THE JESUIT MISSIONS.—The Ming dynasty continued in power in China until 1644. About the middle of the sixteenth century the Portuguese came to the island of Macao, and commercial relations began between China and Europe. They brought opium into China, which had previously been imported overland from India. In 1583 Matteo Ricci, a Jesuit missionary, began his labors in China. He and his associates had great success. His knowledge of the book language was most remarkable. The concessions of the Jesuit fathers to the Chinese in matters of ritual excited much opposition in the Church. But for this dissension among the different Catholic orders, the Roman Catholic faith, which had gained very numerous converts, would have spread far more widely.

THE MANCHU CONQUEST.—There were notable literary achievements in this period, one of which was an encyclopedia in more than twenty-two thousand books. Four copies were made: only one, a damaged copy, now remains. The great political event of the time was the seizure of the throne by the Manchu Tartars (1644), who came in as auxiliaries against a rebellion, but have worn the crown until now. The shaved head and the long cue are customs introduced by the Tartar conquerors. Certain privileges, and certain habits to which the natives clung, as the mode of dress for women, and the compression of their feet, were retained by express stipulation.

II. JAPAN.

FEUDAL SYSTEM.—In 1603 Iyéyasu, an eminent general, founded the Tokugawa dynasty, which continued until the resignation of the last Shôgun (or Tycoon) in 1867. The rulers of that line held their court at Yedo, which grew into a flourishing city. The long period of anarchy and bloodshed that had preceded, was brought to an end. Iyéyasu laid the foundation of a feudal system which his grandson Iyémitsu (1623-1650) completed. Japan was divided into fiefs, each under a daimiô for its chief, who enjoyed a large degree of independence. The people consisted of four classes: (1) the military families, who had the right to wear two swords, the clansmen of the great nobles; (2) the farming class; (3) the artisans; (4) the tradesmen.

CHRISTIANITY IN JAPAN.—Christianity was preached in Japan by Xavier, a successful Jesuit missionary, in 1583. Other Jesuit preachers followed. A multitude of converts were made. But on account of immoralities of Europeans, and the dread of foreign political domination, the government engaged in a series of severe persecutions. In 1614 an edict proscribed Christianity. A portion of the peasants who were converts were so oppressed, that they revolted (1637). The result was an act of terrible cruelty,—the massacre of all Christians; so that none remained openly to profess the Christian faith.

III. INDIA.

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE.—In the latter half of the fourteenth and in the fifteenth centuries, the most of India was ruled by distinct Mohammedan dynasties. The dominion of the Afghan dynasty at Delhi was thus greatly reduced. In 1525 the Mughal (Mogul) Empire was founded by Babar, a descendant of Tamerlane. Babar invaded India, and defeated the Sultan of Delhi in the battle of Paniput. The new empire was not permanently established until his grandson Akbar (1556-1605), in a series of conquests, spread his dominion over all India north of the Vindhyar mountains. Not until the reign of Aurungzeb (1658-1707), was the Deccan subdued. After 1600 the Portuguese no longer had the monopoly of the foreign trade: the Dutch and English became their rivals.

LITERATURE.—See lists of works on general history, p. 16; on modern history, p. 395; on the history of particular countries, p. 359.

General Works on the Period. De Thou's History of his own Times; ROBERTSON'S History of Charles V. (Prescott's ed.); Von Raumer's Gesch. Europas seit d. Ende d, 15 tu Jahrk, (8 vols).; Hallam's Introduction to the Literature of Europe in the Fifteenth, Sixteenth, and Seventeenth Centuries; RANKE'S series of works on this period,—the History of the Popes, and the Histories of Germany, France, and England; Histories of the Reformation by D'Aubigné, Döllinger (Roman Catholic), Spalding (Roman Catholic), Fisher, HAUSSER, Hardwick, Stebbing; Laurent, La Reforme; Lavisse et Rambaud, Histoire Genérale (iv. and v.); Seebohm's Era of Protestant Revolution; Works of Janssen, Pastor, Creighton.

On the German and Swiss Reformation: Waddington's History, etc.; Hagenhach, Vorlesungen, etc.; Lives of Luther, by Meurer, Michelet, Beard, KÖSTLIN; Lives of Zwingh, by CHRISTOFFEL, MORIKOFER; Lives of Calvin, by HENRY, Dyer, Kampschulte (Roman Catholic).

Reformation in France. Works by Soldan, Von Polenz, Smiles, Browning; BAIRD'S works on Huguenots; Perkins, France under Richelieu and Mazarin (2 vols.); Hanotaux, Richelieu (2 vols.).

The Revolt of the Netherlands. Blok's History of the Netherlands (3 vols.), etc.; MOTLEY'S Rise of the Dutch Republic, and History of the United Netherlands; PRESCOTT'S History of Philip II.; TH. JUSTE, Hist, de la Rèvol. des Pays-Bas, etc. (2 vols).

The Reformation in England. The Histories of Macaulay. Lingard, Froude, Burnet's History of the Reformation in England. S. R. Gardiner's History of England (1603 to 1656); Clarendon's History of the Great Rebellion; a series of works on this period by GUIZOT; Neal's History of the Puritans; Gairdner, History of the English Church from Henry VIII. to Mary; selections of documents by Prothero and by Gardiner; Lives of Cromwell, by CARLYLE, by Forster, Gardiner, Harrison, Firth; Strype's Lives of the Leading Reformers—Cranmer, etc.

On the Reformation in Scotland. BURTON'S History of Scotland; Robertson's History of Scotland; McCrie's Life of John Knox; W. M. TAYLOR, Life of John Knox.

On the Thirty Years' War. GINDELY'S History, etc.; Gardiner, The Thirty Years' War; Life of Gustavus Adolphus.

For more extended lists, see Adams's Manual, etc.; and Fisher's The Reformation (Appendix). For list of works on colonization in America, see the list at the end of Period III.

PERIOD III. FROM THE PEACE OF WESTPHALIA TO THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. (1648-1789)

INTRODUCTION.

CHARACTER OF THE PERIOD.—One feature of this period is the efforts made by the nations to improve their condition, especially to increase the thrift and to raise the standing of the middle class. An illustration is what is called the "mercantile system" in France. Along with this change, there is progress in the direction of greater breadth in education and culture. In both of these movements, rulers and peoples cooperate. Monarchical power, upheld by standing armies, reaches its climax. The result is internal order, coupled with tyranny. Great wars were carried on, mostly contests for succession to thrones. The outcome was an equilibrium in the European state system, dependent on the relations of five great powers.

FIRST SECTION OF THE PERIOD.—In the first half of the period, the East and the West of Europe are slightly connected. In the West, France gains the preponderance over Austria, until, by the Spanish war of succession, England restores the balance. In the East, Sweden is in the van, until, in the great Northern war (1700-1721), Russia becomes predominant.

SECOND SECTION OF THE PERIOD.—In the second half of the period, the East and the West of Europe are brought together in one state system, in particular by the rise of the power of Prussia.

CHIEF EVENTS.—The fall of Sweden and the rise of Russia and Prussia are political events of capital importance. The maritime supremacy of England, with the loss by England of the American colonies, is another leading fact. In the closing part of the period appear the intellectual and political signs of the great Revolution which broke out in France near the end of the eighteenth century.