Volume 1 — CONGRESS OF ARTS AND SCIENCE
Reading edition
UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION ST. LOUIS
SEPTEMBER 19-25 1904
PROGRAMME AND LIST OF SPEAKERS
PROGRAMME
Purpose and Plan of the Congress
Organization of the Congress
Speakers and Chairmen
Chronological Order of Proceedings
Programme of Social Events
List of Ten-minute Speakers
List of Chairmen and Principal Speakers
INDEX SUBJECTS
Division A. Normative Science
Department 1. Philosophy
Sec.A.Metaphysics
B.Philosophy of Religion
C.Logic
D.Methodology of Science
E.Ethics
F.Æsthetics
Department 2. Mathematics
Sec.A.Algebra and Analysis
B.Geometry
C.Applied Mathematics
Division B. Historical Science
Department 3. Political and Economic History
Sec.A.History of Asia
B.History of Greece and Rome
C.Mediæval History
D.Modern History of Europe
E.History of America
F.History of Economic Institutions
Department 4. History of Law
Sec.A.History of Roman Law
B.History of Common Law
C.Comparative Law
Department 5. History of Language
Sec.A.Comparative Language
B.Semitic Language
C.Indo-Iranian Languages
D.Greek Language
E.Latin Language
F.English Language
G.Romance Languages
H.Germanic Languages
Department 6. History of Literature
Sec.A.Indo-Iranian Literature
B.Classical Literature
C.English Literature
D.Romance Literature
E.Germanic Literature
F.Slavic Literature
G.Belles-Lettres
Department 7. History of Art
Sec.A.Classical Art
B.Modern Architecture
C.Modern Painting
Department 8. History of Religion
Sec.A.Brahminism and Buddhism
B.Mohammedism
C.Old Testament
D.New Testament
E.History of the Christian Church
Division C. Physical Science
Department 9. Physics
Sec.A.Physics of Matter
B.Physics of Ether
C.Physics of the Electron
Department 10. Chemistry
Sec.A.Inorganic Chemistry
B.Organic Chemistry
C.Physical Chemistry
D.Physiological Chemistry
Department 11. Astronomy
Sec.A.Astrometry
B.Astrophysics
Department 12. Sciences of the Earth
Sec.A.Geophysics
B.Geology
C.Palæontology
D.Petrology and Mineralogy
E.Physiography
F.Geography
G.Oceanography
H.Cosmical Physics
Department 13. Biology
Sec.A.Phylogeny
B.Plant Morphology
C.Plant Physiology
D.Plant Pathology
E.Ecology
F.Bacteriology
G.Animal Morphology
H.Embryology
I.Comparative Anatomy
J.Human Anatomy
K.Physiology
Department 14. Anthropology
Sec.A.Somatology
B.Archæology
C.Ethnology
Division D. Mental Science
Department 15. Psychology
Sec.A.General Psychology
B.Experimental Psychology
C.Comparative and Genetic Psychology
D.Abnormal Psychology
Department 16. Sociology
Sec.A.Social Structure
B.Social Psychology
Division E. Utilitarian Sciences
Department 17. Medicine
Sec.A.Public Health
B.Preventive Medicine
C.Pathology
D.Therapeutics and Pharmacology
E.Internal Medicine
F.Neurology
G.Psychiatry
H.Surgery
I.Gynecology
J.Ophthalmology
K.Otology and Laryngology
L.Pediatrics
Department 18. Technology
Sec.A.Civil Engineering
B.Mechanical Engineering
C.Electrical Engineering
D.Mining Engineering
E.Technical Chemistry
F.Agriculture
Department 19. Economic
Sec.A.Economic Theory
B.Transportation
C.Commerce and Exchange
D.Money and Credit
E.Public Finance
F.Insurance
Division F. Social Regulation
Department 20. Politics
Sec.A.Political Theory
B.Diplomacy
C.National Administration
D.Colonial Administration
E.Municipal Administration
Department 21. Jurisprudence
Sec.A.International Law
B.Constitutional Law
C.Private Law
Department 22. Social Science
Sec.A.The Family
B.The Rural Community
C.The Urban Community
D.The Industrial Group
E.The Dependent Group
F.The Criminal Group
Division G. Social Culture
Department 23. Education
Sec.A.Educational Theory
B.The School
C.The College
D.The University
E.The Library
Department 24. Religion
Sec.A.General Religious Education
B.Professional Religious Education
C.Religious Agencies
D.Religious Work
E.Religious Influence: PersonaG
F.Religious Influence: Social
PURPOSE AND PLAN OF THE CONGRESS
The idea of the Congress grows out of the thought that the subdivision and multiplication of specialties in science has reached a stage at which investigators and scholars may derive both inspiration and profit from a general survey of the various fields of learning, planned with a view of bringing the scattered sciences into closer mutual relations. The central purpose is the unification of knowledge, an effort toward which seems appropriate on an occasion when the nations bring together an exhibit of their arts and industries. An assemblage is therefore to be convened at which leading representatives of theoretical and applied sciences shall set forth those general principles and fundamental conceptions which connect groups of sciences, review the historical development of special sciences, show their mutual relations and discuss their present problems.
The speakers to treat the various themes are selected in advance from the European and American continents. The discussions will be arranged on the following general plan:—
After the opening of the Congress on Monday afternoon, September 19, will follow, on Tuesday forenoon, addresses on main divisions of science and its applications, the general theme being the unification of each of the fields treated. These will be followed by two addresses on each of the twenty-four great departments of knowledge. The theme of one address in each case will be the Fundamental Conceptions and Methods, while the other will set forth the progress during the last century. The preceding addresses will be delivered by Americans, making the work of the first two days the contribution of American scholars.
On the third day, with the opening of the sections, the international work will begin. One hundred twenty-eight sectional meetings will be held on the four remaining days of the Congress, at each of which two papers will be read, the theme of one being suggested by the relations of the special branch treated to other branches; the other by its present problems. Three hours will be devoted to each sectional meeting, thus enabling each hearer to attend eight such meetings, if he so desires. The programme is so arranged that related subjects will be treated, as far as possible, at different times. The length of the principal addresses being limited to forty-five minutes each, there will remain at least one hour for five or six brief communications in each section. The addresses in each department will be collected and published in a special volume.
It is hoped that the living influence of this meeting will be yet more important than the formal addresses, and that the scholars whose names are announced in the following programme of speakers and chairmen will form only a nucleus for the gathering of thousands who feel in sympathy with the efforts to bring unity into the world of knowledge.
ORGANIZATION OF THE CONGRESS
PRESIDENT OF THE EXPOSITION: HON. DAVID R. FRANCIS, A.M., LL.D.
DIRECTOR OF CONGRESSES, HOWARD J. ROGERS, A.M., LL.D. Universal Exposition, 1904.
ADMINISTRATIVE BOARD
NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER, PH.D., LL.D. President of Columbia University, Chairman.
WILLIAM R. HARPER, PH.D., LL.D. President of the University of Chicago.
R. H. JESSE, PH.D., LL.D. President of the University of Missouri.
HENRY S. PRITCHETT, PH.D., LL.D. President of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
HERBERT PUTNAM, LITT.D., LL.D. Librarian of Congress.
FREDERICK J. V. SKIFF, A.M. Director of the Field Columbian Museum.
OFFICERS OF THE CONGRESS
PRESIDENT: SIMON NEWCOMB, PH.D., LL.D. Retired Professor U. S. N.
VICE-PRESIDENTS: HUGO MÜNSTERBERG, PH.D., LL.D. Professor of Psychology in Harvard University.
ALBION W. SMALL, PH.D., LL.D. Professor of Sociology in The University of Chicago.
HONORARY VICE-PRESIDENTS: RIGHT HONORABLE JAMES BRYCE, M.P. Great Britain.
M. GASTON DARBOUX, France.
PROFESSOR WILHELM WALDEYER, Germany.
DR. OSKAR BACKLUND, Russia.
PROFESSOR THEODORE ESCHERICH, Austria.
SIGNOR ATTILIO BRUNIALTI, Italy.
PROFESSOR N. HOZUMI, Japan.
EXECUTIVE SECRETARY: DR. L. O. HOWARD, Permanent Secretary American Association for the Advancement of Science.
SPEAKERS AND CHAIRMEN
DIVISION A—NORMATIVE SCIENCE
Speaker:Professor Josiah Royce, Harvard University.
(Hall 6, September 20, 10 a. m.)
DEPARTMENT 1—PHILOSOPHY
(Hall 6, September 20, 11.15 a. m.)
Chairman:Professor Borden P. Bowne, Boston University.
Speakers:Professor George H. Howison, University of California.
Professor George T. Ladd, Yale University.
SECTION A. METAPHYSICS. (Hall 6, September 21, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:Professor A. C. Armstrong, Wesleyan University.
Speakers:Professor A. E. Taylor, McGill University, Montreal.
Professor Alexander T. Ormond, Princeton University.
Secretary:Professor A. O. Lovejoy, Washington University,
SECTION B. PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. (Hall 1, September 21, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:Professor Thomas C. Hall, Union Theological Seminary, N. Y.
Speakers:Professor Otto Pfleiderer, University of Berlin.
Professor Ernst Troeltsch, University of Heidelberg.
Secretary:Dr. W. P. Montague, Columbia University.
SECTION C. LOGIC. (Hall 6, September 22, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:Professor George M. Duncan, Yale University.
Speakers:Professor William A. Hammond, Cornell University.
Professor Frederick J. E. Woodbridge, Columbia University.
Secretary:Dr. W. H. Sheldon, Columbia University.
SECTION D. METHODOLOGY OF SCIENCE. (Hall 6, September 22, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:Professor James E. Creighton, Cornell University.
Speakers:Professor Wilhelm Ostwald, University of Leipzig.
Professor Benno Erdmann, University of Bonn.
Secretary:Dr. R. B. Perry, Harvard University.
SECTION E. ETHICS. (Hall 6, September 23, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:Professor George H. Palmer, Harvard University.
Speakers:Professor William R. Sorley, University of Cambridge.
Professor Paul Hensel, University of Erlangen.
Secretary:Professor F. C. Sharp, University of Wisconsin.
SECTION F. AESTHETICS. (Hall 4, September 23, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:Professor James H. Tufts, University of Chicago.
Speakers:Dr. Henry Rutgers Marshall, New York City.
Professor Max Dessoir, University of Berlin.
Secretary:Professor Max Meyer, University of Missouri.
DEPARTMENT 2—MATHEMATICS
(Hall 7, September 20, 11.15 a. m.)
Chairman:Professor Henry S. White, Northwestern University.
Speakers:Professor Maxime Bocher, Harvard University.
Professor James P. Pierpont, Yale University.
SECTION A. ALGEBRA AND ANALYSIS. (Hall 9, September 22, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:Professor E. H. Moore, University of Chicago.
Speakers:Professor Emile Picard, the Sorbonne; Member of the Institute of France.
Professor Heinrich Maschke, University of Chicago.
Secretary:Professor G. A. Bliss, University of Chicago.
SECTION B. GEOMETRY. (Hall 9, September 24, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:Professor M. W. Haskell, University of California.
Speakers:M. Gaston Darboux, Perpetual Secretary of The Academy of Sciences, Paris.
Dr. Edward Kasner, Columbia University.
Secretary:Professor Thomas J. Holgate, Northwestern University.
SECTION C. APPLIED MATHEMATICS. (Hall 7, September 24, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:Professor Arthur G. Webster, Clark University, Worcester, Mass.
Speakers:Professor Ludwig Boltzmann, University of Vienna.
Professor Henri Poincaré, the Sorbonne; Member of the Institute of France.
Secretary:Professor Henry T. Eddy, University of Minnesota.
DIVISION B—HISTORICAL SCIENCE
(Hall 3, September 20, 10 a. m.)
Speaker:President Woodrow Wilson, Princeton University.
DEPARTMENT 3—POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC HISTORY
(Hall 4, September 20, 11.15 a. m.)
Chairman:
Speakers:Professor William M. Sloane, Columbia University.
Professor James H. Robinson, Columbia University.
SECTIONS A AND B. HISTORY OF GREECE, ROME, AND ASIA. (Hall 3, September 21, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:Professor Thomas D. Seymour, Yale University.
Speakers:Professor John P. Mahaffy, University of Dublin.
Professor Ettore Pais, University of Naples. Director of the National Museum of Antiquities, Naples.
Professor Henri Cordier, Ecole Des Langues Vivantes Orientales, Paris.
Secretary:Professor Edward Capps, University of Chicago.
SECTION C. MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. (Hall 6, September 21, 3 p. m.)
Chairman: Professor Charles H. Haskins, Harvard University.
Speakers: Professor Karl Lamprecht, University of Leipzig.
Professor George B. Adams, Yale University.
Secretary:Professor Earle W. Dow, University of Michigan.
SECTION D. MODERN HISTORY OF EUROPE. (Hall 3, September 22, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:Honorable James B. Perkins, Rochester, N. Y.
Speakers: Professor J. B. Bury, University of Cambridge.
Professor Charles W. Colby, Mcgill University, Montreal.
Secretary:Professor Ferdinand Schwill, University of Chicago.
SECTION E. HISTORY OF AMERICA. (Hall 1, September 24, 10 a. m.)
Chairman: Dr. James Schouler, Boston.
Speakers: Professor Frederic J. Turner, University of Wisconsin.
Professor Edward G. Bourne, Yale University.
Secretary:Professor Evarts B. Greene, University of Illinois.
SECTION F. HISTORY OF ECONOMIC INSTITUTIONS. (Hall 2, September 23, 3 p. m.)
Chairman: Professor Frank A. Fetter, Cornell University.
Speakers: Professor J. E. Conrad, University of Halle.
Professor Simon N. Patten, University of Pennsylvania.
Secretary:Dr. J. Pease Norton, Yale University.
DEPARTMENT 4—HISTORY OF LAW
(Hall 5, September 20, 11.15 a. m.)
Chairman:Honorable David J. Brewer, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States.
Speakers:Honorable Emlin McClain, Judge of the Supreme Court of Iowa, Iowa City.
Professor Nathan Abbott, Leland Stanford Jr. University.
SECTION A. HISTORY OF ROMAN LAW. (Hall 11, September 21, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:
Speakers:Mr. W. H. Buckler, Baltimore, Md.
Professor Munroe Smith, Columbia University.
SECTION B. HISTORY OF COMMON LAW. (Hall 11, September 21, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:Professor John D. Lawson, University of Missouri.
Speakers:Honorable Simeon E. Baldwin, Judge of the Supreme Court of Errors, New Haven, Conn.
Professor John H. Wigmore, Northwestern University.
Secretary:Professor C. H. Huberich, University of Texas.
SECTION C. COMPARATIVE LAW. (Hall 14, September 24, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:Honorable Jacob M. Dickinson, Chicago.
Speakers:Professor Nobushige Hozumi, University of Tokio.
Professor Alfred Nerincx, University of Louvain.
Secretary:
DEPARTMENT 5—HISTORY OF LANGUAGE
(Hall 4, September 20, 2 p. m.)
Chairman:Professor George Hempl, University of Michigan.
Speakers:Professor T. R. Lounsbury, Yale University.
President Benjamin Ide Wheeler, University of California.
SECTION A. COMPARATIVE LANGUAGE. (Hall 4, September 21, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:Professor Francis A. March, Lafayette College.
Speakers:Professor Carl D. Buck, University of Chicago.
Professor Hans Oertel, Yale University.
Secretary:Professor E. W. Fay, University of Texas, Austin, Texas.
SECTION B. SEMITIC LANGUAGES. (Hall 4, September 21, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:Professor G. F. Moore, Harvard University.
Speakers:Professor James A. Craig, University of Michigan.
Professor Crawford H. Toy, Harvard University.
Secretary:
SECTION C. INDO-IRANIAN LANGUAGES. (Hall 8, September 22, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:
Speakers:Professor Sylvain Lévi, Collège de France, Paris.
Professor Arthur A. Macdonell, University of Oxford.
Secretary:
SECTION D. GREEK LANGUAGE. (Hall 3, September 22, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:Professor Martin L. D'ooge, University of Michigan.
Speakers:Professor Herbert W. Smyth, Harvard University.
Professor Milton W. Humphreys, University of Virginia.
Secretary:Professor J. E. Harry, University of Cincinnati.
SECTION E. LATIN LANGUAGE. (Hall 9, September 23, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:Professor Maurice Hutton, University of Toronto.
Speakers:Professor E. A. Sonnenschein, University of Birmingham.
Professor William G. Hale, University of Chicago.
Secretary:Professor F. W. Shipley, Washington University.
SECTION F. ENGLISH LANGUAGE. (Hall 3, September 23, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:Professor Charles M. Gayley, University of California.
Speakers:Professor Otto Jespersen, University of Copenhagen.
Professor George L. Kittredge, Harvard University.
Secretary:
SECTION G. ROMANCE LANGUAGES. (Hall 5, September 24, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:
Speakers:Professor Paul Meyer, Collège de France, Paris.
Professor Henry A. Todd, Columbia University.
Secretary:Professor E. E. Brandon, Miami University.
SECTION H. GERMANIC LANGUAGES. (Hall 3, September 24, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:Professor Gustaf E. Karsten, Cornell University.
Speakers:Professor Eduard Sievers, University of Leipzig.
Professor Herman Collitz, Bryn Mawr College.
Secretary:
DEPARTMENT 6—HISTORY OF LITERATURE
(Hall 6, September 20, 4.15 p. m.)
Chairman:
Speakers:Professor James A. Harrison, University of Virginia.
Professor Charles M. Gayley, University of California.
SECTION A. INDO-IRANIAN LITERATURE. (Hall 8, September 24, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:Professor Maurice Bloomfield, Johns Hopkins University.
Speaker:Professor A. V. W. Jackson, Columbia University.
Secretary:
SECTION B. CLASSICAL LITERATURE. (Hall 3, September 21, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:Professor Andrew F. West, Princeton University.
Speakers:Professor Paul Shorey, University of Chicago.
Professor John H. Wright, Harvard University.
Secretary:Professor F. G. Moore, Dartmouth College.
SECTION C. ENGLISH LITERATURE. (Hall 1, September 22, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:
Speakers:Professor Francis B. Gummere, Haverford College.
Professor John Hoops, University of Heidelberg.
Secretary:
SECTION D. ROMANCE LITERATURE. (Hall 8, September 22, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:Professor Adolphe Cohn, Columbia University.
Speakers:Professor Pio Rajna, Institute of Higher Studies, Florence, Italy.
Professor Alcée Fortier, Tulane University, New Orleans.
Secretary:Dr. Comfort, Haverford College.
SECTION E. GERMANIC LITERATURE. (Hall 3, September 23, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:Professor Kuno Francke, Harvard University.
Speakers:Professor August Sauer, University of Prague.
Professor J. Minor, University of Vienna.
Secretary:Professor D. K. Jessen, Bryn Mawr College.
SECTION F. SLAVIC LITERATURE. (Hall 8, September 21, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:Mr. Charles R. Crane, Chicago.
Speakers:Professor Leo Wiener, Harvard University.
Professor Paul Boyer, Ecole Des Langues Vivantes Orientales, Paris.
Secretary:Mr. S. N. Harper, University of Chicago.
SECTION G. BELLES-LETTRES. (Hall 3, September 24, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:Professor Robert Herrick, University of Chicago.
Speakers:Professor Henry Schofield, Harvard University.
Professor Brander Matthews, Columbia University.
Secretary:
DEPARTMENT 7—HISTORY OF ART
(Hall 8, September 20, 11.15 a. m.)
Chairman:Professor Halsey C. Ives, Washington University, St. Louis.
Speakers:Professor Rufus B. Richardson, New York, N. Y.
Professor John C. van Dyke, Rutgers College.
SECTION A. CLASSICAL ART. (Hall 12, September 22, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:Professor Rufus B. Richardson, New York City.
Speakers:Professor Adolph Furtwangler, University Of Munich.
Professor Frank B. Tarbell, University of Chicago.
Secretary:Dr. P. Baur, Yale University.
SECTION B. MODERN ARCHITECTURE. (Hall 7, September 22, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:Mr. Charles F. McKim, New York City.
Speakers:Professor C. Enlart, University of Paris.
Professor Alfred D. F. Hamlin, Columbia University.
Secretary:Mr. Guy Lowell, Boston, Mass.
SECTION C. MODERN PAINTING. (Hall 4, September 24, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:
Speakers:Professor Richard Muther, University of Breslau.
Mr. Okakura Kakuzo, Japan.
Secretary:
DEPARTMENT 8—HISTORY OF RELIGION
(Hall 5, September 20, 2 p. m.)
Chairman:Rev. Wm. Eliot Griffis, Ithaca, N. Y.
Speakers:Professor George F. Moore, Harvard University.
Professor Nathaniel Schmidt, Cornell University.
SECTION A. BRAHMANISM AND BUDDHISM. (Hall 8, September 23, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:
Speakers:Professor Hermann Oldenberg, University of Kiel.
Professor Maurice Bloomfield, Johns Hopkins University.
Secretary:Dr. Reginald C. Robbins, Harvard University.
SECTION B. MOHAMMEDISM. (Hall 8, September 23, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:Professor James R. Jewett, University of Chicago.
Speakers:Professor Ignaz Goldziher, University of Budapest.
Professor Duncan B. Macdonald, Hartford Theological Seminary.
Secretary:
SECTION C. OLD TESTAMENT. (Hall 4, September 22, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:Professor A. S. Carrier, McCormick Theological Seminary.
Speakers:Professor James F. McCurdy, University College of Toronto.
Professor Karl Budde, University of Marburg.
Secretary:Professor James A. Kelso, Western Theological Seminary, Allegheny, Pa.
SECTION D. NEW TESTAMENT. (Hall 1, September 23, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:Professor Andrew C. Zenos, McCormick Theological Seminary.
Speakers:Professor Benjamin W. Bacon, Yale University.
Professor Ernest D. Burton, University of Chicago.
Secretary:Professor Clyde W. Votaw, University of Chicago.
SECTION E. HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. (Hall 2, September 24, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:Dr. Eri Baker Hulbert, University of Chicago.
Speakers:Professor Adolf Harnack, University of Berlin.
Professor Jean Réville, Faculty of Protestant Theology, Paris.
Secretary:
DIVISION C—PHYSICAL SCIENCE
(Hall 4, September 20, 10 a. m.)
Speaker:Professor Robert S. Woodward, Columbia University.
DEPARTMENT 9—PHYSICS
(Hall 6, September 20, 2 p. m.)
Chairman:Professor Henry Crew, Northwestern University.
Speakers:Professor Edward L. Nichols, Cornell University.
Professor Carl Barus, Brown University.
SECTION A. PHYSICS OF MATTER. (Hall 11, September 23, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:Professor Samuel W. Stratton, Director of The National Bureau of Standards, Washington.
Speakers:Professor Arthur L. Kimball, Amherst College.
Professor Francis E. Nipher, Washington University.
Secretary:Professor R. A. Milliken, University of Chicago.
SECTION B. PHYSICS OF ETHER. (Hall 11, September 23, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:Professor Henry Crew, Northwestern University.
Speaker:Professor Dewitt B. Brace, University of Nebraska.
Secretary:Professor Augustus Trowbridge, University of Wisconsin.
SECTION C. PHYSICS OF THE ELECTRON. (Hall 5, September 22, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:Professor A. G. Websterr, Clark University.
Speakers:Professor P. Langevin, Collège de France.
Professor Ernest Rutherfurd, McGill University, Montreal.
Secretary:Professor W. J. Humphreys, University of Virginia.
DEPARTMENT 10—CHEMISTRY
(Hall 5, September 20, 4.15 p. m.)
Chairman:Professor James M. Crafts, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Speakers:Professor John U. Nef, University of Chicago.
Professor Frank W. Clarke, Chief Chemist, U. S. Geological Survey.
SECTION A. INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. (Hall 16, September 21, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:Professor John W. Mallet, University of Virginia.
Speakers:Professor Henri Moissan, the Sorbonne; Member of the Institute of France.
Sir William Ramsay, K.C.B., Royal Institution, London.
Secretary:Professor William L. Dudley, Vanderbilt University.
SECTION B. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. (Hall 16, September 21, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:Professor Albert B. Prescott, University of Michigan.
Speakers:Professor Julius Stieglitz, University of Chicago.
Professor William A. Noyes, National Bureau of Standards.
Secretary:
SECTION C. PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY. (Hall 16, September 22, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:Professor Wilder D. Bancroft, Cornell University.
Speakers:Professor J. H. Van t'hoff, University of Berlin.
Professor Arthur A. Noyes, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Secretary:Mr. W. R. Whitney, Schenectady, N. Y.
SECTION D. PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. (Hall 16, September 22, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:Professor Wilder O. Atwater, Wesleyan University.
Speakers:Professor O. Cohnheim, University of Heidelberg.
Professor Russell H. Chittenden, Yale University.
Secretary:Dr. C. L. Alsberg, Harvard University.
DEPARTMENT 11—ASTRONOMY
(Hall 8, September 20, 4.15 p. m.)
Chairman:Professor George C. Comstock, Director of the Observatory, Madison, Wisconsin.
Speakers:Professor Lewis Boss, Director of Dudley Observatory.
Professor Edward C. Pickering, Director of Harvard Observatory.
SECTION A. ASTROMETRY. (Hall 9, September 21, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:Professor Ormond Stone, University of Virginia.
Speakers:Dr. Oskar Backlund, Director of the Observatory, Pulkowa, Russia.
Professor John C. Kapteyn, University of Groningen, Holland.
Secretary:Professor W. S. Eichelberger, U. S. Naval Observatory.
SECTION B. ASTROPHYSICS. (Hall 9, September 21, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:Professor George E. Hale, Director of the Yerkes Observatory.
Speakers:Professor Herbert H. Turner, F.R.S., University of Oxford.
Professor William W. Campbell, Director of The Lick Observatory, Mt. Hamilton, California.
Secretary:Mr. W. S. Adams, Yerkes Observatory.
DEPARTMENT 12—SCIENCES OF THE EARTH
(Hall 3, September 20, 11.15 a. m.)
Chairman:Dr. G. K. Gilbert, U. S. Geological Survey.
Speakers:Professor Thomas C. Chamberlin, University of Chicago.
Professor William M. Davis, Harvard University.
SECTION A. GEOPHYSICS. (Hall 14, September 21, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:Professor Christopher W. Hall, University of Minnesota.
Speaker:Dr. George F. Becker, Geologist, U. S. Geological Survey.
Secretary:Professor E. M. Lehnerts, Minnesota State Normal School.
SECTION B. GEOLOGY. (Hall 14, September 21, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:Professor T. C. Chamberlin, University of Chicago.
Speakers:President Charles R. Van Hise, University of Wisconsin.
Secretary:Professor R. D. Salisbury, University of Chicago.
SECTION C. PALAEONTOLOGY. (Hall 11, September 22, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:Professor William B. Scott, Princeton University.
Speakers:Dr. A. S. Woodward, F.R.S., British Museum Of Natural History, London.
Professor Henry F. Osborn, Columbia University.
Secretary:Dr. John M. Clarke, Albany, N. Y.
SECTION D. PETROLOGY AND MINERALOGY. (Hall 9, September 22, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:Dr. Oliver C. Farrington, Field Columbian Museum, Chicago.
Speaker:Professor F. Zirkel, University of Leipzig.
Secretary:
SECTION E. PHYSIOGRAPHY. (Hall 12, September 21, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:Mr. Henry Gannett, United States Geological Survey.
Speakers:Professor Albrecht Penck, University of Vienna.
Professor Israel C. Russell, University of Michigan.
Secretary:Dr. John M. Clarke, Albany, N. Y.
SECTION F. GEOGRAPHY. (Hall 11, September 22, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:Professor Israel C. Russell, University of Michigan.
Speakers:Dr. Hugh R. Mill, Director British Rainfall Organization, London.
Professor H. Yule Oldham, Cambridge, England.
Secretary:Professor R. D. Salisbury, University of Chicago.
SECTION G. OCEANOGRAPHY. (Hall 8, September 21, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:Rear-Admiral John R. Bartlett, United States Navy.
Speakers:Sir John Murray, K.C.B., F.R.S., Edinburgh.
Professor K. Mitsukuri, University of Tokio.
Secretary:
SECTION H. COSMICAL PHYSICS. (Hall 10, September 22, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:Professor Francis E. Nipher, Washington University.
Speakers:Professor Svante Arrhenius, University of Stockholm, Stockholm.
Dr. Abbott L. Rotch, Blue Hill Observatory.
Dr. L. A. Bauer, Washington, D. C.
Secretary:
DEPARTMENT 13—BIOLOGY
(Hall 2, September 20, 11.15 a. m.)
Chairman:Professor William G. Farlow, Harvard University.
Speakers:Professor John M. Coulter, University of Chicago.
Professor Jacques Loeb, University of California.
SECTION A. PHYLOGENY. (Hall 2, September 21, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:Professor T. H. Morgan, Columbia University.
Speakers:Professor Hugo de Vries, University of Amsterdam.
Professor Charles O. Whitman, University of Chicago.
Secretary:
SECTION B. PLANT MORPHOLOGY. (Hall 2, September 22, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:Professor William Trelease, Washington University, St. Louis.
Speakers:Professor Frederick O. Bower, University of Glasgow.
Professor Karl F. Goebel, University of Munich.
Secretary:Professor F. E. Lloyd, Columbia University.
SECTION C. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY. (Hall 4, September 22, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:Professor Charles R. Barnes, University of Chicago.
Speakers:Professor Julius Wiesner, University of Vienna.
Professor Benjamin M. Duggar, University of Missouri.
Secretary:Professor F. C. Newcomb, University of Michigan.
SECTION D. PLANT PATHOLOGY. (Hall 7, September 23, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:Professor Chas. E. Bessey, University of Nebraska.
Speakers:Professor Joseph C. Arthur, Purdue University.
Merton B. Waite, U. S. Department of Agriculture.
Secretary:Dr. C. S. Shear, U. S. Department of Agriculture.
SECTION E. ECOLOGY. (Hall 7, September 23, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:
Speakers:Professor Oskar Drude, Kön. Technische Hochschule, Dresden.
Professor Benjamin Robinson, Harvard University.
Secretary:Professor F. E. Clements, University of Nebraska.
SECTION F. BACTERIOLOGY. (Hall 15, September 24, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:Professor Harold C. Ernst, Harvard University.
Speakers:Professor Edwin O. Jordan, University of Chicago.
Professor Theobald Smith, Harvard University.
Secretary:Dr. P. H. Hiss, Jr., Columbia University.
SECTION G. ANIMAL MORPHOLOGY. (Hall 2, September 21, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:Dr. Leland O. Howard, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
Speakers:Professor Charles B. Davenport, University of Chicago.
Professor Alfred Giard, the Sorbonne; Member of the Institute of France.
Secretary:Professor C. H. Herrick, Dennison University.
SECTION H. EMBRYOLOGY. (Hall 9, September 23, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:Professor Simon H. Gage, Cornell University.
Speakers:Professor Oskar Hertwig, University of Berlin.
Professor William K. Brooks, Johns Hopkins University.
Secretary:Professor T. G. Lee, University of Minnesota.
SECTION I. COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. (Hall 2, September 24, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:Professor James P. McMurrich, University of Michigan.
Speakers:Professor William E. Ritter, University of California.
Professor Yves Delage, the Sorbonne; Member of the Institute of France.
Secretary:Professor Henry B. Ward, University of Nebraska.
SECTION J. HUMAN ANATOMY. (Hall 2, September 22, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:Professor George A. Piersol, University of Pennsylvania.
Speakers:Professor Wilhelm Waldeyer, University of Berlin.
Professor H. H. Donaldson, University of Chicago.
Secretary:Dr. R. J. Terry, Washington University.
SECTION K. PHYSIOLOGY. (Hall 4, September 23, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:Dr. S. J. Meltzer, New York.
Speakers:Professor Max Verworn, University of Göttingen.
Professor William H. Howell, Johns Hopkins University.
Secretary:Dr. Reid Hunt, Washington.
DEPARTMENT 14—ANTHROPOLOGY
(Hall 8, September 20, 2 p. m.)
Chairman:Professor Frederic W. Putnam, Harvard University.
Speakers:Dr. W. J. McGee, President American Anthropological Association, Washington, D. C.
Professor Franz Boas, Columbia University.
SECTION A. SOMATOLOGY. (Hall 16, September 23, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:Dr. Edward C. Spitzka, New York City.
Speakers:Professor L. Manouvrier, School of Anthropology, Paris.
Dr. George A. Dorsey, Field Columbian Museum, Chicago.
Secretary:Dr. E. A. Spitzka, New York City.
SECTION B. ARCHAEOLOGY. (Hall 16, September 24, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:Mr. M. H. Saville, American Museum of Natural History, New York.
Speakers:Señor Alfredo Chavero, Inspector of the National Museum, Mexico.
Professor Edouard Seler, University of Berlin.
Secretary:Professor William C. Mills, Ohio State University.
SECTION C. ETHNOLOGY. (Hall 16, September 24, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:Miss Alice C. Fletcher, President of the Washington Anthropological Society.
Speakers:Professor Frederick Starr, University of Chicago.
Professor A. C. Haddon, University of Cambridge.
Secretary:Professor F. W. Shipley, Washington University.
DIVISION D—MENTAL SCIENCE
(Hall 7, September 20, 10 a. m.)
Speaker:President G. Stanley Hall, Clark University, Worcester, Mass.
DEPARTMENT 15—PSYCHOLOGY
(Hall 7, September 20, 2 p. m.)
Chairman:
Speakers:Professor James McK. Cattell, Columbia University.
Professor J. Mark Baldwin, Johns Hopkins University.
SECTION A. GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY. (Hall 6, September 23, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:Professor Jos. Royce, Harvard University.
Speakers:Professor Harald Hoeffding, University of Copenhagen.
Professor James Ward, University of Cambridge, England.
Secretary:Dr. W. H. Davis, Lehigh University.
SECTION B. EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY. (Hall 2, September 23, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:Professor Edward A. Pace, Catholic University of America.
Speakers:Professor Robert MacDougal, New York University.
Professor Edward B. Titchener, Cornell University.
Secretary:Dr. R. S. Woodworth, Columbia University.
SECTION C. COMPARATIVE AND GENETIC PSYCHOLOGY. (Hall 6, September 24, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:Professor Edmund C. Sanford, Clark University, Worcester, Mass.
Speakers:Principal C. Lloyd Morgan, University College, Bristol.
Professor Mary W. Calkins, Wellesley College.
Secretary:Dr. R. M. Yerkes, Harvard University.
SECTION D. ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY. (Hall 6, September 24, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:Dr. Edward Cowles, Waverley, Mass.
Speakers:Dr. Pierre Janet, Collège de France, Paris.
Dr. Morton Prince, Boston.
Secretary:Dr. Adolph Meyer, New York City.
DEPARTMENT 16—SOCIOLOGY
(Hall 7, September 20, 4.15 p. m.)
Chairman:Professor Frank W. Blackmar, University of Kansas.
Speakers:Professor Franklin H. Giddings, Columbia University.
Professor George E. Vincent, University of Chicago.
SECTION A. SOCIAL STRUCTURE. (Hall 15, September 21, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:Professor Frederick W. Moore, Vanderbilt University.
Speakers:Field Marshal Gustav Ratzenhofer, Vienna.
Professor F. Toennies, University of Kiel.
Professor Lester F. Ward, U. S. National Museum.
Secretary:Professor Jerome Dowd, University of Wisconsin.
SECTION B. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY. (Hall 15, September 23, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:Professor Charles A. Ellwood, University of Missouri.
Speakers:Professor Wm. I. Thomas, University of Chicago.
Professor Edward A. Ross, University of Nebraska.
Secretary:Professor E. C. Hayes, Miami University.
DIVISION E—UTILITARIAN SCIENCES
(Hall 1, September 20, 10 a. m.)
Speaker:President David Starr Jordan, Leland Stanford Jr. University.
DEPARTMENT 17—MEDICINE
(Hall 1, September 20, 4.15 p. m.)
Chairman:Dr. William Osler, Johns Hopkins University.
Speakers:Dr. William T. Councilman, Harvard University.
Dr. Frank Billings, University of Chicago.
SECTION A. PUBLIC HEALTH. (Hall 13, September 21, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:Dr. Walter Wyman, Surgeon-General of the U. S. Marine Hospital Service.
Speakers:Professor William T. Sedgwick, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Dr. Ernst J. Lederle, Former Commissioner of Health, New York City.
Secretary:Dr. H. M. Bracken, St. Paul, Minn.
SECTION B. PREVENTIVE MEDICINE. (Hall 13, September 21, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:Dr. Joseph M. Mathews, President of the State Board of Health, Louisville, Ky.
Speaker: Professor Ronald Ross, F.R.S., School of Tropical Medicine, University College, Liverpool.
Secretary:Dr. J. N. Hurty, Indianapolis, Ind.
SECTION C. PATHOLOGY. (Hall 13, September 22, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:Professor Simon Flexner, Director of the Rockefeller Institute.
Speakers:Professor Ludwig Hektoen, University of Chicago.
Professor Johannes Orth, University of Berlin.
Professor Shibasaburo Kitasato, University of Tokio.
Secretary:Dr. W. McN. Miller, University of Missouri.
SECTION D. THERAPEUTICS AND PHARMACOLOGY. (Hall 13, September 24, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:Dr. Hobart A. Hare, Jefferson Medical College.
Speakers:Professor Oscar Liebreich, University of Berlin.
Sir Lauder Brunton, F.R.S., London.
Secretary:Dr. H. B. Favill, Chicago, Ill.
SECTION E. INTERNAL MEDICINE. (Hall 13, September 23, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:Professor Frederick C. Shattuck, Harvard University.
Speakers:Professor T. Clifford Allbutt, F.R.S., University of Cambridge.
Professor William S. Thayer, Johns Hopkins University.
Secretary:Dr. R. C. Cabot, Boston, Mass.
SECTION F. NEUROLOGY. (Hall 13, September 22, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:Professor Lewellyn F. Barker, University of Chicago.
Speaker: Professor James J. Putnam, Harvard University.
Secretary:
SECTION G. PSYCHIATRY. (Hall 7, September 22, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:
Speakers:Dr. Charles L. Dana, Cornell University, New York.
Dr. Edward Cowles, Boston.
Secretary:Dr. C. G. Chadddock, St. Louis, Mo.
SECTION H. SURGERY. (Hall 13, September 23, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:Professor Carl Beck, Post-Graduate Medical School, New York.
Speakers:Dr. Frederic S. Dennis, F.R.C.S., Cornell Medical College, New York City.
Professor Johannes Orth, University of Berlin.
Secretary:Dr. J. F. Binnie, Kansas City, Mo.
SECTION I. GYNECOLOGY. (Hall 13, September 24, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:Professor Howard A. Kelly, Johns Hopkins University.
Speaker:Professor J. Clarence Webster, Rush Medical College, Chicago.
Secretary:Dr. G. H. Noble, Atlanta, Ga.
SECTION J. OPHTHALMOLOGY. (Hall 7, September 24, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:Dr. George C. Harlan, Philadelphia, Pa.
Speakers:Dr. Edward Jackson, Denver, Col.
Dr. George M. Gould, Philadelphia, Pa.
Secretary:Dr. Wm. M. Sweet, Jefferson Medical College, Philadelphia, Pa.
SECTION K. OTOLOGY AND LARYNGOLOGY. (Hall 7, September 21, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:Professor William C. Glasgow, Washington University, St. Louis.
Speaker:Sir Felix Semon, C.V.O., Physician Extraordinary to His Majesty, the King, London.
Secretary:Dr. S. Spencer, Allenhurst, N. J.
SECTION L. PEDIATRICS. (Hall 7, September 21, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:Professor Thomas M. Rotch, Harvard University.
Speakers:Professor Theodore Escherich, University of Vienna.
Professor Abraham Jacobi, Columbia University.
Secretary:Dr. Samuel S. Adams, Washington, D. C.
DEPARTMENT 18—TECHNOLOGY.
(Hall 3, September 20, 2 p. m.)
Chairman:Chancellor Winfield S. Chaplin, Washington University, St. Louis.
Speaker:Professor Henry T. Bovey, F.R.S., McGill University, Montreal.
SECTION A. CIVIL ENGINEERING. (Hall 10, September 21, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:Professor William H. Burr, Columbia University.
Speakers:Dr. J. A. L. Waddell, Consulting Engineer, Kansas City.
Mr. Lewis M. Haupt, Consulting Engineer, Philadelphia.
Secretary:
SECTION B. MECHANICAL ENGINEERING. (Hall 10, September 23, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:Professor James E. Denton, Stevens Institute of Technology.
Speaker:Professor Albert W. Smith, Leland Stanford Jr. University.
Secretary:Mr. George Dinkel, Jr., Jersey City.
SECTION C. ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING. (Hall 10, September 22, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:
Speakers:Professor Arthur E. Kennelly, Harvard University.
Professor Michael I. Pupin, Columbia University.
Secretary:Mr. Carl Hering, Philadelphia, Pa.
SECTION D. MINING ENGINEERING. (Hall 11, September 24, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:Mr. John Hays Hammond, New York City.
Speakers:Professor Robert H. Richards, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Professor Samuel B. Christy, University of California.
Secretary:Dr. Joseph Struthers, New York City.
SECTION E. TECHNICAL CHEMISTRY. (Hall 16, September 23, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:Dr. H. W. Wiley, Department of Agriculture.
Speakers:Professor Charles E. Munroe, George Washington University.
Professor William H. Walker, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Secretary:Dr. Marcus Benjamin, U. S. National Museum.
SECTION F. AGRICULTURE. (Hall 10, September 24, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:Professor H. J. Wheeler, Kingston, R. I.
Speakers:Professor Charles W. Dabney, Jr., University of Cincinnati.
Professor Liberty H. Bailey, Cornell University.
Secretary:Professor William Hill, University of Chicago.
DEPARTMENT 19—ECONOMICS
(Hall 1, September 20, 11.15 a. m.)
Chairman:Professor Emory R. Johnson, University of Pennsylvania.
Speakers:Professor Frank A. Fetter, Cornell University.
Professor Adolph C. Miller, University of California.
SECTION A. ECONOMIC THEORY. (Hall 15, September 22, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:
Speakers:Professor John B. Clark, Columbia University.
Professor Jacob H. Hollander, Johns Hopkins University.
Secretary:Professor Jesse E. Pope, University of Missouri.
SECTION B. TRANSPORTATION. (Hall 10, September 23, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:Professor J. Lawrence Laughlin, University of Chicago.
Speakers:Professor Eugene Von Philippovich, University of Vienna.
Professor William Z. Ripley, Harvard University.
Secretary:Mr. George G. Tunell, Chicago.
SECTION C. COMMERCE AND EXCHANGE. (Hall 10, September 24, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:
Speakers:Professor E. D. Jones, University of Michigan.
Professor Carl Plehn, University of California.
Secretary:
SECTION D. MONEY AND CREDIT. (Hall 5, September 24, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:Mr. B. E. Walker, Canadian Bank of Commerce, Toronto.
Speakers:Mr. Horace White, New York City.
Professor J. Lawrence Laughlin, University of Chicago.
Secretary:Professor John Cummings, University of Chicago.
SECTION E. PUBLIC FINANCE. (Hall 1, September 21, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:
Speakers:Professor Henry C. Adams, University of Michigan.
Professor Edwin R. A. Seligman, Columbia University.
Secretary:
SECTION F. INSURANCE. (Hall 10, September 21, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:Dr. Emory McClintock, Actuary, Mutual Life Insurance
Company, New York.
Speakers:Mr. Frederick L. Hoffman, Statistician, Prudential Insurance Company, Newark.
Professor Balthasar H. Meyer, University of Wisconsin.
Secretary:
DIVISION F—SOCIAL REGULATION
(Hall 2, September 20, 10 a. m.)
Speaker:Professor Abbott L. Lowell, Harvard University.
DEPARTMENT 20—POLITICS
(Hall 2, September 20, 2 p. m.)
Chairman:
Speakers:Professor William A. Dunning, Columbia University.
Chancellor E. Benjamin Andrews, University of Nebraska.
SECTIONS A AND C. POLITICAL THEORY AND NATIONAL ADMINISTRATION. (Hall 15, September 22, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:
Speakers:Professor W. W. Willoughby, Johns Hopkins University.
Professor George G. Wilson, Brown University.
Right Hon. James Bryce, London, England.
Secretary:Dr. Charles E. Merriam, University of Chicago.
SECTION B. DIPLOMACY. (Hall 1, September 23, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:
Speakers:Honorable John W. Foster, Ex-Secretary of State.
Honorable David Jayne Hill, Minister of the United States to Switzerland.
Secretary:
SECTION D. COLONIAL ADMINISTRATION. (Hall 4, September 24, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:Professor Harry P. Judson, University of Chicago.
Speakers:Professor Bernard J. Moses, University of California.
Professor Paul S. Reinsch, University of Wisconsin.
Secretary:
SECTION E. MUNICIPAL ADMINISTRATION. (Hall 15, September 24, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:
Speakers:Mr. Albert Shaw, Editor American Monthly Review of Reviews.
Miss Jane Addams, Hull House, Chicago.
Secretary:Professor John A. Fairlie, University of Michigan.
DEPARTMENT 21—JURISPRUDENCE
(Hall 3, September 20, 4.15 p. m.)
Chairman:Professor George W. Kirchwey, Columbia University.
Speakers:President Charles W. Needham, Columbian University, Washington.
Professor Joseph H. Beale, Harvard University.
SECTION A. INTERNATIONAL LAW. (Hall 14, September 22, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:Professor James B. Scott, Columbia University.
Speakers:Professor H. Lafontaine, Member of the Senate, Brussels, Belgium.
Professor Charles Noble Gregory, University of Iowa.
Count Albert Apponyi, Hungary.
Secretary:Dr. W. C. Dennis, Leland Stanford Jr. University.
SECTION B. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW. (Hall 14, September 24, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:Professor Henry St. George Tucker, George Washington University, Washington.
Speakers:Signor Attilio Brunialti, Councilor of State, Rome.
Professor John W. Burgess, Columbia University.
Professor Ferdinand Larnaude, University of Paris.
Secretary:
SECTION C. PRIVATE LAW. (Hall 14, September 23, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:Professor James B. Ames, Dean, Harvard Law School.
Speakers:Professor Ernst Freund, University of Chicago.
Honorable Edward B. Whitney, New York.
Secretary:Dean William Draper Lewis, University of Pennsylvania.
DEPARTMENT 22—SOCIAL SCIENCE
(Hall 1, September 20, 2 p. m.)
Chairman:Mr. Walter L. Sheldon, Ethical Society, St. Louis.
Speakers:Professor Felix Adler, Columbia University.
Professor Graham Taylor, Chicago Theological Seminary.
SECTION A. THE FAMILY. (Hall 5, September 21, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:Professor Samuel G. Smith, University of Minnesota.
Speakers:Dr. Samuel W. Dike, Auburndale, Mass.
Professor George Elliott Howard, University of Nebraska.
Secretary:
SECTION B. THE RURAL COMMUNITY. (Hall 5, September 21, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:Hon. Aaron Jones, Master of National Grange, South Bend, Ind.
Speakers:Professor Max Weber, University of Heidelberg.
President Kenyon L. Butterfield, Rhode Island State Agricultural College.
Secretary:Professor William Hill, University of Chicago.
SECTION C. THE URBAN COMMUNITY. (Hall 5, September 22, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:
Speakers:Professor T. Jastrow, University of Berlin.
Professor Louis Wuarin, University of Geneva.
Secretary:
SECTION D. THE INDUSTRIAL GROUP. (Hall 14, September 22, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:
Speakers:Professor Werner Sombart, University of Breslau.
Professor Richard T. Ely, University of Wisconsin.
Secretary:Professor Thomas S. Adams, Madison, Wis.
SECTION E. THE DEPENDENT GROUP. (Hall 5, September 23, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:Mr. Robert W. Deforest, New York City.
Speakers:Professor Charles R. Henderson, University of Chicago.
Dr. Emil Münsterberg, President City Charities, Berlin.
Secretary:
SECTION F. THE CRIMINAL GROUP. (Hall 5, September 23, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:
Speaker:Mr. Frederick H. Wines, Secretary State Charities Aid Association, Upper Montclair, N. J.
Secretary:
DIVISION G—SOCIAL CULTURE
(Hall 5, September 20, 10 a. m.)
Speaker:Honorable William T. Harris, United States Commissioner of Education.
DEPARTMENT 23—EDUCATION
(Hall 2, September 20, 4.15 p. m.)
Chairman:
Speakers:President Arthur T. Hadley, Yale University.
The Right Rev. John L. Spalding, Bishop of Peoria.
SECTION A. EDUCATIONAL THEORY. (Hall 12, September 24, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:Professor Charles DeGarmo, Cornell University.
Speakers:Professor Wilhelm Rein, University of Jena.
Professor Elmer E. Brown, University of California.
Secretary:Dr. G. M. Whittle, Cornell University.
SECTION B. THE SCHOOL. (Hall 12, September 23, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:Dr. F. Louis Soldan, Superintendent Public Schools, St. Louis.
Speakers:Dr. Michael E. Sadler, University of Manchester.
Dr. William H. Maxwell, Superintendent Public Schools, New York City.
Secretary:Professor A. S. Langsdorf, Washington University.
SECTION C. THE COLLEGE. (Hall 12, September 23, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:President W. S. Chaplin, Washington University.
Speakers:President William DeWitt Hyde, Bowdoin College.
President M. Carey Thomas, Bryn Mawr College.
Secretary:Professor H. H. Horne, Dartmouth College.
SECTION D. THE UNIVERSITY. (Hall 12, September 24, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:
Speakers:Professor C. Chabot, University of Lyons.
Professor Edward Delavan Perry, Columbia University.
Secretary:
SECTION E. THE LIBRARY. (Hall 12, September 22, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:Mr. Frederick M. Crunden, Librarian St. Louis Public Library.
Speakers:Mr. William A. E. Axon, Manchester, England.
Professor Guido Biagi, Royal Librarian, Florence.
Secretary:Mr. C. P. Pettus, Washington University.
DEPARTMENT 24—RELIGION
(Hall 4, September 20, 4.15 p. m.)
Chairman:Bishop John H. Vincent, Chautauqua, N. Y.
Speakers:President Henry C. King, Oberlin College.
Professor Francis G. Peabody, Harvard University.
SECTION A. GENERAL RELIGIOUS EDUCATION. (Hall 11, September 24, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:Professor Edwin D. Starbuck, Earlham College, Richmond, Ind.
Speakers:Professor George A. Coe, Northwestern University.
Dr. Walter L. Hervey, Examiner Board of Education, New York City.
Secretary:
SECTION B. PROFESSIONAL RELIGIOUS EDUCATION. (Hall 1, September 22, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:
Speakers:President Charles Cuthbert Hall, Union Theological Seminary.
Professor Frank K. Sanders, Yale University.
Secretary:Professor Herbert L. Willett, Disciples Divinity House, Chicago, Ill.
SECTION C. RELIGIOUS AGENCIES. (Hall 15, September 23, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:President Edgar C. Mullins, Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, Louisville, Ky.
Speakers:Rev. Washington Gladden, Columbus, Ohio.
Rev. James M. Buckley, Editor The Christian Advocate, New York.
Secretary:Dr. Ira Landrith, General Secretary Religious Education Association, Chicago, Ill.
SECTION D. RELIGIOUS WORK. (Hall 1, September 24, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:Rt. Rev. Thomas F. Gailor, Memphis.
Speakers:Rev. Floyd W. Tomkins, Church of the Holy Trinity, Philadelphia.
Rev. Henry C. Mabie, Corresponding Secretary American Baptist Missionary Union.
Secretary:
SECTION E. RELIGIOUS INFLUENCE: PERSONAL. (Festival Hall, September 25, 10 a. m.)
Chairman:Chancellor J. H. Kirkland, Vanderbilt University.
Speakers:Rev. Hugh Black, Edinburgh, Scotland.
Professor John E. McFadyen, Knox College.
Rev. Samuel Eliot, Boston, Mass.
Rev. Edward B. Pollard, Georgetown, Ky.
Secretary:Professor Clyde W. Votaw, University of Chicago.
SECTION F. RELIGIOUS INFLUENCE: SOCIAL. (Festival Hall, September 25, 3 p. m.)
Chairman:Dr. J. H. Garrison, St. Louis.
Speakers:President Joseph Swain, Swarthmore College.
Dr. Emil G. Hirsch, Chicago, Ill.
Professor Edward C. Moore, Harvard University.
Dr. Josiah Strong, League for Social Service, New York.
Secretary:Professor Clyde W. Votaw, University of Chicago.
CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER OF PROCEEDINGS
monday, september 19.
3 P. M. Opening exercises of the Congress. Festival Hall (Hall 17).
The Congress will be called to order by the Director of Congresses, who will introduce the President of the Exposition.
Welcoming addresses will be delivered by the President of the Exposition and other officials.
A reply to these addresses of welcome will be made on behalf of the Congress by the Honorary Vice-President for Great Britain.
The Chairman of the Administrative Board will give an account of the origin and purpose of the Congress.
The President of the Congress will then be introduced and will deliver an introductory address, after which adjournment will follow.
tuesday, september 20.
10.00 A. M. Meetings of the seven Divisions. The Divisional addresses will be given as follows:—
Hall 1, Utilitarian Sciences.
Hall 2, Social Regulation.
Hall 3, Historical Science.
Hall 4, Physical Science.
Hall 5, Social Culture.
Hall 6, Normative Science.
Hall 7, Mental Science.
11.15 to 6.00 p. m. Meetings of the Departments, with addresses:—
Meeting at 11.15 a. m.
departments.
Hall 1, Economics.
Hall 2, Biology.
Hall 3, Sciences of the Earth.
Hall 4, Political History.
Hall 5, History of Law.
Hall 6, Philosophy.
Hall 7, Mathematics.
Hall 8, History of Art.
Adjournment at 1 p. m.
Meeting at 2 p. m.
departments.
Hall 1, Social Science.
Hall 2, Politics.
Hall 3, Technology.
Hall 4, History of Language.
Hall 5, History of Religion.
Hall 6, Physics.
Hall 7, Psychology.
Hall 8, Anthropology.
Adjournment at 3.45 p. m.
Meeting at 4.15 p. m.
departments.
Hall 1, Medicine.
Hall 2, Education.
Hall 3, Jurisprudence.
Hall 4, Religion.
Hall 5, Chemistry.
Hall 6, History of Literature.
Hall 7, Sociology.
Hall 8, Astronomy.
Adjournment at 6. p. m.
On the four days following, the Sectional meetings will be held. The duration of each session will be three hours. The morning sessions will extend from 10 a. m. until 1 p. m.; the afternoon sessions from 3 p. m. to 6 p. m.
The meetings of some of the religious sections will be held on Sunday, September 25, in Festival Hall. Further announcements concerning these Sunday Meetings will be made in Registration Hall, in the daily press of St. Louis, and in the World's Fair Official Programme.
wednesday, september 21.
Meeting at 10 a. m.
Hall 1, Public Finance.
Hall 2, Animal Morphology.
Hall 3, History of Greece, Rome, and Asia.
Hall 4, Comparative Language.
Hall 5, The Family.
Hall 6, Metaphysics.
Hall 7, Otology and Laryngology.
Hall 8, Slavic Literature.
Hall 9, Astrometry.
Hall 10, Civil Engineering.
Hall 11, History of Common Law.
Hall 12, Physiography.
Hall 13, Public Health.
Hall 14, Geophysics.
Hall 15, Social Structure.
Hall 16, Inorganic Chemistry.
Adjournment at 1 p. m.
Meeting at 3 p. m.
Hall 1, Philosophy of Religion.
Hall 2, Phylogeny.
Hall 3, Classical Literature.
Hall 4, Semitic Languages.
Hall 5, The Rural Community.
Hall 6, Medieval History.
Hall 7, Pediatrics.
Hall 8, Oceanography.
Hall 9, Astrophysics.
Hall 10, Insurance.
Hall 11, History of Roman Law.
Hall 13, Preventive Medicine.
Hall 14, Geology.
Hall 16, Organic Chemistry.
Adjournment at 6 p. m.
Immediately following the Section of Geophysics in the morning, and the Section of Geology in the afternoon, in Room 14, the Eighth International Geographic Congress will hold sessions in the same room, Hall 14, Mines and Metallurgy Building.
thursday, september 22.
Meeting at 10 a. m.
Hall 1, English Literature.
Hall 2, Plant Morphology.
Hall 3, Modern History of Europe.
Hall 4, Old Testament.
Hall 5, The Urban Community.
Hall 6, Logic.
Hall 7, Psychiatry.
Hall 8, Indo-Iranian Languages.
Hall 9, Algebra and Analysis.
Hall 10, Cosmical Physics.
Hall 11, Palæontology.
Hall 12, Classical Art.
Hall 13, Pathology.
Hall 14, International Law.
Hall 15, Economic Theory.
Hall 16, Physical Chemistry.
Adjournment at 1 p. m.
Meeting at 3 p. m.
Hall 1, Professional Religious Education.
Hall 2, Human Anatomy.
Hall 3, Greek Language.
Hall 4, Plant Physiology.
Hall 5, Physics of the Electron.
Hall 6, Methodology of Science.
Hall 7, Modern Architecture.
Hall 8, Romance Literature.
Hall 9, Petrology and Mineralogy.
Hall 10, Electrical Engineering.
Hall 11, Geography.
Hall 12, The Library.
Hall 13, Neurology.
Hall 14, The Industrial Group.
Hall 15, Political Theory and National Administration.
Hall 16, Physiological Chemistry.
Adjournment at 6 p. m.
friday, september 23.
Meeting at 10 a. m.
Hall 1, New Testament.
Hall 2, Experimental Psychology.
Hall 3, Germanic Literature.
Hall 4, Physiology.
Hall 5, The Dependent Group.
Hall 6, Ethics.
Hall 7, Plant Pathology.
Hall 8, Brahmanism and Buddhism.
Hall 9, Latin Language.
Hall 10, Transportation.
Hall 11, Physics of Matter.
Hall 12, The School.
Hall 13, Surgery.
Hall 15, Social Psychology.
Hall 16, Technical Chemistry.
Adjournment at 1 p. m.
Meeting at 3 p. m.
Hall 1, Diplomacy.
Hall 2, History of Economic Institutions.
Hall 3, English Language.
Hall 4, Æsthetics.
Hall 5, The Criminal Group.
Hall 6, General Psychology.
Hall 7, Ecology.
Hall 8, Mohammedism.
Hall 9, Embryology.
Hall 10, Mechanical Engineering.
Hall 11, Physics of Ether.
Hall 12, The College.
Hall 13, Internal Medicine.
Hall 14, Private Law.
Hall 15, Religious Agencies.
Hall 16, Somatology.
Adjournment at 6 p. p.
saturday. september 24.
Meeting at 10 a. m.
Hall 1, History of America.
Hall 2, History of the Christian Church.
Hall 3, Belles-Lettres.
Hall 4, Colonial Administration.
Hall 5, Romance Languages.
Hall 6, Comparative and Genetic Psychology.
Hall 7, Ophthalmology.
Hall 8, History of Asia.
Hall 9, Geometry.
Hall 10, Commerce and Exchange.
Hall 11, Mining Engineering.
Hall 12, The University.
Hall 13, Gynecology.
Hall 14, Constitutional Law.
Hall 15, Bacteriology.
Hall 16, Archæology.
Adjournment at 1 p. m.
Meeting at 3 p. m.
Hall 1, Religious Work.
Hall 2, Comparative Anatomy.
Hall 3, Germanic Languages.
Hall 4, Modern Painting.
Hall 5, Money and Credit.
Hall 6, Abnormal Psychology.
Hall 7, Applied Mathematics.
Hall 8, Indo-Iranian Literature.
Hall 10, Agriculture.
Hall 11, . . . . . . . . .
Hall 12, Educational Theory.
Hall 13, Therapeutics and Pharmacology.
Hall 14, Comparative Law.
Hall 15, Municipal Administration.
Hall 16, Ethnology.
Adjournment at 6 p. m.
sunday, september 25.
Festival Hall.
Meeting at 10 a. m.
Religious Influence: Personal.
Meeting at 3 p. m.
Religious Influence: Social.
PROGRAMME OF SOCIAL EVENTS
* * * * *
Monday Evening, September 19.—Grand Fête night in honor of the Congress of Arts and Science. Special illuminations about the Grand Basin. Lagoon fête.
Banquet by the St. Louis Chemical Society, at the Southern Hotel, to the members of the Chemical Sections.
Tuesday Evening, September 20.—General Reception by Board of Lady Managers to the officers and speakers of the Congress and officials of the Exposition.
Wednesday Afternoon, September 21.—Garden fête to be given to the members of the Congress of Arts and Science, at the French Pavilion, by the Commissioner-General from France.
Wednesday Evening, September 21.—General reception by the German Imperial Commissioner-General to the members of the Congress of Arts and Science, at the German State House.
Thursday Evening.—Shaw banquet at the Buckingham Club to the foreign delegates.
Friday Evening, September 23.—General banquet to the speakers and officials of the Congress of Arts and Science in the banquet hall of the Tyrolean Alps. 8 P. M.
Saturday Evening, September 24.—Banquet at St. Louis Club by Round Table of St. Louis, to the foreign members of the Congress.
Banquet given by Imperial Commissioner-General from Japan to the Japanese delegation to the Congress and Exposition officials.
Dinner given by Commissioner-General from Great Britain to the English members of the Congress.
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF MEMBERS WHO MADE 10-MINUTE ADDRESSES
The following list differs from the original programme, in that it contains the names only of those who actually read addresses. It was planned that each Section should meet for three hours. When authors of ten-minute papers were not present, and where not enough of these shorter papers were offered to fill out the time, the Chairmen invited discussions from the floor until the time was filled.
Professor R. G. AitkenLick ObservatoryAstronomy
James W. Alexander, Esq.New York CityInsurance
Frederick AlmyBuffalo, N. Y.Social Science
Professor S. G. AshmoreUnion CollegeLatin Language
Professor L. A. BauerCarnegie InstituteCosmical Physics
Dr. Marcus BenjaminNational MuseumTechnical Chemistry
Professor H. T. BlickfeldtLeland Stanford Univ.Geometry
Professor Ernest W. BrownHaverford CollegeLunar Theory
Dr. Henry Dickson BrunsNew OrleansMunicipal Administration
Dr. F. K. CameronDep't of AgriculturePhysical Chemistry
Rear-Admiral C. M. Chester, U. S. N.United States Naval ObservatoryAstronomy
H. H. Clayton, Esq.Blue Hill ObservatoryCosmical Physics
Professor Charles A. CoffinNew York CityModern Painting
Dr. George CoronilasAthens, GreeceTuberculosis
Professor J. E. DentonStevens InstituteMechanical Engineering
Professor L. W. DowlingUniv. of WisconsinGeometry
Professor H. C. ElmerCornell Univ.Latin Language
Professor A. EmchUniv. of ColoradoGeometry
Professor H. R. FancloughLeland Stanford Univ.Classical Literature
Professor W. S. FergusonUniv. of CaliforniaHistory of Greece, Rome, and Asia
Dr. Carlos FinleyHavanaPathology
Dr. C. E. FiskCentralia, Ill.History of America
Homer Folks, Esq.New York CitySocial Science
Professor F. C. FrenchUniv. of NebraskaPhilosophy of Religion
H. L. Gannt, Esq.Schenectady, N. Y.Mechanical Engineering
Dr. F. P. GorhamBrown Univ.Bacteriology
Professor Evarts B. GreeneUniv. of IllinoisHistory of America
Stansbury Hagar, Esq.Brooklyn, N.Y.Ethnology
J. D. Hague, Esq.New York CityMining Engineering
Professor G. B. HalsteadKenyon CollegeGeometry
Professor A. D. F. HamlinColumbia Univ.Æsthetics
Professor H. HancockUniv. of CincinnatiGeometry
Professor J. A. HarrisSt. Louis, Mo.Plant Morphology
Professor M. W. HaskellUniv. of CaliforniaAlgebra and Analysis
Professor J. T. HatfieldNorthwestern Univ.Germanic Language
Professor E. C. HayesMiami Univ.Social Psychology
Professor W. E. HeidelIowa CollegeGreek Language
Dr. C. L. HerrickGranville, OhioNeurology
Dr. C. Judson HerrickGranville, OhioAnimal Morphology
Professor W. H. HobbsUniv. of WisconsinPetrology and Mineralogy
Professor A. R. HohlfeldUniv. of WisconsinGermanic Literature
Professor H. H. HorneDartmouth CollegeEducational Theory
Dr. E. V. HuntingtonHarvard Univ.Algebra and Analysis
Dr. Reid HuntU. S. Marine HospitalAlcohol, etc.
Dr. J. N. HurtyIndianapolis, Ind.Public Health
Professor J. J. HutchinsonCornell Univ.Algebra and Analysis
Rev. Thomas E. JudgeCatholic Review of ReviewsGeneral Religious Education
Professor L. KahlenburgUniv. of WisconsinPhysical Chemistry
Professor Albert G. KellerYale UniversityMunicipal Administration
Professor George LefevreUniv. of MissouriComparative Anatomy
President Henry C. KingOberlin CollegeEducation, The College
Dr. Ira LandrithBelmont CollegeReligious Agencies
Professor M. D. LearnedUniv. of PennsylvaniaGermanic Literature
Professor A. O. LeuschnerUniv. of CaliforniaAstronomy
Dr. E. P. LyonSt. Louis Univ.Physiology
Dr. Duncan B. MacdonaldHartford Theological SeminarySemitic Languages
Professor A. MacFarlaneChatham, OntarioApplied Mathematics
Professor James McMahonCornell Univ.Applied Mathematics
Mr. Edward MallinckrodtSt. Louis, Mo.Chemistry
Professor H. P. ManningBrown Univ.Geometry
Professor G. A. MillerLeland Stanford Univ.Algebra and Analysis.
Dr. W. C. MillsOhio State Univ.Archæology
Professor W. S. MilnerUniv. of TorontoClassical Literature
Professor F. G. MooreDartmouth CollegeClassical Literature
Dr. W. P. MontagueColumbia Univ.Metaphysics
Clarence B. Moore, Esq.PhiladelphiaArchæology.
Professor F. R. MoultonUniv. of ChicagoAstronomy.
Dr. J. G. NeedhamLake Forest Univ.Animal Morphology
Professor Alex. T. OrmondPrinceton Univ.Philosophy of Religion
Professor Frederic L. PaxtonUniv. of ColoradoHistory of America
Dr. Carl PfisterSt. Mark's Hospital, New York CitySurgery
Professor M. B. PorterUniv. of TexasAlgebra and Analysis
Dr. A. J. ReynoldsChicagoPublic Health
Professor S. P. SadtlerPhiladelphia College of PharmacyTechnical Chemistry
Dr. John A. SampsonAlbany, N. Y.Gynæcology
Oswald Schreiner, Esq.U. S. Dep't of AgricultureChemistry
Rev. Frank SewallWashington, D. C.Social Science, The Family
Professor H. C. SheldonBoston Univ.History of the Christian Church
Professor Frank C. SharpUniv. of WisconsinEthics
Professor J. B. ShawMilliken Univ.Algebra and Analysis
Professor W. B. SmithTulane Univ.New Testament
Professor Marshall S. SnowWashington Univ.History of America
Professor Henry SnyderUniv. of MinnesotaSocial Science
Professor Edwain D. StarbuckEarlham CollegeGeneral Religious
Professor George B. StewartAuburn Theological SeminaryProfessional Religious Education
John M. StahlQuincy, Ill.The Rural Community
Professor J. StieglitzUniv. of ChicagoChemistry
Professor Robert SteinU. S. Geological SurveyComparative Language
Mr. Teitaro SuzukiLa Salle, Ill.Brahmanism and Buddhism
Col. T. W. Symonds, U. S. A.Washington, D. C.Civil Engineering
Professor TeissierLyons, FrancePathology
Judge W. H. ThomasMontgomery, Ala.Private Law
Professor O. H. TittmannU. S. C. and G. SurveyAstronomy
Professor Alfred M. TozzerPeabody MuseumAnthropology
Dr. Benjamin F. TruebloodUniv. of MissouriMedieval History
Professor Clyde W. VotawUniv. of ChicagoNew Testament
Professor John B. WatsonUniv. of ChicagoPsychology
Professor H. L. WillettDisciples Divinity House, ChicagoProfessional Religious Education
President Mary E. WoolleyMt. Holyoke CollegeEducation, The College
H. ZwaarddemakerUtrechtOtology and Laryngology
THE SCIENTIFIC PLAN OF THE CONGRESS
BY PROF. HUGO MÜNSTERBERG
I
THE PURPOSE OF THE CONGRESS
1. The Centralization of the Congress
The history of the Congress has been told. It remains to set forth the principles which controlled the work of the Congress week, and thus scientifically to introduce the scholarly undertaking, the results of which are to speak for themselves in the eight volumes of this publication. Yet in a certain way this scientific introduction has once more to use the language of history. It does not deal with the external development of the Congress, and the story which it has to tell is thus not one of dates and names and events. But the principles which shaped the whole undertaking have themselves a claim to historical treatment; they do not lie before us simply as the subject for a logical disputation or as a plea for a future work. That was the situation of three years ago. At that time various ideas and opposing principles entered into the arena of discussion; but now, since the work is completed, the question can be only of what principles, right or wrong, have really determined the programme. We have thus to interpret that state of mind out of which the purposes and the scientific arrangement of the Congress resulted; and no after-thought of to-day would be a desirable addition. Whatever possible improvements of the plan may suggest themselves in the retrospect can be given only a closing word. It was certainly easy to learn from experience, but first the experience had to be passed through. We have here to interpret the view from that standpoint from which the experience of the Congress was still a matter of the future, and of an uncertain future indeed, full of doubts and fears, and yet full of hopes and possibilities.
The St. Louis World's Fair promised, through the vast extent of its grounds, through the beautiful plans of the buildings, through the eagerness of the United States, through the participation of all countries on earth, and through the gigantic outlines of the internal plans, to become the most monumental expression of the energies with which the twentieth century entered on its course. Commerce and industry, art and social work, politics and education, war and peace, country and city. Orient and Occident, were all to be focussed for a few summer months in the ivory city of the Mississippi Valley. It seemed most natural that science and productive scholarship should also find its characteristic place among the factors of our modern civilization. Of course the scientist had his word to say on almost every square foot of the Exposition. Whether the building was devoted to electricity or to chemistry, to anthropology or to metallurgy, to civic administration or to medicine, to transportation or to industrial arts, it was everywhere the work of the scientist which was to win the triumph; and the Palace of Education, the first in any universal exposition, was to combine under its roof not only the school work of all countries, but the visible record of the world's universities and technical schools as well. And yet it seemed not enough to gather the products and records of science and to make science serve with its tools and inventions. Modern art, too, was to reign over every hall and to beautify every palace, and yet demanded its own unfolding in the gallery of paintings and sculptures. In the same way it was not enough for science to penetrate a hundred exhibitions and turn the wheels in every hall, but it must also seek to concentrate all its energies in one spot and show the cross-section of human knowledge in our time, and, above all, its own methods.
An exhibition of scholarship cannot be arranged for the eyes. The great work which grows day by day in quiet libraries and laboratories, and on a thousand university platforms, can express itself only through words. Yet heaped up printed volumes would be dead to a World's Fair spectator; how to make such words living was the problem. Above all, scholarship does not really exhibit its methods, if it does not show itself in production. It is no longer scholarship which speaks of a truth-seeking that has been performed instead of going on with the search for further truth. If the world's science was to be exhibited, a form had to be sought in which the scholarly work on the spot would serve the ideals of knowledge, would add to the storehouse of truth, and would thus work in the service of human progress at the same moment in which it contributed to the completeness of the exhibition.
The effort was not without precedent. Scholarly production had been connected with earlier expositions, and the large gatherings of scholars at the Paris Exposition were still in vivid memory. A large number of scientific congresses of specialists had been held there, and many hundred scholarly papers had been read. Yet the results hardly suggested the repetition of such an experiment. Every one felt too strongly that the outcome of such disconnected congresses of specialists is hardly comparable with the glorious showing which the arts and industries have made and were to make again. In every other department of the World's Fair the most careful preparation secured an harmonious effect. The scholarly meetings alone failed even to aim at harmony and unity. Not only did the congresses themselves stand apart without any inner relation, grouped together by calendar dates or by their alphabetical order from Anthropology to Zoölogy; but in every congress, again, the papers read and the manuscripts presented were disconnected pieces without any programme or correlation. Worse than that, they could not even be expected in their isolatedness to add anything which would not have been worked out and communicated to the world just as well without any congress. The speaker at such a meeting is asked to contribute anything he has at hand, and he accepts the invitation because he has by chance a completed paper or a research ready for publication. In the best case it would have appeared in the next number of the specialistic magazine, in not infrequent cases it has appeared already in the last number. Such a congress is then only an accident and does not itself serve the progress of knowledge.
Even that would be acceptable if at least the best scholars would come out with their latest investigations, or, still more delightful, if they would enter into an important discussion. But experience has too often shown that the conditions are most favorable for the opposite outcome. The leading scholars stay away partly to give beginners the chance to be heard, partly not to be grouped with those who habitually have the floor at such gatherings. These are either the men whose day has gone by or those whose day has not yet come; and both groups tyrannize alike an unwilling audience. Yet it may be said that in scientific meetings of specialists the reading of papers is non-essential and no harm is done even if they do not contribute anything to the status of scholarship; their great value lies in the personal contact of fellow workers and in the discussions and informal exchange of opinions. All that is true, and completely justifies the yearly meetings of scholarly associations. But these advantages are much diminished whenever such gatherings take on an international character, and thus introduce the confusion of tongues. And hardly any one can doubt that the turmoil of a world's fair is about the worst possible background for such exchange of thought, which demands repose and quietude. Yet even with the certainty of all these disadvantages the city of Paris, with its large body of scholars, with its venerable scholarly traditions, and with its incomparable attractions, could overcome every resistance, and its convenient location made it natural that in vacation time, in an exposition summer, the scholars should gather there, not on account of, but in spite of, the hundred congresses. With this the city of St. Louis could make no claim to rivalry. Its recent growth, its minimum of scholarly tradition, its great distance from the old centres of knowledge even in the New World, the apathy of the East and the climatic fears of Europe, all together made it clear that a mere repetition of unrelated congresses would be not only useless, but a disastrous failure. These very fears, however, themselves suggested the remedy.
If the scholarly work of our time was to be represented at St. Louis, something had to be attempted which should be not simply an imitation of the branch-congresses which every scientific specialty in every country is calling every year. Scholarship was to be asked to show itself really in process, and to produce for the World's Fair meeting something which without it would remain undone. To invite the scholars of the world for their leisurely enjoyment and reposeful discussion of work done elsewhere is one thing; to call them together for work which they would not do otherwise, and which ought to be done, is a very different thing. The first had in St. Louis all odds against it; it seemed worth while to try the second. And it seemed not only worth while in the interest of scholarship, it seemed, above all, the only way to give to the scholarship of our time a chance for the complete demonstration of its productive energies.
The plan of unrelated congresses, with chance combinations of papers prepared at random, was therefore definitively replaced by the plan of only one representative gathering, bound together by one underlying thought, given thus the unity of one scholarly aim, whose fulfillment is demanded by the scientific needs of our time, and is hardly to be reached by other methods. Every arbitrary and individual choice was then to be eliminated and every effort was to be controlled by the one central purpose; the work thus to be organized and prepared with the same carefulness of adjustment and elaboration which was doubtless to be applied in the admirable exhibitions of the United States Government or in the art exhibition. The open question was, of course, what topic could fulfill these various demands most completely; wherein lay the greatest scholarly need of our time; what task could be least realized by the casual efforts of scholarship at random; where was the unity of a world organization most needed?
One thought was very naturally suggested by the external circumstances. St. Louis had asked the nations of the world to a celebration of the Louisiana Purchase. Historical thoughts thus gave meaning and importance to the whole undertaking. The pride of one century's development had stimulated the gigantic work from its inception. An immense territory had been transformed from a half wilderness into a land with a rich civilization, and with a central city in which eight thousand factories are at work. No thought lay nearer than to ask how far this century was of similar importance for the changes in the world of thought. How have the sciences developed themselves since the days of the Louisiana Purchase? That is a topic which with complete uniformity might be asked from every special science, and which might thus offer a certain unity of aim to scholars of all scientific denominations. There was indeed no doubt that such an historical question would have to be raised if we were to live up to the commemorative idea of the whole Fair. And yet it seemed still more certain that the retrospective problem did not justify itself as a central topic for a World's Congress. There were sciences for which the story of the last hundred years was merely the last chapter of a history of three thousand years and other sciences whose life history did not begin until one or two decades ago. It would thus be a very external uniformity; the question would have a very different meaning for the various branches of knowledge, and the treatment would be of very unequal interest and importance. More than that, it would not abolish the unrelated character of the endeavors; while the same topic might be given everywhere, yet every science would remain isolated; there would be no internal unity, and thus no inner reason for bringing together the best workers of all spheres. And finally the mere retrospective attitude brings with it the depressing mood of perfunctory activity. Certainly to look back on the advance of a century can be most suggestive for a better understanding of the way which lies before us; and we felt indeed that the occasion for such a backward glance ought not to be missed. Yet there would be something lifeless if the whole meeting were devoted to the consideration of work that had been completed; a kind of necrological sentiment would pervade the whole ceremony, while our chief aim was to serve the progress of knowledge and thus to stimulate living interests.
This language of life spoke indeed in the programme of another plan which seemed also to be suggested by the character of the Exposition. The St. Louis Fair desired not merely to look backward and to revive the historical interest in the Louisiana purchase, but its first aim seemed to be to bring into sharp relief the factors which serve to-day the practical welfare and the achievements of human society. If all the scholars of all sciences were to convene under one flag, would it not thus seem most harmonious with the occasion, if, as the one controlling topic, the question were proposed, "What does your science contribute to the practical progress of mankind?" No one can deny that such a formulation would fit in well with the lingering thoughts of every World's Fair visitor. Whoever wanders through the aisles of exhibition palaces and sees amassed the marvelous achievements of industry and commerce, and the thousand practical arts of modern society, may indeed turn most naturally to a gathering of scholars with the question, "What have you to offer of similar import?" All your thinking and speaking and writing, are they merely words on words, or do you also turn the wheels of this gigantic civilization?
Such a question would give a noble opening indeed to almost every science. Who would say that the opportunity is confined to the man of technical science? Does not the biologist also prepare the achievements of modern medicine, does not the mathematician play his most important rôle in our mastery over stubborn nature, do we not need language for our social intercourse, and law and religion for our practical social improvement? Yes, is there any science which has not directly or indirectly something to contribute to the practical development of the modern man and his civilization? All this is true, and yet the perspective of this truth, too, appears at once utterly distorted if we take the standpoint of science itself. The one end of knowledge is to reach the truth. The belief in the absolute value of truth gives to it meaning and significance. This value remains the controlling influence even where the problem to be solved is itself a practical one, and the spirit of science remains thus essentially theoretical even in the so-called applied sciences. But incomparably more intense in that respect is the spirit of all theoretical disciplines. Philosophy and mathematics, history and philology, chemistry and biology, astronomy and geology, may be and ought to be helpful to practical civilization everywhere; and every step forward which they take will be an advance for man's practical life too. And yet their real meaning never lies in their technical by-product. It is not the scholar who peers in the direction of practical use who is most loyal to the deepest demand of scholarship, and every relation to practical achievement is more or less accidental or even artificial for the real life interests of productive scholarship.
But if the contrast between his real intention and his social technical successes may not appear striking to the physicist or chemist, it would appear at least embarrassing to the scholars in many other departments and directly bewildering to not a few. Perhaps two thirds of the sciences to which the best thinkers of our time are faithfully devoted would then be grouped together and relegated to a distant corner, their only practical technical function would be to contribute material to the education of the cultured man. For what else do we study Sanscrit or medieval history or epistemology? And finally even the uniform topic of practical use would not have brought the different sciences nearer to each other; the Congress would still have remained a budget of disconnected records of scholarship. If the practical side of the Exposition was to suggest anything, it should then not be more than an appeal not to overlook the importance of the applied sciences which too often play the rôle of a mere appendix to the system of knowledge. The logical one-sidedness which considers practical needs as below the dignity of pure science was indeed to be excluded, but to choose practical service as the one controlling topic would be far more anti-scientific.
2. The Unity of Knowledge
There was another side of the Exposition plan which suggested a stronger topic. The World's Fair was not only an historical memorial work, and was not only a show of the practical tools of technical civilization; its deepest aim was after all the effort to bring the energies of our time into inner relation. The peoples of the whole globe, separated by oceans and mountains, by language and custom, by politics and prejudice, were here to come in contact and to be brought into correlation by better mutual understanding of the best features of their respective cultures. The various industries and arts, the most antagonistic efforts of commerce and production, separated by the rivalry of the market and by the diversity of economic interests were here to be brought together in harmony, were to be correlated for the eye of the spectator. It was a near-lying thought to choose correlation as the controlling thought of a scientific World's Congress too. That was the topic which was finally agreed upon: the inner relation of the sciences of our day.
The fitness and the external advantages of such a scheme are evident. First of all, the danger of disconnectedness now disappears completely. If the sciences are to examine what binds them together, their usual isolation must be given up for the time being and a concerted effort must control the day. The bringing together of scholars of all scientific specialties is then no longer a doubtful accidental feature, but becomes a condition of the whole undertaking. More than that, such a topic, with all that it involves, makes it a matter of course that the call goes out to the really leading scholars of the time. To aim at a correlation of sciences means to seek for the fundamental principles in each territory of knowledge and to look with far-seeing eye beyond the limits of its field; but just this excludes from the outset those who like to be the self-appointed speakers in routine gatherings. It excludes from the first the narrow specialist who does not care for anything but for his latest research, and ought to exclude not less the vague spirits who generalize about facts of which they have no concrete substantial knowledge, as their suggestions towards correlation would lack inner productiveness and outer authority. Such a plan has room only for those men who stand high enough to see the whole field and who have yet the full authority of the specialistic investigator; they must combine the concentration on specialized productive work with the inspiration that comes from looking over vast regions. With such a topic the usual question does not come up whether one or another strong man would feel attracted to take part in the gathering, but it would be justified and necessary to confine the active participation from the outset to those who are leaders, and thus to guarantee from the beginning a representation of science equal in dignity to the best efforts of the exhibiting countries in all other departments. In this way such a plan had the advantage of justifying through its topic the administrative desire to bring all sciences to the same spot, and at the same time of excluding all participants but the best scholars: with isolated gatherings or with second-rate men, this subject would have been simply impossible.
Yet all these halfway external advantages count little compared with the significance and importance of the topic for the inner life of scientific thought of our time. We all felt it was the one topic which the beginning of the twentieth century demanded and which could not be dealt with otherwise than by the combined labors of all nations and of all sciences. The World's Fair was the one great opportunity to make a first effort in this direction; we had no right to miss this opportunity. Thus it was decided to have a congress with the definite purpose of working towards the unity of human knowledge, and with the one mission, in this time of scattered specializing work, of bringing to the consciousness of the world the too much neglected idea of the unity of truth. To quote from our first tentative programme: "Let the rush of the world's work stop for one moment for us to consider what are the underlying principles, what are their relations to one another and to the whole, what are their values and purposes; in short, let us for once give to the world's sciences a holiday. The workaday functions are much better fulfilled in separation, when each scholar works in his own laboratory or in his library; but this holiday task of bringing out the underlying unity, this synthetic work, this demands really the coöperation of all, this demands that once at least all sciences come together in one place at one time."
Yet if our work stands for the unity of knowledge, aims to consider the fundamental conceptions which bind together all the specialistic results, and seeks to inquire into the methods which are common to various fields, all this is after all merely a symptom of the whole spirit of our times. A reaction against the narrowness of mere fact-diggers has set in. A mere heaping up of disconnected, unshaped facts begins to disappoint the world; it is felt too vividly that a mere dictionary of phenomena, of events and laws, makes our knowledge larger but not deeper, makes our life more complex but not more valuable, makes our science more difficult but not more harmonious. Our time longs for a new synthesis and looks towards science no longer merely with a desire for technical prescriptions and new inventions in the interest of comfort and exchange. It waits for knowledge to fulfill its higher mission, it waits for science to satisfy our higher needs for a view of the world which shall give unity to our scattered experience. The indications of this change are visible to every one who observes the gradual turning to philosophical discussion in the most different fields of scientific life.
When after the first third of the nineteenth century the great philosophic movement which found its climax in Hegelianism came to disaster in consequence of its absurd neglect of hard solid facts, the era of naturalism began its triumph with contempt for all philosophy and for all deeper unity. Idealism and philosophy were stigmatized as the enemies of true science and natural science had its great day. The rapid progress of physics and chemistry fascinated the world and produced modern technique; the sciences of life, physiology, biology, medicine, followed; and the scientific method was carried over from body to mind, and gave us at the end of the nineteenth century modern psychology and sociology. The lifeless and the living, the physical and the mental, the individual and the social, all had been conquered by analytical methods. But just when the climax was reached and all had been analyzed and explained, the time was ripe for disillusion, and the lack of deeper unity began to be felt with alarm in every quarter. For seventy years there had been nowhere so much philosophizing going on as suddenly sprung up among the scientists of the last decade. The physicists and the mathematicians, the chemists and the biologists, the geologists and the astronomers, and, on the other side, the historians and the economists, the psychologists and the sociologists, the jurists and the theologians—all suddenly found themselves again in the midst of discussions on fundamental principles and methods, on general categories and conditions of knowledge, in short, in the midst of the despised philosophy. And with those discussions has come the demand for correlation. Everywhere have arisen leaders who have brought unconnected sciences together and emphasized the unity of large divisions. The time seems to have come again when the wave of naturalism and realism is ebbing, and a new idealistic philosophical tide is swelling, just as they have always alternated in the civilization of two thousand years.
No one dreams, of course, that the great synthetic apperception, for which our modern time seems ripe, will come through the delivery of some hundred addresses, or the discussions of some hundred audiences. An ultimate unity demands the gigantic thought of a single genius, and the work of the many can, after all, be merely the preparation for the final work of the one. And yet history shows that the one will never come if the many have not done their share. What is needed is to fill the sciences of our time with the growing consciousness of belonging together, with the longing for fundamental principles, with the conviction that the desire for correlation is not the fancy of dreamers, but the immediate need of the leaders of thought. And in this preparatory work the St. Louis Congress of Arts and Science seemed indeed called for an important part when it was committed to this topic of correlation.
To call the scholars of the world together for concerted action towards the correlation of knowledge meant, of course, first of all, to work out a detailed programme, and to select the best authorities for every special part of the whole scheme. Nothing could be left to chance methods and to casual contributions. The preparation needed the same administrative strictness which would be demanded for an encyclopedia, and the same scholarly thoroughness which would be demanded for the most scientific research. A plan was to be devised in which every possible striving for truth would find its place, and in which every section would have its definite position in the system. And such a ground-plan given, topics were to be assigned to every department and sub-department, the treatment of which would bring out the fundamental principles and the inner relations in such a way that the papers would finally form a close-woven intellectual fabric. There would be plenty of room for a retrospective glance at the historical development of the sciences and plenty of room for emphasis on their practical achievements; but the central place would always belong to the effort towards unity and internal harmonization.
We thus divided human knowledge into large parts, and the parts into divisions, and the divisions into departments, and the departments into sections. As the topic of the general divisions—we proposed seven of them—it was decided to discuss the Unity of the whole field. As topic for the departments—we had twenty-four of them—the addresses were to discuss the fundamental Conceptions and Methods and the Progress during the last century; and in the sections, finally—our plan provided for one hundred and twenty-eight of them—the topics were in every one the Relation of the special branch to other branches, and those most important Present Problems which are essential for the deeper principles of the special field. In this way the ground-plan itself suggested the unity of the practically separated sciences; and, moreover, our plan provided from the first that this logical relation should express itself externally in the time order of the work. We were to begin with the meetings of the large divisions, the meetings of the departments were to follow, and the meetings of the sections and their ramifications would follow the departmental gatherings.
3. The Objections to the Plan
It was evident that even the most modest success of that gigantic undertaking depended upon the right choice of speakers, upon the value of the ground-plan, and upon many external conditions; thus no one was in doubt as to the difficulty in realizing such a scheme. Yet there were from the scholarly side itself objections to the principles involved, objections which might hold even if those other conditions were successfully met. The most immediate reason for reluctance lies in the specializing tendencies of our time. Those who devote all their working energy as loyal sons of our analyzing period of science to the minute detail of research come easily into the habit of a nervous fear with regard to any wider general outlook. The man of research sees too often how ignorance hides itself behind generalities. He knows too well how much easier it is to formulate vague generalities than to contribute a new fact to human knowledge, and how often untrained youngsters succeed with popular text-books which are rightly forgotten the next day. Methodical science must thus almost encourage this aversion to any deviation from the path of painstaking specialistic labor. Then, of course, it seems almost a scientific duty to declare war against an undertaking which explicitly asks everywhere for the wide perspectives and the last principles, and does not aim at adding at this moment to the mere treasury of information.
But such a view is utterly one-sided, and to fight against such one-sidedness and to overcome the specializing narrowness of the scattered sciences was the one central idea of the plan. If there existed no scholars who despise the philosophizing connection, there would have hardly been any need for this whole undertaking; but to yield to such philosophy-phobia means to declare the analytic movement of science permanent, and to postpone a synthetic movement indefinitely. Our time has just to emphasize, and the leaders of thought daily emphasize it more, that a mere heaping up of information can be merely a preparation for knowledge, and that the final aim is a Weltanschauung, a unified view of the whole of reality. All that our Congress had to secure was thus merely that the generalizing discussion of principles should not be left to men who generalized because they lacked the substantial knowledge which is necessary to specialize. The thinkers we needed were those who through specialistic work were themselves led to a point where the discussion of general principles becomes unavoidable. Our plan was by no means antagonistic to the patient labors of analysis; the aim was merely to overcome its one-sidedness and to stimulate the synthesis as a necessary supplement.
But the objections against a generalizing plan were not confined to the mistaken fear that we sought to antagonize the productive work of the specialist. They not seldom took the form of a general aversion to the logical side of the ground-plan. It was often said that such a scheme has after all interest only for the logician, for whom science as such is an object of study, and who must thus indeed classify the sciences and determine their logical relation. The real scientist, it was said, does not care for such methodological operations, and should be suspicious from the first of such philosophical high-handedness. The scientist cannot forget how often in the history of civilization science was the loser when it trusted its problems to the metaphysical thinker who substituted his lofty speculations for the hard work of the investigator. The true scholar will thus not only object to generalizing "commonplaces" as against solid information, but he will object as well to logical demarcation lines and systematization as against the practical scientific work which does not want to be hampered by such philosophical subtleties. Yet all these fears and suspicions were still more mistaken.
Nothing was further from our intentions than a substitution of metaphysics for concrete science. It was not by chance that we took such pains to find the best specialists for every section. No one was invited to enter into logical discussions and to consider the relations of science merely from a dialectic point of view. The topic was everywhere the whole living manifoldness of actual relations, and the logician had nothing else to do than to prepare the programme. The outlines of the programme demanded, of course, a certain logical scheme. If hundreds of sciences are to take part, they have to be grouped somehow, if a merely alphabetical order is not adopted; and even if we were to proceed alphabetically, we should have to decide beforehand what part of knowledge is to be recognized as a special science. But the logical order of the ground-plan refers, of course, merely to the simple relation of coördination, subordination, and superordination, and the logician is satisfied with such a classification. But the endless variety of internal relations is no longer to be dealt with from the point of view of mere logic. We may work out the ground-plan in such a way that we understand that logically zoölogy is coördinated to botany and subordinated to mechanics and superordinated to ichthyology; but this minimum of determination gives, of course, not even a hint of that world of relations which exists from the standpoint of the biologist between the science of zoölogy and the science of botany, or between the biological and the mechanical studies. To discuss these relations of real scientific life is the work of the biologist and not at all of the logician.
The foregoing answers also at once an objection which might seem more justified at the first glance. It has been said that we were undertaking the work of bringing about a synthesis of scientific endeavors, and that we yet had that synthesis already completed in the programme on which the work was to be based. The scholars to be invited would be bound by the programme, and would therefore have no other possibility than to say with more words what the programme had settled beforehand. The whole effort would then seem determined from the start by the arbitrariness of the proposed ground-plan. Now it cannot be denied indeed that a certain factor of arbitrariness has to enter into a programme. We have already referred to the fact that some one must decide beforehand what fraction of science is to be acknowledged as a self-dependent discipline. If a biologist were to work out the scheme, he might decide that the whole of philosophy was just one science; while the philosopher might claim a large number of sections for logic and ethics and philosophy of religion, and so on. And the philosopher, on the other hand, might treat the whole of medicine as one part in itself, while the physician might hold that even otology has to be separated from rhinology. A certain subjectivity of standpoint is unavoidable, and we know very well that instead of the one hundred and twenty-eight sections of our programme we might have been satisfied with half that number or might have indulged in double that number. And yet there was no possible plan which would have allowed us to invite the speakers without defining beforehand the sectional field which each was to represent. A certain courage of opinion was then necessary, and sometimes also a certain adjustment to external conditions.
Quite similar was the question of classification. Just as we had to take the responsibility for the staking-out of every section, we had also to decide in favor of a certain grouping, if we desired to organize the Congress and not simply to bring out haphazard results. The principles which are sufficient for a mere directory would never allow the shaping of a programme which can be the basis for synthetic work. Even a university catalogue begins with a certain classification, and yet no one fancies that such catalogue grouping inhibits the freedom of the university lecturer. It is easy to say, as has been said, that the essential trait of the scientific life of to-day is its live-and-let-live character. Certainly it is. In the regular work in our libraries and laboratories the year round, everything depends upon this democratic freedom in which every one goes his own way, hardly asking what his neighbor is doing. It is that which has made the specialistic sciences of our day as strong as they are. But it has brought about at the same time this extreme tendency to unrelated specialization with its discouraging lack of unity; this heaping up of information without an outer harmonious view of the world; and if we were really at least once to satisfy the desire for unity, then we had not the right to yield fully to this live-and-let-live tendency. Therefore some principle of grouping had to be accepted, and whatever principle had been chosen, it would certainly have been open to the criticism that it was a product of arbitrary decision, inasmuch as other principles might have been possible.
A classification which in itself expresses all the practical relations in which sciences stand to each other is, of course, absolutely impossible. A programme which should try to arrange the place of a special discipline in such a way that it would become the neighbor of all those other sciences with which it has internal relation is unthinkable. On the other hand, only if we had tried to construct a scheme of such exaggerated ambitions should we have been really guilty of anticipating a part of that which the specialistic scholars were to tell us. The Congress had to leave it to the invited participants to discuss the totality of relations which practically exist between their fields and others, and the organizers confined themselves to that minimum of classification which just indicates the pure logical relations, a minimum which every editor of encyclopedic work would be asked to initiate without awakening suspicions of interference with the ideas of his contributors.
The only justified demand which could be met was that a system of division and classification should be proposed which should give fair play to every existing scientific tendency. The minimum of classification was to be combined with the maximum of freedom, and to secure that a careful consideration of principles was indeed necessary. To bring logical order into the sciences which stand out clearly with traditional rights is not difficult; but the chances are too great that certain tendencies of thought might fail to find recognition or might be suppressed by scientific prejudice. Any serious omission would indeed have necessarily inhibited the freedom of expression. To secure thus the greatest inner fullness of the programme, seemed indeed the most important task in the elaboration of the ground-plan. The fears that we might offer empty generalization instead of scholarly facts, or that we might simply heap up encyclopedic information instead of gaining wide perspectives, or that we might interfere with the living connections of sciences by the logical demarcation lines, or that we might disturb the scholar in his freedom by determining beforehand his place in the classification,—all these fears and objections, which were repeatedly raised when the plan was first proposed, seemed indeed unimportant compared with the fear that the programme might be unable to include all scientific tendencies of the time.
That would have been, indeed, the one fundamental mistake, as the whole Congress work was planned in the service of the great synthetic movement which pervades the intellectual life of to-day. The undertaking would be useless and even hindering if it were not just the newer and deeper tendencies that came to most complete expression in it. Everything depended, therefore, upon the fullest possible representation of scientific endeavors in the plan. But no one can become aware of this manifoldness and of the logical relations who does not go back to the ultimate principles of the human search for truth. We have, therefore, to enter now into a full discussion of the principles which have controlled the classification and subdivision of the whole work. The discussion is necessarily in its essence a philosophical one, as it was earlier made plain that philosophy must lay out the plan, while in the realization of the plan through concrete work the scientist alone, and not the logician, has to speak. Yet here again it may be said that while our discussion of principles in its essence is logical, in another respect it is a merely historical account. The question is not what principles of classification are to be acknowledged as valuable now that the work of the Congress lies behind us, but what principles were accepted and really led to the organization of the work in that form in which it presents itself in the records of the following volumes.
II
THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE SCIENCES
1. The Development of Classification
The problem of dividing and subdividing the whole of human knowledge and of thus bringing order into the manifoldness of scientific efforts has fascinated the leading thinkers of all ages. It may often be difficult to say how far the new principles of classification themselves open the way for new scientific progress and how far the great forward movements of thought in the special sciences have in turn influenced the principles of classification. In any case every productive age has demanded the expression of its deepest energy in a new ordering of human science. The history of these efforts leads from Plato and Aristotle to Bacon and Locke, to Bentham and Ampère, to Kant and Hegel, to Comte and Spencer, to Wundt and Windelband. And yet we can hardly speak of a real historical continuity. In a certain way every period took up the problem anew, and the new aspects resulted not only from the development of the sciences themselves which were to be classified, but still more from the differences of logical interest. Sometimes the classification referred to the material, sometimes to the method of treatment, sometimes to the mental energies involved, and sometimes to the ends to be reached. The reference to the mental faculties was certainly the earliest method of bringing order into human knowledge, for the distinction of the Platonic philosophy between dialectics, physics, and ethics pointed to the threefold character of the mind, to reason, perception, and desire; and it was on the threshold of the modern time, again, when Bacon divided the intellectual globe into three large parts according to three fundamental psychical faculties: memory, imagination, and reason. The memory gives us history; the imagination, poetry; the reason, philosophy, or the sciences. History was further divided into natural and civil history; natural history into normal, abnormal, and artificial phenomena; civil history into political, literary, and ecclesiastical history. The field of reason was subdivided into man, nature, and God; the domain of man gives, first, civil philosophy, parted off into intercourse, business, and government, and secondly, the philosophy of humanity, divided into that of body and of soul, wherein medicine and athletics belong to the body, logic and ethics to the soul. Nature, on the other hand, was divided into speculative and applied science,—the speculative containing both physics and metaphysics; the applied, mechanics and magic. All this was full of artificial constructions, and yet still more marked by deep insight into the needs of Bacon's time, and not every modification of later classifiers was logically a step forward.
Yet modern efforts had to seek quite different methods, and the energies which have been most effective for the ordering of knowledge in the last decades spring unquestionably from the system of Comte and his successors. He did not aim at a system of ramifications; his problem was to show how the fundamental sciences depend on each other. A series was to be constructed in which each member should presuppose the foregoing. The result was a simplicity which is certainly tempting, but this simplicity was reached only by an artificial emphasis which corresponded completely to the one-sidedness of naturalistic thought. It was a philosophy of positivism, the background for the gigantic work of natural science and technique in the last two thirds of the nineteenth century. Comte's fundamental thought is that the science of Morals, in which we study human nature for the government of human life, is dependent on sociology. Sociology, however, depends on biology; this on chemistry; this on physics; this on astronomy; and this finally on mathematics. In this way, all mental and moral sciences, history and philology, jurisprudence and theology, economics and politics, are considered as sociological phenomena, as dealing with functions of the human being. But as man is a living organism, and thus certainly falls under biology, all the branches of knowledge from history to ethics, from jurisprudence to æsthetics, can be nothing but subdivisions of biology. The living organism, on the other hand, is merely one type of the physical bodies on earth, and biology is thus itself merely a department of physics. But as the earthly bodies are merely a part of the cosmic totality, physics is thus a part of astronomy; and as the whole universe is controlled by mathematical laws, mathematics must be superordinated to all sciences.