “draai-over-boord” with a slightly raised deck at the stern.

THE BOEIERSCHUIT.

III 46

The Boeierschuit belongs to the family of the “Boeiers” or “Kromstevens” above mentioned, but it is smaller and also somewhat like the ordinary “Schuiten”, whence comes probably the name of “Boeierschuiten” given to these vessels. The stern carries a “draai-over-boord”, often with a poop deck. The Boeierschuiten have one characteristic and that is a sort of cockpit where the helmsman stands in order to handle easily the tiller. This cockpit is often met with among the Boeieraken. The “Boeierschuiten” are found in South Holland, Zeeland and Flanders.

Shipbuilding was also early developed in Flanders. Let us mention only ancient Damme and Antwerp, and we shall not be surprised that the types of vessels found there resembled those of our country. Let us mention, in the first place, among them,

The Pleiten and the Otterschepen which are also to be found in the North-West of Northern Brabant.

THE PLEIT.

III 51

The “Pleit” is a very old boat, often spoken of in history. It was seen trading with England. It had about the same capacity as our “hoy”, of which it had the shape except that the length was proportionally a little greater as compared with the breadth. Hence this vessel appeared longer than the “hoy”. Its lines also were graceful. Its dimensions were: length, 23 to 27 metres; breadth, 4.80 m. to 5.00 m.; maximum draught of water, 1.90 m., capacity from 125 to 180 tons.

These vessels are now built larger; their length reaches 35 m.; their beam, 5.00 m.; their draught 0.40 m. light and 2.00 m. loaded; they carry 270 tons.

These boats are wrongly called Bélandres Hollandais in Belgium, from the newer inland boats called “bélandres” of which more will be said later.

These latter have no affinity with the “Pleit.” (See DEHEM, Annales des Travaux Publics, August 1901, p. 508).

The “Pleit” has a “statie”. It is curious to observe that the “Pleiten” of to-day are rigged very lightly considering their length. Formerly they had two masts.

THE OTTER.

II 253 III 52

The Otter a small, narrowed “Pleit”, from 16 to 30 metres long (see DEHEM, p. 507); 4 metres beam; draught of water loaded from 1.70 m. to 2.20 m.; generally, 1.80 m. Its capacity varied from 70 to 180 tons.

The “Otter” had a “statie” and carried the ordinary fore and aft rig mast, and a small jigger mast set in the “statie” often completed the outfit.

“Schuiten” which correspond to the Dutch “Schuiten” are still met with on the Scheldt alongside of the “Pleiten” and the “Otter”. This type of vessels is just as different from the “Otter” as our “Schuit” is from the “Hoy”. DEHEM is, therefore, mistaken when he says, in his work mentioned above (p. 507): “The Schuit is an ‘Otter’ of smaller size....”

The “Pleiten” like the “Otters” are often met with in the Netherlands.

If the boats of the West of Belgium thus show the same characteristics as those of our own country, it will be the same for those of East Friesland.

THE MOT.

III 53 III 54

The “Motten” replace the “Hoys” in East Friesland. They are divided into: Buiten Motten, Binnen Motten and Spitsche Motten.

These boats have the same shape as those of the last two categories considered; they differ only in size.

They correspond to the hoys of Groningen, even in what concerns the shape of the bends and the rudder. Hence they belong to the family of the “Hoys”.

THE SPITSCHE MOT.

III 55

The “Spitsche Mot” is a small boat which differs in shape from the ordinary boats of this class. It is sharper, less heavily built, and is 14.50 m. long; 3.90 m. wide, and 1.60 m. deep. The difference between a “Spitsche Mot” and a “Binnen Mot” is the same as that between an “Overijsselsche Praam” and a “Hoy”.

THE EVER.

II 241 III 58

The “Ever” and the “Bremerkahn” are met with all along East Friesland coasts as far as Denmark. They have kept some very old forms which recall the ancient “cogs”. They were built, especially, near Hamburg and were used originally as fishing boats. The same thing has happened here as in our country where the “Howker” and the “Bush”, which were fishing boats at first, became merchant vessels later.

The “Ever” will be treated of again among the fishing craft.

THE BREMERKAHN.

III 57

The “Bremerkahn” is a narrow “Ever”. Both have the square stern which came to them from the South.

These last two boats have smooth hulls; formerly they were clinker built. The “Kahn”, straighter and flatter than the “Ever”, has a less sloping stem. They are fore and aft rigged and have often a small additional mast at the stern. Their capacity is very much the same as our “Hoys”.

The Hamburg “Ever” is 17 metres long; 6.40 m. beam and draws 0.70 m. of water when empty and 1.50 m. when loaded. The dimensions of the “Bremerkahn” are respectively: 15.50; 4.80; 0.70 and 1.50.

Save the Galliot and the Galeas, all the vessels belonging to group II-B, are found all the way from Denmark along East Friesland, Groningen, Friesland, North and South Holland, Zeeland, the West of North Brabant, Flanders, the West of Utrecht and also a very small part (West) of the Betuwe; in short, all along the coast and on our lower tidal rivers.

So soon as the Meuse, the Waal and the Lek are reached, the character changes. This applies also to the province of Overijssel and to a part of Drenthe. The greater part of the province of Drenthe only became accessible to navigation after the opening of the canals built in the XIXth century. The southern part of this province formed early, however, one with Overijssel, from the shipbuilding point of view, and the types now in use were developed in both at the same time.

THE POTTEN AND THE PUJEN.

II 201

The oldest vessels known in Overijssel are the Potten and the Pujen (WITSEN, p. 170), of which few engravings are extant. The names are now no longer met with; the primitive “Potten” and “Pujen” have, however, not entirely disappeared there. The old forms have been preserved there as everywhere else and, aside from a few changes, these vessels have merely changed their names.

Clinker built hulls gave way first to those carvel built, and later the forms of the boats became less angular. The old rig has changed and the old round hatchways have made place for more simple flat hatches. By these transformations, these vessels change their appearance somewhat although the hull remains the same, but the names of “Potten” and “Pujen” have given place to those of “Sompen”, “Peggen” and “Snijboonen”, more generally met with to-day.

Already, Witsen and other authors have noted that the “Potten” and “Pujen” are distinguished from the “Smalschepen” and “Wijdschepen” by their finer bow and stern; the same difference as is now found between the Hoys on the one side and the “Snijboonen” and “Sompen” on the other. Besides, the name “Snijboon” (string bean) shows that it is a question of a long and fine boat, that is: a flat bottomed boat with lengthened bow and stern.

THE SNIJBOON AND THE SOMP OR PEGGE.

III 34 III 31–33

The “Snijboon” and the “Somp” have the same shape. Both have a “draai-over-boord” and generally a poop deck. Their characteristics are the fine bow and stern, the sudden fall of the bends near the sternpost and the stem; these bends being almost horizontal for the remainder of the length of the vessel; the sternpost and the stem are nearly vertical.