History of the Reformation in Europe in the Time of Calvin, Vol. 8 (of 8)

Volume 8 / Book 14 — CHAPTER V.

William L. R. (William Leist Readwin) Cates translation

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HISTORY OF THE Reformation in Europe IN THE TIME OF CALVIN.PREFACE.NOTE BY THE TRANSLATOR.

Volume 8 / Book 14 · Chapters

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 1 2 3 4 5 5 5 5

THE ANABAPTISTS OF MUNSTER. CHASTISEMENT.

(1535-1536.)

CHASTISEMENT.

The landgrave Philip of Hesse having, meanwhile, entered Westphalia with the troops which had just made the conquest of Würtemberg, Munster was soon so completely invested that nothing, and especially no food supplies, could any longer enter the town. The dearth became more and more severe, and the miserable people were driven to have recourse for sustenance to the most unaccustomed food. They ate the flesh of horses, dogs and cats, dormice, grass, and leather; they tore up books and devoured the parchment. Half the population of the town, it was said, died of starvation. These fanatics had trusted in the word of their king and prophet, and had awaited with confidence the succor which he promised them; but, as this succor did not arrive, murmurs began to be heard from some of them, and others appeared to go mad. Bockhold had told them that, if it were necessary for saving his people, 'the stones would be turned into bread.' Consequently, some of these votaries might be seen stopping in the streets, biting the stones and attempting to tear them to pieces, in expectation of their being converted into nourishment.[524] At length despair, madness, and inhumanity proceeded to the bitterest extremities. The wife of the senator Menken, one of the working men raised to this dignity by Bockhold, killed her three children, salted their bodies, and placed the parts thus cured in jars, in this way making abominable provision for her own subsistence, and on this she fed day by day.[525] The wretched inhabitants of this ill-fated town wandered with tottering steps about the streets, the skin wrinkled over their fleshless bones, their necks long and lank, hardly able to sustain the head, their eyes haggard and opening and shutting with sudden jerk, their cheeks hollow and emaciated, with lips which death seemed to be about to close, corpses in appearance rather than living beings. In the midst of this appalling spectacle which recalls the greatest distresses recorded in history, even the destruction of Jerusalem, there was, it is said, in the king's palace abundance, feasting, and debauchery.[526]

The enthusiasts, during this time, were causing much trouble in Holland; but they did not succeed in bringing help to their brethren. At the beginning of 1535 a certain number of them proposed to burn Leyden; fifteen were arrested and beheaded. In February others ran naked about the streets of Amsterdam by night, crying out, 'Woe! woe! woe!' They also were executed. Near Franeker, in Friesland, three hundred of them assembled and took possession of a convent; but they were all put to death. Bockhold, impatient to get the succor of which he was in sore need, delegated Jan van Geelen, a clever, crafty man, to stir up a revolt in Holland, and to return to his aid with an army which should raise the siege of Munster, and help him to conquer the world. Jan van Geelen, by a feigned renunciation of his errors, obtained a pardon from Queen Mary. Having entered Holland, he was able secretly to attract a large number of followers; and in a short time he conceived the project of surprising Amsterdam by night. He did, in fact, get possession of the town-hall; but the townsmen, aroused by the tocsin, drove away the fanatics with cannon-shot, not without suffering great losses themselves, particularly in the death of a burgomaster. The rebels were cruelly treated. Many of them were stretched upon butchers' blocks, had their hearts torn out, and were then quartered. On all these occasions a certain number of women were, as usual, drowned.[527]

CAPTURE OF MUNSTER.

EXECUTIONS.

These successive defeats made an impression on Bockhold and his partisans. They lost all hope of aid from Holland. The landgrave, Philip of Hesse, one of the most powerful chiefs of Protestantism, had brought up his forces to put an end to the scandals of Munster. The bishop of this city, impelled by the desire to reconquer it, had assembled for the purpose some Roman Catholic soldiers. One of Bockhold's men escaped from the town and pointed out the way to capture it.[528] In the night of June 24, 1535, two hundred lansquenets cleared the foss and scaled the wall at a point where it was very low. They were no sooner within the town, than they uttered cries and beat the drum. The men of the king of Zion leaped out of their beds and ran to arms. The conflict began and was for a moment doubtful; but one of the city gates having been opened from within, the army of the besiegers entered and the fight became terrible. A hundred and fifty horse or foot soldiers lost their lives. On the side of the besieged many also fell, and amongst others Rottmann who, resolved not to suffer the disgrace of captivity, threw himself with intrepidity into the midst of the fire and perished. The king and two of his principal counsellors, Knipperdolling and the pastor Crechting, made their escape and hid themselves in a strong tower, where they hoped to escape the notice of the conquerors.[529] But the soldiers penetrated into their place of concealment, dragged them out and made them prisoners. Bockhold at first braved it out, and assuming the air of a king spoke arrogantly to the bishop. Two theologians of Hesse endeavored to bring him to repentance; but he obstinately held to his opinion, admitting no superior to himself on earth. Reflection, however, wrought a change. Bockhold was not a fanatic, but an impostor; and he felt that the only way to save his life was to abjure his errors. He asked for a second conference with the two Hessians and feigned conversion. 'I confess,' he said to them, 'that the resistance I have offered to authority was unlawful; that the institution of polygamy was rash, and that the baptism of children is obligatory. If pardon should be granted me, I pledge myself to obtain from all my adherents obedience and submission.' He likewise acknowledged that he had deserved to die ten times over. This was the behavior of a knave, willing to abandon even his imposture, if, by so doing, he might save his life. Knipperdolling and Crechting, on the contrary, persisted in their views, and asserted that they had followed the guidance of God. Cruelty of various kinds was inflicted on these wretched men. They were led about publicly, during the month of their detention, like strange animals, as a spectacle to the several princes and their courts, to whom they and their pretended king were made a subject of ridicule.[530] Bockhold did not derive from his confessions the advantage which he expected. The three leaders were all sentenced to the same punishment, the penalty of high treason to a supreme head. This took place in February, 1536. In the barbarous period of the Middle Ages imagination had been racked for the invention of the most cruel punishments. These three wretches were conducted to the great square of Munster, where Bockhold, as king, had borne the sceptre and the triple crown, and his executive minister Knipperdolling the sword. They were then laid out naked; and their bodies were plucked to pieces with hot pincers, until at length, amidst hideous tortures, pincers, fire, sword and excruciating sufferings had put an end to their life.[531] This process lasted an hour. Cochlæus himself exclaims,—'Cruel, horrible punishment! a terrible example to all rebels!' Knipperdolling and Crechting bore with courage the frightful infliction, and Bockhold, apparently recovering good sense, was determined not to die the death of a coward. Not a groan escaped him. After he had breathed his last they pierced his heart with a dagger.

It was Philip of Hesse and his soldiers of the reformed party who chiefly contributed to put an end to the disorders and cruelties of which Munster had been the scene. The only result of this episode for Protestantism was to demonstrate that it had no connection with the fanaticism of these would-be inspired ones. Protestant opinion was on this occasion distinguished by various characteristic features. Its intention was that punishment should be inflicted not for the religious doctrine of the enthusiasts, but only for their rebellion and other ordinary crimes. There have been, indeed, and there are especially at the present time a large number of pious and zealous Christians who advocate adult baptism; and we are bound to respect them although we do not share their views. Moreover the baptism practised by the enthusiasts of Munster, was not that of the sect of Baptists; it was a proceeding which denoted adhesion to the fanatical system the triumph of which they pretended to insure, a ceremony such as is adopted in many secret societies. The essential characteristics of their system were their alleged visions, their unquestionable licentiousness, the confusion which they brought upon the institutions of social life, their tyranny and their cruelty.

Various opinions were entertained as to the punishment which ought to be inflicted on them. Luther by a letter expressed clearly and briefly what he thought on the subject. He was not greatly troubled. 'It does not disturb me much,' he said; 'Satan is in a rage, but the Scripture stands fast.'[532] The landgrave Philip was always an advocate of the most lenient measures; he had no desire that the punishment of death should be inflicted upon them, as had been done in other countries. He consented only to their being imprisoned; and he insisted that they should be instructed. The evangelical towns of Upper Germany acted upon the same principle and refused to stain their hands with the blood of these unhappy men. But it was decreed by a majority of the Germanic Diet, that all enthusiasts who persisted in their false doctrines should be put to death. Thus were confounded, as it has been said, two things as remote from each other as heaven and earth, evangelical doctrine and the confusion introduced into churches and states by these fanatics. The unfortunate men were put to death, whether they were visionaries or not; and not only were culpable disorders put down with a strong hand, but evangelical doctrine was also banished from Munster.[533]

CAUSES OF THE DISORDERS.

Three causes especially contributed to bring about these hideous disorders of the fanatics. First, the bloody persecutions carried on by Charles V. in the Netherlands against all those who desired to worship God according to their conscience; next, the doctrines of the enthusiasts, mingled sometimes with immorality, which Tanchelme of Antwerp, Simon of Tournay, Amalric of Bena, the Turlupines, the Pseudo-Cathari, and the Brethren of the Free Spirit, had for centuries professed in different countries, and especially in the Netherlands and on the banks of the Rhine, and which had lately been revived there by emissaries from Germany; and finally, the need for a change in the social order felt at this period by the least industrious and most fanciful men of the lower orders, and especially of the class of artisans.

After the terrible catastrophe which put an end to the kingdom of Zion, there still remained, undoubtedly, some enthusiasts and libertines, particularly David Joris. But many of them settled down and returned to more wholesome doctrines. One of these, Ubbo of Leuwarden, had been consecrated bishop of the new sect and had in turn consecrated others, Menno Simonis in particular. Ubbo made public confession of his error; 'I have been miserably mistaken,' he said, 'and I shall lament it as long as I live.'[534]

We have narrated the horrible episode of Munster, and we have exhibited it like one of those placards which we have sometimes met with in the Alps, nailed to a post near an abyss, on which were to be read such words as these,—'Traveller, beware! any one approaching falls and rolls over, and hurled from rock to rock, is dashed to pieces and killed, the sad victim of his rashness.'

TRIUMPH IN DEATH.

(The night of the 18th February, 1546, at Eisleben.)

Luther had throughout his life refused the aid of the secular arm, as his desire was that the truth should triumph only by the power of God. However, in 1546, in spite of his efforts, war was on the point of breaking out, and it was the will of God that his servant should be spared this painful spectacle.

The Counts of Mansfeld, within whose territories he was born, having become involved in a quarrel with their subjects and with several Lords of the neighborhood, had recourse to the mediation of the reformer. The old man—he was now sixty-three—was subject to frequent attacks of giddiness, but he never spared himself. He therefore set out, in answer to the call, and reached the territory of the Counts on the 28th of January, accompanied by his friend the theologian Jonas, who had been with him at the Diet of Worms, and by his two sons, Martin and Paul, the former now fifteen, and the latter thirteen, years of age. He was respectfully received by the Counts of Mansfeld, attended by a hundred and twelve horsemen. He entered that town of Eisleben in which he was born, and in which he was about to die. That same evening he was very unwell and was near fainting.

Nevertheless, he took courage and, applying himself zealously to the task, preached four times, attended twenty conferences, received the sacrament twice, and ordained two ministers. Every evening Jonas and Michael Coelius, pastor of Mansfeld, came to wish him good-night. 'Doctor Jonas, and you Master Michael,' he said to them, 'entreat of the Lord to save his church, for the Council of Trent is in great wrath.'

Luther dined regularly with the Counts of Mansfeld. It was evident from his conversation that the Holy Scriptures grew daily in importance in his eyes. 'Cicero asserts in his letters,' he said to the Counts two days before his death, 'that no one can comprehend the science of government who has not occupied for twenty years an important place in the republic. And I for my part tell you that no one has understood the Holy Scriptures who has not governed the churches for a hundred years, with the prophets, the Apostles and Jesus Christ.' This occurred on the 16th of February. After saying these words he wrote them down in Latin, laid them upon the table and then retired to his room. He had no sooner reached it than he felt that his last hour was near. 'When I have set my good lords at one,' he said to those about him, 'I will return home; I will lie down in my coffin and give my body to the worms.'

The next day, February 17, his weakness increased. The Counts of Mansfeld and the prior of Anhalt, filled with anxiety, came to see him. 'Pray do not come,' they said, 'to the conference.' He rose and walked up and down the room and exclaimed,—'Here, at Eisleben, I was baptized. Will it be my lot also to die here?' A little while after he took the sacrament. Many of his friends attended him, and sorrowfully felt that soon they would see him no more. One of them said to him,—'Shall we know each other in the eternal assembly of the blessed? We shall be all so changed!' 'Adam,' replied Luther, 'had never seen Eve, and yet when he awoke he did not say "Who art thou?" but, "Thou art flesh of my flesh." By what means did he know that she was taken from his flesh and not from a stone? He knew this because he was filled with the Holy Spirit. So likewise in the heavenly Paradise we shall be filled with the Holy Spirit, and we shall recognize father, mother, and friends better than Adam recognized Eve.'

LUTHER'S PRAYER.

Having thus spoken, Luther retired into his chamber and, according to his daily custom, even in the winter time, opened his window, looked up to heaven and began to pray. 'Heavenly Father,' he said, 'since in thy great mercy thou hast revealed to me the downfall of the pope, since the day of thy glory is not far off, and since the light of thy Gospel, which is now rising over the earth is to be diffused through the whole world, keep to the end through thy goodness the church of my dear native country; save it from falling, preserve it in the true profession of thy word, and let all men know that it is indeed for thy work that thou hast sent me.' He then left the window, returned to his friends, and about ten o'clock at night retired to bed. Just as he reached the threshold of his bedroom he stood still and said in Latin, 'In manus tuas commendo spiritum meum, redemisti me, Deus veritatis!'

The 18th of February, the day of his departure, was now at hand. About one o'clock in the morning, sensible that the chill of death was creeping over him, Luther called Jonas and his faithful servant Ambrose. 'Make a fire,' he said to Ambrose. Then he cried out,—'O Lord my God, I am in great pain! What a weight upon my chest! I shall never leave Eisleben.' Jonas said to him, 'Our heavenly Father will come to help you for the love of Christ which you have faithfully preached to men.' Luther then got up, took some turns up and down his room, and looking up to heaven exclaimed again,—'Into thine hand I commit my spirit; thou hast redeemed me, O God of truth!'

Jonas in alarm sent for the doctors, Wild and Ludwig, the Count and Countess of Mansfeld, Drachstadt, the town-clerk, and Luther's children. In great alarm they all hastened to the spot. 'I am dying,' said the sick man. 'No,' said Jonas, 'you are now in a perspiration and will soon be better.' 'It is the sweat of death,' said Luther, 'I am nearly at my last breath.' He was thoughtful for a moment and then said with faltering voice,—'O my heavenly Father, the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, the God of all consolation, I thank thee that thou hast revealed to me thy well-beloved Son, Jesus Christ, in whom I have believed, whom I have preached, whom I have confessed, whom the pope and all the ungodly insult, blaspheme, and persecute, but whom I love and adore as my Saviour. O Jesus Christ, my Saviour, I commit my soul to thee! O my heavenly Father, I must quit this body, but I believe with perfect assurance that I shall dwell eternally with thee, and that none shall pluck me out of thy hands.'

He now remained silent for a little while; his prayer seemed to have exhausted him. But presently his countenance again grew bright, a holy joy shone in his features, and he said with fulness of faith,—'God so loved the world that he gave his only-begotten Son, that whosoever believeth in him should not perish, but have everlasting life.' A moment afterwards he uttered, as if sure of victory, this word of David,[535]—'He that is our God is the God of salvation; and unto God the Lord belong the issues from death.' Dr. Wild went to him, and tried to induce him to take medicine, but Luther refused. 'I am departing,' he said, 'I am about to yield up my spirit.' Then returning to the saying which was for him a sort of watchword for his departure, he said three times successively without interruption,—'Father! into thine hand I commit my spirit. Thou hast redeemed me, O God of truth! Thou hast redeemed me, O God of truth!'

HIS LAST HOURS.

He then closed his eyes. They touched him, moved him, called to him, but he made no answer. In vain they applied the cloths which the town-clerk and his wife heated, in vain the Countess of Mansfeld and the physicians endeavored to revive him with tonics. He remained motionless. All who stood round him, perceiving that God was going to take away from the church militant this mighty warrior, were deeply affected. The two physicians noted from minute to minute the approach of death. The two boys, Martin and Paul, kneeling and in tears, cried to God to spare to them their father. Ambrose lamented the master, and Coelius the friend, whom they had so much loved. The Count of Mansfeld thought of the troubles which Luther's death might bring on the Empire. The distressed Countess sobbed and covered her eyes with her hands that she might not behold the mournful scene. Jonas, a little apart from the rest, felt heartbroken at the thought of the terrible blow impending over the Reformation. He wished to receive from the dying Luther a last testimony. He therefore rose, and went up to his friend, and bending over him, said,—'Reverend father, in your dying hour do you rest on Jesus Christ, and stedfastly rely upon the doctrine which you have preached?' 'Yes,' said Luther, so that all who were present could hear him. This was his last word. The pallor of death overspread his countenance; his forehead, his hands, and his feet turned cold. They addressed him by his baptismal name, 'Doctor Martin,' but in vain, he made no response. He drew a deep breath and fell asleep in the Lord. It was between two and three o'clock in the morning. 'Truly,' said Jonas, to whom we are indebted for these details, 'thou lettest, Lord, thy servant depart in peace, and thou accomplishest for him the promise which thou madest us, and which he himself wrote the other day in a Bible presented to one of his friends: Verily, verily, I say unto you, if a man keep my saying, he shall never see death.'[536]

Thus passed Luther into the presence of his Master, in full reliance on redemption, in calm faith in the triumph of truth. Luther was no longer here below, but Jesus Christ is with his people evermore to the end of the world, and the work which Luther had begun lives, is still advancing, and will extend to all the ends of the earth.

APPENDIX.

Transcript of 'Indulgence' of Leo X.—the words which are abbreviated in the original being written in full.

Albertus dei et apostolice sedis gratia . sancte Moguntinensis sedis . ac Magdeburgensis ecclesie Archiepiscopus . primas . et sacri Romani imperii in germania archicancellarius . princeps : elector ac administrator Halberstattensis . Marchio Brandenburgensis . Stettinensis . Pomeranie : Cassuborum Sclauorumque dux | Burggrauius . Nurenbergensis Rugieque princeps . Et guardianus fratrum ordinis minorum de obseruantia conuentus Moguntini . Per sanctissimum | dominum nostrum Leonem Papam decimum per prouincias Moguntinensem ac Magdeburgensem ac illarum et Halberstattenses ciuitates et dioceses necnon terras | et loca illustrissimi et illustrium Principum dominorum Marchionum Brandenburgensium temporali dominio mediate uel immediate subiecta nuncii et commissarii : ad infrascripta specialiter deputati . Vniuersis et singulis presentes literas inspecturis Salutem in domino . Notum facimus quod sanctissimus dominus | noster Leo diuina prouidentia Papa decimus modernus : omnibus et singulis utriusque sexus christifidelibus : ad reparacionem fabrice basilice principis apostolorum sancti Petri de vrbe : iuxta ordinationem nostram manus porrigentibus adiutrices : vltra plenissimas indulgentias ac alias gratias et facultates quas christifideles ipsi obtinere possunt : iuxta literarum apostolicarum desuper confectarum continentiam misericorditer etiam in domino indulsit atque concessit : vt idoneum possint | eligere confessorem presbyterum secularem . uel cuiusuis etiam mendicantium ordinis regularem . qui eorum confessione diligenter audita . pro commissis per eligentem | delictis et excessibus : ac peccatis quibuslibet : quantumcumque grauibus et enormibus : etiam in dicte sedi reseruatis casibus : ac censuris ecclesiasticis : etiam ab | homine ad alicuius instantiam latis . de consensu partium etiam ratione interdicti incursis . et quarum absolutio eidem sedi esset specialiter reseruata. Preterquam machinationis in personam summi pontificis : occisionis episcoporum aut aliorum superiorum prelatorum et iniectionis manuum violentarum in illos aut alios prelatos . falsificationis | literarum apostolicarum . delationis armorum et aliorum prohibitorum ad partes infidelium ac sententiarum et censurarum occasione aluminum tulfe[537] apostolice de partibus infidelium ad fideles contra prohibitionem apostolicam delatorum incursarum semel in vita et in mortis articulo quotiens ille imminebit . licet mors tunc non subsequatur | Et in non reseruatis casibus totiens quotiens id petierint plenarie absoluere et eis penitentiam salutarem iniungere . necnon semel in vita et in dicto mortis articulo : plenariam omnium peccatorum indulgentiam et remissionem impendere . Necnon per eos emissa pro tempore uota quecumque (vltramarino : visitationis | liminum apostolorum et sancti Jacobi in compostella : religionis et castitatis votis dumtaxat exceptis) in alia pietatis opera commutare auctoritate apostolica | possit et valeat . Indulsit quoque idem sanctissimus dominus noster prefatos benefactores eorumque parentes defunctos qui cum charitate decesserunt in precibus : | suffragiis : elemosynis : ieiuniis : orationibus : missis : horis canonicis : disciplinis : peregrinationibus : et ceteris omnibus spiritualibus bonis que fiunt : et fieri poterunt in tota vniuersali sacrosancta ecclesia militante : et in omnibus membris eiusdem in perpetuum participes fieri . Et quia deuotus | Philippus Kessel[538] presbyter ad ipsam fabricam et necessariam instaurationem | supradicte basilice principis apostolorum iuxta sanctissimi domini nostri Pape intentionem et nostram ordinationem de bonis suis contribuendo se gratum | exhibuit. In cuius rei signum presentes literas a nobis accepit Ideo eadem auctoritate apostolica nobis commissa : et qua fungimur in hac parte | ipsi quod dictis gratiis et indulgentiis vti et eisdem gaudere possit et valeat per presentes concedimus et largimur. Datum Auguste | sub sigillo per nos ad hec ordinato. Die xv Mensis Aprilis Anno domini M.D.xvij.

Forma absolutionis totiens quotiens in vita.

Misereatur tui &c. Dominus noster Jesus christus per meritum sue passionis te absoluat : auctoritate cuius et apostolica mihi in hac parte commissa: et | tibi concessa ego te absoluo ab omnibus peccatis tuis. In nomine patris et filii et spiritus sancti Amen.

Forma absolutionis et plenissime remissionis : semel in vita et in mortis articulo.

Misereatur tui &c. Dominus noster Jesus christus per meritum sue passionis te absoluat : et ego auctoritate ipsius et apostolica mihi in hac parte commissa : et tibi | concessa te absoluo . primo ab omni sententia excommunicationis maioris vel minoris si quam incurristi . deinde ab omnibus peccatis tuis : conferendo tibi plenissimam omnium | peccatorum tuorum remissionem remittendo tibi etiam penas purgatorii in quantum se claues sancte matris ecclesie extendunt . In nomine patris et filii et spiritus sancti Amen.

Note.—If one effect produced by the perusal of this often-talked-of document be surprise at the extent of the remissions offered to those who should 'stretch out a helping hand towards the repair of the fabric of the Church of the prince of the apostles, St. Peter of Rome,' another surely is amazement at the seeming incongruity of the exceptions. 'Indulgence' is extended to crimes and excesses and any kind of sin, however 'grave and enormous,' but is withheld not only from 'conspiracy against the person of the Pope, murder of Bishops or other superior prelates, laying violent hands on them or on other prelates, forgery of apostolic letters, exportation of arms and other forbidden goods to heathen parts,' but also from the importation of alum from heathen to Christian parts, contrary to the apostolic prohibition, by which the faithful who wanted alum were required to use only that obtained from Tolfa belonging to the Pope.

Superficially regarded, this last exception is suggestive of a commercial monopoly enforced by the threat of spiritual penalties; and so clearly has it been seen that a damaging significance might readily be attached to it, that the accuracy of the passage has frequently been doubted. M. Audin, who in his Histoire de Martin Luther, vol. i. pp. 429-432, gives a copy of the 'Indulgence,' renders the passage thus: 'occasione aluminum (sic) sanctæ ecclesiæ,' &c. By using the word sic, and by appending the note 'Tiré d'une source protestante par un protestant,' M. Audin would seem to have intended to suggest not merely that he doubted the correctness of the copy to which he had had access, but also that the apparently objectionable features of the document might be attributable to inaccuracy.

But transactions of which the causes are imperfectly understood may give rise to very erroneous opinions; and in this case even the most cursory glance at the state of Europe during the pontificate of Pius II., when the alum-works of Tolfa came into existence, will show that there were grave reasons for treating the importation of alum as a most heinous offence—reasons which might well affect the decrees of the Pope, and which had not lost their importance in the time of Leo X.

Until the discovery that alum could be obtained from the hills near Tolfa, the Italians had been dependent for their supplies of this commodity, which they used in very considerable quantities, upon the Turks, who, it is to be borne in mind, had but a few years previously taken Constantinople, and who were now the scourge and dread of Christendom. The Papal view as to the use to which the discovery should be turned is shown in the following extract from a brief of Pius II.:—

'Item quoniam diebus nostris faciens nobiscum Dominus misericordiam suam de absconditis terræ, uberrimas pretiosi aluminis venas antea nunquam inventas miraculo quodam in montibus nostris, qui in patrimonio B. Petri in Tuscia prope arcem Tolpham sunt patefecit, volens videlicet, ne ultra ex fidelium pecunia Turchorum in eos persecutio cresceret, sed ilia ad defensionem nostram uti possemus, justum et pietati suæ placitum reputantes, fructum omnem, qui antehac ex comportato in Christianitatem transmarino alumine penes impios Turchos in Christianorum exitium erat, modo ad nos in suffragium ecclesiæ catholicæ transeat, præsertim cum alumen nostrum, magistra experientia, virtute perfectius, pretio vilius, numero autem sit adeo abundans, ut usui Christianorum in omnem partem satisfacere possit, ex parte omnipotentis Dei Patris, et Filii, et Spiritus sancti, ac nostra ex hoc sancto tribunali apostolica voce hortamur atque requirimus omnes, et singulos profitentes nomen Christianum, ne posthac alumen a Turchis aliisque infidelibus emant, &c. Dat. Romæ apud S. Petrum anno MCDLXIII. vii. id. Aprilis, pontificatus nostri anno v.' (Raynaldus, 'Annales Ecclesiastici,' tom. 29, p. 376).

In his 'History of Inventions, Discoveries,' &c. (Bohn's Standard Library), Beckmann, who, in treating of Alum, quotes several accounts of the works at Tolfa, says:—'The Pope himself has left us a very minute history of this discovery, and of the circumstances which gave rise to it;' and, alluding to the conflicting statements respecting the discoverer, he adds:—'But as I do not wish to ascribe a falsehood to the Pontiff, I am of opinion that the history of this discovery must have been best known to him. He has not, indeed, established the year with sufficient correctness; but we may conclude from his relation that it must have been 1460 or 1465.[539] The former is the year given by Felician Bussi; and the latter that given in the History of the City of Civita Vecchia.' Beckmann's rendering of the Pope's history, though the account is here and there open to criticism, throws much light on the passage in the Indulgence and is otherwise very interesting. It is in these terms:—'A little before that period came to Rome John di Castro, with whom the Pontiff had been acquainted when he carried on trade at Basle, and was banker to Pope Eugenius. His father, Paul, was a celebrated lawyer of his time, who sat many years in the chair of Padua, and filled all Italy with his decisions; for lawsuits were frequently referred to him, and judges paid great respect to his authority, as he was a man of integrity and sound learning. At his death he left considerable riches, and two sons arrived to the age of manhood, the elder of whom, following the profession of the father, acquired a very extensive knowledge of law. The other, who was a man of genius, and who applied more to study, made himself acquainted with grammar and history; but, being fond of travelling, he resided some time at Constantinople, and acquired much wealth by dyeing cloth made in Italy, which was transported thither and committed to his care, on account of the abundance of alum in that neighborhood. Having by these means an opportunity of seeing daily the manner in which alum was made, and from what stones or earth it was extracted, he soon learned the art. When, by the will of God, that city was taken and plundered about the year 1453, by Mahomet II., Emperor of the Turks, he lost his whole property; but, happy to have escaped the fire and sword of these cruel people, he returned to Italy, after the assumption of Pius II., to whom he was related, and from whom he obtained, as an indemnification for his losses, the office of Commissary-General over all the revenues of the Apostolic Chamber, both within and without the city. While in this situation he was traversing all the hills and mountains, searching the bowels of the earth, leaving no stone or clod unexplored, he at length found some alum-stone in the neighborhood of Tolfa. Old Tolfa is a town belonging to two brothers, subjects of the Church of Rome, and situated at a small distance from Civita Vecchia. Here there are high mountains, retiring inland from the sea, which abound with wood and water. While Castro was examining these, he observed that the grass had a new appearance. Being struck with wonder, and inquiring into the cause, he found that the mountains of Asia, which enrich the Turkish treasury by their alum, were covered with grass of the like kind. Perceiving several white stones, which seemed to be minerals, he bit some of them, and found that they had a saltish taste. This induced him to make some experiments by calcining them, and he at length obtained alum. He repaired therefore to the Pontiff, and addressing him said, "I announce to you a victory over the Turk. He draws yearly from the Christians above three hundred thousand pieces of gold, paid to him for the alum with which we dye wool different colors, because none is found here but a little at the island of Hiscla, formerly called Aenaria, near Puteoli, and in the cave of Vulcan at Lipari, which, being formerly exhausted by the Romans, is now almost destitute of that substance. I have, however, found seven hills so abundant in it, that they would be almost sufficient to supply seven worlds. If you will send for workmen, and cause furnaces to be constructed, and the stones to be calcined, you may furnish alum to all Europe; and that gain which the Turk used to acquire by this article being thrown into your hands will be to him a double loss. Wood and water are both plenty, and you have in the neighborhood the port of Civita Vecchia, where vessels bound to the West may be loaded. You can now make war against the Turk: this mineral will supply you with the sinews of war, that is money, and at the same time deprive the Turk of them." These words of Castro appeared to the Pontiff the ravings of a madman: he considered them as mere dreams, like the predictions of astrologers; and all the cardinals were of the same opinion. Castro, however, though his proposals were often rejected, did not abandon his project, but applied to his Holiness by various persons, in order that experiments might be made in his presence on the stones which he had discovered. The Pontiff employed skilful people, who proved that they really contained alum; but lest some deception might have been practised, others were sent to the place where they had been found, who met with abundance of the like kind. Artists who had been employed in the Turkish mines in Asia were brought from Genoa; and these, having closely examined the nature of the place, declared it to be similar to that of the Asiatic mountains which produce alum; and, shedding tears for joy, they kneeled down three times, worshipping God, and praising his kindness in conferring so valuable a gift on our age. The stones were calcined, and produced alum more beautiful than that of Asia, and superior in quality. Some of it was sent to Venice and to Florence, and, being tried, was found to answer beyond expectation. The Genoese first purchased a quantity of it, to the amount of 20,000 pieces of gold; and Cosmo of Medici for this article laid out afterwards seventy-five thousand. On account of this service, Pius thought Castro worthy of the highest honors and of a statue, which was erected to him in his own country, with this inscription:—"To John di Castro, the Inventor of Alum;" and he received besides a certain share of the profit. Immunities and a share also of the gain were granted to the two brothers, lords of Tolfa, in whose land the aluminous mineral had been found. This accession of wealth to the Church of Rome was made, by the divine blessing, under the Pontificate of Pius II.: and if it escape, as it ought, the hands of tyrants, and be prudently managed, it may increase and afford no small assistance to the Roman Pontiffs in supporting the burdens of the Christian religion—Pii Secundi Comment . rer . memorab . quæ temp . suis contigerunt. Francof. 1614, fol. p. 185'

Dr. Georg Voigt, in his 'Enea Silvio de Piccolomini als Papst Pius der Zweite und sein Zeitalter,' vol. iii. pp. 546-48, says:—

'Ein Glückszufall brachte dem Papste noch eine ganz unerwartete Quelle von Einnahmen. Unter ihm wurden die berühmten Alaungruben von Tolfa entdeckt. Der genannte Giovanni de Castro, ein Mann der rührigsten Industrie, der zu Konstantinopel die Färbung italienischer Zeuge betrieben, bei der Eroberung der Stadt jedoch nichts als sein Leben und seine technischen Kenntnisse davongetragen, war der Finder. Umherschweifend auf dem einsamen culturlosen Waldgebirge, das sich unweit Civita-vecchia mit seinen Ausläufern bis zum Meer erstreckt, stöbernd unter den Steinen, Erden und Pflanzen mit dem eigenthümlichen Antriebe solcher Naturen, bemerkte er zunächst ein Kraut, das er auf den alaunhaltigen Bergen Asiens gesehen, dann weisse Steine, die der salzige Geschmack und gar die Auskochung als Alaun erwies. Freudig eilte er zum Papste und verkündete ihm den Sieg über die Türken, zunächst den Industriellen, da der Orient durch den Alaun jährlich über 300,000 Ducaten von den Christen verdiene. Von anderer Seite wird der Astrolog Domenico di Zaccaria aus Padua wenigstens als Mitentdecker angegeben.[540] Pius indess erwähnt nur de Castro. Er und die Cardinäle hielten die Entdeckung anfangs für eine alchymistische Träumerei. Doch bestätigten Sachverständige, dass das Gestein wirklich Alaun und dass es in jenen Bergen in betriebsfähiger Masse vorhanden sei; das reichliche Wasser der Gegend und der nahe Seehafen begünstigten den Bau. Es wurden Gewerbsleute aus Genua berufen, die einst bei den Türken den asiatischen Alaun behandelt; sie weinten vor Freude, als sie das Mineral erkannten, nach der Abkochung zeigte sich seine Güte: 80 Pfund hatten den Werth von 100 Pfund türkischen Alauns. Proben wurden nach Venedig und Florenz versandt. Genuesische Kaufleute schlossen zuerst einen Ankauf für 20,000 Ducaten ab. Dann Cosimo de' Medici einen für 75,000. Der Papst fasste den Vorsatz, das Geschenk Gottes auch zur Ehre Gottes, zum Türkenkriege zu verwenden; er ermahnte alle Christen, fortan nur von ihm, nicht von den Ungläubigen den Alaun einzukaufen, zumal da der seinige nach der Erfahrung besser und billiger sei.[541] Schon im Jahre 1463 wurde tüchtig in den Gruben von Tolfa gearbeitet, 8,000 Menschen waren dabei beschäftigt: der Finder wie die Besitzer des vorher unfruchtbaren Districtes erhielten eine Quote des Gewinnes, der dem apostolischen Schatze jährlich gegen 100,000 Ducaten einbrachte. In der Wahlcapitulation von 1464 wurden sämmtliche Einkünfte von Alaun für den Türkenkrieg bestimmt.'[542]

From Dr. Voigt's statements that as early as the year 1463, 8,000 men were employed in the alum-works of Tolfa, and that the profit to the apostolic treasury, after the claims of the discoverer and the proprietors had been duly recognized, amounted to 100,000 ducats a year, and from the date of the Pope's Brief quoted above, it would seem that the discovery could scarcely have been made later than 1462, the year assigned to it by Niccolo della Tuccia.

The following extract from R. Harrison's translation of A. von Reumont's 'Lorenzo de' Medici,' carries on somewhat further the history of this famous mine and of its position in regard to the Papal Government:—

'The Pope's affection and confidence were shown in various ways. The Roman depository, i.e., the Receiver's office, was handed over to the Medici, with the permission to choose as their representative Giovanni Tornabuoni, director of the Roman bank. New privileges were also granted to them in connection with their share in the farming of the alum-works of Tolfa. It was an important concession. In the days of Pope Pius II., Giovanni di Castro, son of the famous jurisconsult, Paolo, the principal co-operator in the revision of the Florentine statutes (finished in 1415), discovered alum-deposits in the rock while making geological investigations in the hilly country between Civita Vecchia and the territory of Viterbo, in the vicinity of Tolfa. He instantly perceived the importance of his discovery, which promised to free the West, hitherto poor in this mineral, from a tribute to the distant East, made more inaccessible by the Turkish conquests. In fact the produce soon amounted to 160,000 gold florins; and it is well known what sanguine hopes Pius II., whose eyes were directed towards the East, indulged, that this new source of revenue would aid his enterprises. Genoese houses had employed themselves with the alum-trade till the Medici concluded a contract with the Papal exchequer, which afterwards gave rise to many unpleasant misunderstandings with the financial department.'—(Vol. I. p. 275).

An account of the alum of Tolfa is also given in vol. v. chap. i., of the 'Voyages du P. Labat de l'Ordre des FF. Prescheurs, en Espagne et en Italie;' and in the article 'Alaun,' in the 'Oeconomische Encyclopädie,' by Dr. J. G. Krünitz, which is in part derived from Labat's work.

GENERAL INDEX

Volumes I.—VIII.

Aarau, meeting of pastors at, to complain of exile of Megander, vi. 367;

deputation sent to Berne, 367

Abelard, ii. 18; iii. 44

Ab Hofen, Thomas, Bernese deputy to Geneva, ii. 311 sqq.;

his evangelical work, 312;

opposition and dejection, 314;

death, 316

Adam, iii. 301 sqq.

Adrian VI., Pope, attempts to prevent introduction of Luther's works and followers into Spain, viii. 4

Adrian, Dr., umpire at conference of Schässburg, vii. 384

Agrippa, Cornelius, at Strasburg, i. 360;

his career, 363;

his book on marriage, 363

Alasco, John, Baron, primate of Poland, vii. 433, 443;

unfriendly reception of his nephew John, 445;

his devotion to the papacy, 445;

examines John, 446;

his death, 450

— Stanislaus, vii. 433;

at court of Francis I., 442

— Yaroslav, vii. 433;

gets his brother John appointed a bishop, 452;

interview with John, 458;

his relations with Zapolya, 458;

military service and imprisonment, 458;

his death, 459

Alasco, John, Polish reformer, his birth and early life, vii. 434;

sets out to visit European courts and universities, 434;

at Louvain, 434;

meets Zwinglius at Zurich, 435;

difficulty of fixing dates of his travels, 436, note;

grateful remembrance of Zwinglius, 436;

becomes guest of Erasmus, 437;

influence of Erasmus on him, 438, 439;

studies at Basel under Pellican, 439;

friendship with Glareanus, 439;

enjoined by King Sigismund to leave Basel, 441;

uncertainty of his next course, 442;

in Italy, 442;

again in Poland, 443;

his struggles, 444;

worldly associations, 444;

decline of faith, 445;

false reports about him, 445;

examined by the primate, 446;

renounces doctrines of the Reformation, 447;

urges Erasmus to write to the king, 448;

named provost of cathedral church of Gnesne, 448;

reads and corresponds with Melanchthon, 449;

leans towards Luther, 449;

coolness of Erasmus, 450;

his place among reformers, 451;

has to give up hope of reforming Poland, 451;

appointed bishop of Wesprim, 452;

bishop of Cujavia, 452;

his difficult position, 452;

refuses bishopric of Cujavia, 453;

leaves Poland, 454;

goes to Mentz and Louvain, 454;

offers made to him, 455;

marries, 456;

his life at Embden, 456, 457;

declines offer of pastorate there, 458;

attends death-bed of his brother Yaroslav, 458, 459;

returns to Friesland, 459;

writes to Hardenberg, 459;

accepts direction of churches in Friesland, 462;

invited to Poland, 462;

his task in Friesland, 462;

charges against him, 463;

opposition of John of Falkenberg, 464;

writes to Bullinger, 464;

conflict with the monks, 465;

his appeal to Countess Anna, 466;

victory over John of Falkenberg, 467;

aims at union of Protestant sects, 468;

has a conference with Menno, 468;

with David Joris, 470;

his ministry, 471;

his church government, 471;

relations to Erasmus, Zwinglius, and Melanchthon, 472;

his Epitome of doctrine, 472;

again appeals to Countess Anna, 473;

resigns office of superintendent, 473;

resumes it, 474;

death of his child, 474;

his country home, 475;

his first letter to Calvin, 475, note;

at Louvain, 548, 552;

meetings with Francis de Enzinas, viii. 43, 59

Albany, John Stuart, duke of, i. 414;

special ambassador of Francis I. to Clement VII., ii. 148;

his career, 148, 155;

commands French fleet escorting Catherine de' Medici to Nice, 189;

escorts Clement VII. to Marseilles, 190;

regent of Scotland, vi. 15;

returns to France, 15;

again in Scotland, defeated by the English, finally quits the country, 21

Albert, duke of Prussia, protects the reformed in Poland, vii. 431

Albigenses, the, ii. 102

Alcagnices, Marchioness of, her conversations with Carranza, viii. 117;

gets his works copied and translated, 119

Alcala de Henares, viii. 13;

a theological disputation at, 14

Alciati of Milan, at Bourges, ii. 23

Aleander, papal nuncio, obtains edict of persecution for the Netherlands, vii. 488;

receives recantation of Spreng, 490

Alençon, Duchess of

[Margaret of Angoulême]

Alençon, Duke of, i. 346

Alesius, presents Melanchthon's Common places to Henry VIII., v. 106;

account of him, 186;

present at convocation, 187;

his speech, 188, 189;

refused admission, 190;

his birth and early life, vi. 11;

publicly refutes Luther's doctrine, 51;

his interviews with Patrick Hamilton, 52;

refuses to condemn him, 75;

preaches before the synod, 76;

assailed by Prior Hepburn, and imprisoned, 76, 77;

released by command of the king, 77;

immediately imprisoned again, 78;

urged to escape, reluctant to leave Scotland, 80, 81;

his flight, 81, 82;

embarks at Dundee, 83;

his wanderings, 84;

his letter to James V., 90, 91

Alexander VI., Pope, i. 119, 211;

his decree on printing, ii. 173

Alexander Canus (Dumoulin), goes to Geneva, iv. 195;

attempts to arrest him, 198;

seized and banished, 205;

leaves Geneva, 206

Alexander, Dr., preaches at Dantzic, vii. 425

Alexander, Peter, chaplain to the Regent of the Netherlands, viii. 86;

holds a disputation with De Soto, 87;

his flight, trial, and burning in effigy, 87;

pastor of French church in London, 88

Alva, Duke of, i. 325

Amadeus V. of Savoy, i. 17;

seizes the château de l'Ile, 17;

becomes vidame, 18;

bids for popular favor, 18

Amadeus VIII., his attempt on Geneva, i. 19;

his abdication, 21;

nominated pope by Council of Basel as Felix V., 21;

makes himself prince and bishop of Geneva, 21;

his death, 21

Amadeus IX., i. 22

Amman, Louis, vi. 434

Amsterdam, beginning of the Reformation at, vii. 531 sqq.;

arrests of evangelicals by night, their execution, 535;

Jan van Geelen's attempt to surprise, viii. 348

Amyot, Jacques, iii. 76

Anabaptists, burnt by Henry VIII., v. 63; viii. 160

[Spirituals]

Ancina, Messire d', i. 116, 122

Anderson, Lawrence, his birth and early life, vii. 239;

receives evangelical doctrine, 240;

administrator of diocese of Strengnaes, 240;

friendship with Olaf and Lawrence Peterson, 241;

before Gustavus, 258;

appointed chancellor of the kingdom, 258;

his character, 259;

advises Gustavus, 259;

translates the New Testament, 269;

advises the king on church power, 281;

his speech at Diet of Westeraas, 285 sqq.;

deputy with Olaf to the king, 291;

his speech on return of the king, 293;

president of synod of Orebro, 299

Anderson, William, a Protestant of Perth, vi. 178;

seized and condemned to death, 181;

hung, 181

Andronicus, invited into Switzerland by Farel, iii. 233 sqq.;

joins Farel, 235

Angelis, Francis de, viii. 4

Angers, University of, declares for divorce of Henry VIII., iv. 40

Angoulême, city, iii. 5,

Angus, Earl of, marries Margaret, regent of Scotland, vi. 15;

takes the Great Seal, 22;

defeats Lennox, 24;

renews proscription of New Testament, 43;

keeps the king in subjection, 72;

banished, 74;

joins English army against the Scots, 138;

accompanies the liberated nobles to Scotland, 158;

reinstated, 161;

imprisoned, liberated, 184

Anhalt, Principality of, the reformation in, viii. 322;

the princes of, 322;

Luther's letter to them, 326;

the reformation established in, 327

Anna, Countess [Friesland]

Annates, in England, abolished, iv. 87

Anne Boleyn, meets Henry VIII., ii. 105; iv. 21, 27;

lodged in palace at Greenwich, 103;

marriage of, 118, 127;

included in Clement's excommunication of Henry VIII., 128;

appears as queen, 131;

her marriage pronounced lawful, 135;

presented to the people, 135;

her coronation, 136;

unsatisfied, 137;

her course and fate, 138;

change in her character, v. 32;

protects evangelicals, 32;

orders liberation of Harman, 33;

her bringing up, 119;

her good works, 120, 121;

esteem for Latimer, 121;

Tyndale's present to, 122;

character of, 124;

opposite views of her, 125;

hostility of Norfolk, 126;

her difficult position, 127;

jealousy of Jane Seymour, 128;

gives birth to a dead son, 129;

co-operates with Cranmer, 130;

her choice of bishops, 130, 131;

forebodings, 132;

commends her daughter Elizabeth to Parker, 133;

charges against her, 133, 134 sqq.;

ordered to keep her room, 138;

before the council, 139;

taken to the Tower, 140;

her sympathy, 141;

watched, 145;

agitation, 146;

her letter to the king, 150 sqq.;

alleged pre-contract of marriage not proved, 153;

her trial, 155 sqq.;

sentenced to death, 157;

her address to the judges, 158;

asks pardon of the princess Mary, 162;

her execution, 165 sqq.;

effect of her death in Europe, 170, 171

Anne of Beauregard, v. 427, 428

Anne of Cleves, proposal for her marriage with Henry VIII., viii. 193;

her portrait, 193;

the marriage arranged, 193;

at Calais, 194;

a game of cards, 194;

reaches Canterbury, 195;

at Rochester, seen by the king, 195;

received by him, 197;

enters London, 197;

married, 198;

hopes, 198;

scheme contrived for her divorce, 230 sqq.;

consents, 231;

receives report of judgment of convocation, 232;

her submission, 233;

a pension and a palace for her, 234

Anne of Cyprus, i. 21, 22, 23;

accused by her son Philip to her husband, 25

Annonay, the 'holy virtues' of, i. 429;

preaching of Stephen Machopolis at, 430;

of Rénier, 430;

of Jonas, 430;

arrest and imprisonment of many evangelicals, 431

Anschar, apostle of Scandinavia, vii. 120

Antwerp, vii. 481;

beginning of reformation at, 483 sqq.;

persecution, 492;

the convent of the Augustines destroyed, 499;

open-air meeting of the reformed, 503;

murder of Nicholas, 504;

preaching attended by crowds, 517

Aosta, Lutheranism at, v. 451 sqq.;

assembly of estates at, 452;

resolution against Lutheranism, 453;

monuments of Calvin's passage through, 454

Apologists, Christian, iii. 10, 182

Appeals to the pope, abolished in England, iv. 179

Aquinas, Thomas, Calvin's admiration of, i. 387; ii. 167

Arcimbold, sells indulgences in Scandinavia, vii. 127;

gains over the King of Denmark, 128;

sends his brother to Gothland, 236

Aresen, Johan, bishop of Holum, vii. 226;

his quarrel with bishop of Skalholt, 226;

vanquished in single combat, 226;

takes up arms against the reformation, 229;

usurps the see of Skalholt, 229;

arrested and executed with his sons, 230;

barbarous revenge of his partisans, 230

Arlod, Jean d', i. 271; iv. 313; v. 352;

imprisoned at Chillon, 353

—, Domaine d', iii. 364;

proscribed by the bishop, 439;

seized and imprisoned, 441, 457

Arnold of Winkelried, i. 194,

Arran, Earl of, vi. 152;

his character, 154;

proclaimed regent of Scotland, 154;

his evangelical chaplains, 155;

favors project of marriage of Mary Queen of Scots with Edward of England, 158;

confirmed in the regency, 161;

dismisses his chaplains, 168;

refuses the hostages to Henry VIII., 171;

assembles an army at Edinburgh, 172;

his irresolution, 173;

joins the cardinal at Stirling, 173;

submits to the pope and is absolved, 174;

accompanies Beatoun to Perth, sanctions martyrdom of Protestants, 181;

and persecution in Forfarshire, 182;

flies from Edinburgh with Beatoun, 183;

gives up Wishart to Beatoun, 197;

writes to the cardinal about him, 197

Arras, martyrs at, i. 349; iii. 142

Artois, preaching of Berquin in, i. 332, 333

Aske, Robert, heads revolt of Catholics in Yorkshire, v. 206;

the pilgrimage of grace, 206;

at Pomfret Castle, 209;

confronts the Lancaster herald, 209;

resolves to march on London, 210

Askew, Anne, account of, viii. 274;

her marriage and separation, 275;

imprisoned, her examinations, 276;

before Bishop Bonner, 277;

liberated on bail, 277;

again arrested, examined, 277, 278;

her firmness, 279;

condemned to be burnt, 279;

again examined and tortured by Wriothesley and Rich, 280, 281, and note;

her martyrdom, 283 sqq.

Athanasian Creed, the, vi. 317

Audley, Sir Thomas, Speaker, iv. 9;

appointed Chancellor, 91;

one of Fryth's examiners, 151;

begs for gift of convents, v. 99;

member of commission of inquiry into conduct of Queen Anne, 136, 139; viii. 226

Augsburg, Diet of, ii. 216, 255, 415, 421; vii. 170;

influence of the confession in Hungary, 345

Augustines, at Geneva, i. 44

Augustine, St., iv. 46

Austria, ii. 215, 216;

delegates at Diet, of Augsburg, 217, 218, 219

[Ferdinand of Austria, Philip of Hesse]

Avalos, Don Gaspard d', opposes publication of Spanish New Testament, viii. 61

Avenches, iii. 212

Avignon, Francis I., holds council at, ii. 214;

the embroiderer of, iv. 325;

seized and ill-used, 325;

reaches Geneva, 326

Avila, John d', his preaching in Andalusia, viii. 4, 5, 6;

exposes the fraud of Madeline de la Croix, 7;

defends St. Theresa, 7;

counsels Sancha de Carile, 8;

arrested by the Inquisition, and acquitted, 17

Babinot, Albert, iii. 46;

sent by Calvin to preach, 58;

at Toulouse, 59, 61

Baduel, Claude, ii. 257;

seeks introduction to Margaret of Navarre, 258;

visits her, 259;

his career, 259;

envoy from Margaret to Melanchthon, iv. 368

Baillot, Jacques, of Neuchâtel, advocates giving help to Geneva, v. 323;

on the march, 327

Bainham, James, iv. 106;

arrested and tortured by More, 106;

before Bishop of London, 107;

his abjuration and sentence, 107;

remorse, 108;

repentance, 108;

condemned, 109;

visited by Latimer, 109;

martyrdom, 110

Bakker, Johan van, with his father denounced as a Lutheran, vii. 510;

sent to Louvain, becomes a priest, 511;

imprisoned, liberated, goes to Wittenberg, 511;

returns, and is banished, 511;

wanderings, 511;

separates from Rome, 512;

opposes indulgences, 512;

arrested, 513;

his trial, 513;

imprisoned, 514;

his father, 515;

his martyrdom, 515, 516

Balard, syndic of Geneva, i. 204;

elected syndic, 263;

cited, 292, note; iii. 282, 286, 290;

recommends celebration of the mass, v. 367;

his views, 411;

examined before the Council, vi. 502 sqq.

Balkerley, Martin, imprisoned at Edinburgh for reading the Scriptures, vi. 113;

pays a ransom and is left in prison, a double ransom demanded, 113;

liberated, 113

Balleyson, M. de, i. 278, 291, 295, 297

Balue, Master, deputy of the Sorbonne, ii. 287

Bandière, Ami, i. 267, 270, 276, 292;

leads the search for Pontverre, and is wounded, ii. 379

Bandière, Jean, i. 292

Bandini, Francesco, Archbishop of Siena, receives deputation accusing Paleario, iv. 444;

consents to support the charge, 445

Baner, Eric, in charge of Gustavus Vasa, vii. 245

Baptism, a reformed, at Geneva, iv. 249

Barbarossa, iv. 465

Barbier, instigates plot against reformers at Geneva, v. 244

Bar-le Duc, conference and treaty of, ii. 224 sqq., 297

Barlow, Dr., prior of Bisham, his embassy to Scotland, vi. 100, 101;

ready to preach, 105

Barnes, envoy to reformers at Wittenberg, v. 106;

sent by the king to invite Melanchthon, 107;

well received by Elector of Saxony, 107;

joined by Fox and Hare, 109;

takes part in negotiating marriage of the king with Anne of Cleves, viii. 202;

appointed to preach at Paul's Cross, superseded by Gardiner, 202;

preaches, 203;

reprimanded by the king, 204;

reads a retractation, and again preaches, 204;

committed to the Tower, 204;

with Garret and Jerome and three Papists, burnt at Smithfield, 227, 228

Barton, Elizabeth [Maid of Kent]

Basel, council of, i. 21;

embassy to Geneva, ii. 390, 392;

treaty with landgrave of Hesse, 420;

conferences at, vi. 325; vii. 43, 44

Baud, Claude, syndic of Geneva, attempts to direct Catholic rioters, iii. 375;

plants the city banner, 379;

refuses to give the signal for attack, 385;

takes part in consultation for peace, 395; iv. 200;

searches for Froment, 205

Bayfield, Richard, in prison, iv. 83;

his martyrdom, 84

Beatoun, David, abbot of Arbroath, negotiates return of his uncle, the primate, to St. Andrews, vi. 28;

one of the judges of Patrick Hamilton, 61;

accompanies James V. to Paris, 108;

again in France, made bishop of Mirepoix, 108;

negotiates marriage of James with Mary of Lorraine, 109;

his character and aims, 110, 111;

created cardinal, 111;

unites with the king against the gospellers and the nobles, 112;

finds money for the king, 113;

his arrogance, 113;

goes to France to seek aid for Scotland, 115;

persecutes the gospellers, 116 sqq.;

demands the burning of Kennedy and Russel, 123;

succeeds his uncle as primate, 124:

his persecutions checked by the king, 126;

holds assembly of prelates and nobles at St. Andrews, 126;

aims at ruin of Henry VIII., 133;

prevents interview of James and Henry, 135;

visits James V. on his death-bed, 149;

under alleged will of the king claims to be president of the council of regency, 153;

opposes appointment of Arran to the regency, 154;

appointed chancellor, 155;

resists scheme for marriage of Mary Queen of Scots with Prince Edward of England, 158;

excluded from the council and imprisoned, 159;

results of his arrest, 160;

liberated, 169;

his intrigues against the regent, 169;

convokes the clergy, 170;

induces the regent to refuse the hostages, 171;

removes the two queens to Stirling, 172;

receives submission of Arran and absolves him, 174;

crowns the queen, 175;

resolves to crush the Reformation, 177;

goes to Perth, condemns six Protestants to death, 181;

persecutes them in Forfarshire, 182;

on appearance of English army at Leith, flies from Edinburgh with Arran, 183;

sets a body of armed men to waylay Wishart, 196;

imprisons Wishart, 197;

convokes the bishops, 197;

arms his men to escort them and Wishart, 198;

presides at his trial, 198 sqq.;

witnesses his martyrdom, 205 sqq.;

marries his daughter to David Lindsay, 208;

quarrels with Norman Lesley, 209;

a conspiracy formed against him, orders his partisans to meet him at Falkland, 209;

his castle seized by Norman Lesley, 211;

murdered, 212;

opinions on the murder, 214

Beatoun, James, primate of Scotland, gathering of the Hamiltons in his palace, vi. 16;

dissensions with the queen-mother and the nobles, 22;

deprived of the Great Seal by Angus, 23;

plots with the priests against Angus, 23;

in concealment in Fifeshire, 24;

returns to St. Andrews, 28;

cites Patrick Hamilton before him, 28;

invites him to a conference, 48;

cites him on a charge of heresy, 54;

orders his arrest, 59;

pronounces sentence on him, 64;

sanctions imprisonment of Alesius, 78;

condemns Seaton's doctrines, 88;

imprisons Thomas Forrest, 92;

leaves his see to his nephew David, 124

Beatrice of Portugal, married to duke Charles III., i. 218;

reception of, at Geneva, 219 sqq.;

birth of a son, 234;

deputation of women to her in behalf of Levrier, 251;

quits Geneva, 251; ii. 452

Beaugency, ancient custom at, ii. 6

Becon, Thomas, quoted, iv. 162

Beda, syndic of the Sorbonne, advises persecution of Lutherans, i. 332, 333;

reports on Berquin's works, 334;

principal of Montaigu College, 386;

attacks Berquin, 403;

his refutation of Erasmus, 404;

arrested, 405;

attacked by Berquin, 406;

urges persecution of Berquin, 431, 432; ii. 34, 36, 40;

attacks the professors, 59;

his charges dismissed by the parliament, 60;

adopted by the Sorbonne, 60;

declaims against reformers, 90;

urges arrest of preachers, 119;

general in the war against Lutherans, 121;

sets mendicant friars to work, 121, 122;

confined to his house by the king's order, 124;

breaks loose, 125;

appears before the parliament, 129;

banished, 130;

his departure, 133;

censor of books, 167;

detects heresy in Margaret's Mirror, 167;

returns to Paris, 230;

attacks professors of University of Paris, 230;

demands burning of Roussel and others, 231;

his debate with Roussel in the prison, 233;

his Remonstrance read by the king, 233;

imprisoned, 233;

accuses the king, iii. 115;

charged with treason, his imprisonment and death, 116; iv. 40

Bell, Dr., joint commissioner to Oxford University, iv. 33

Bellantes, Antonio, his friendship with Paleario, iv. 439;

his mother, 440;

her property stolen by the monks, 440

Bellantes, Faustus, warns Paleario, iv. 441;

at his trial, 441, 451

—, Evander, at trial of Paleario, iv. 451

Bellegarde, Sieur de, prepares ambuscade for Levrier, i. 246;

seizes and takes him to castle of Bonne, 247;

tortures him, 251;

treachery to Bonivard, ii. 406;

envoy to the emperor, iii. 282;

bribes the grand equerry, 262;

has audience of Charles V., 263;

interview with Granvella, 265;

his letter to the duke, 266;

his plans against Geneva, 267;

projects a fortress, 273

Bellessert, Captain, commands one of the bands against Lutherans, iii. 378;

strikes down Philippe, and is wounded by him, 387

Bembo, Pietro, Cardinal, iv. 432, 465, 482

Benoit, Andrew, goes to Geneva, vi. 299

[Spirituals]

Berger, Nicholas, assassinated by Pennet, iv. 233

Bergeron, G., syndic of Geneva, i. 308

Bernard, Carmelite, martyrdom of, vii. 516

Bernard of Lublin, vii. 422

Bernard, Claude, iii. 277, 296, 314;

his daughter, 325, 327, 328;

rescues Froment, 347;

aids in rescue of Olivétan, 363;

leads Huguenots in the fight in the Molard, 416;

receives evangelists into his house, v. 245, 247, 250;

proposes suppression of the mass, &c., 275

Bernard, Jacques, superior of Franciscans, converted by Farel's preaching, iv. 254; v. 251;

preaches in convent church, 251;

undertakes a public disputation, 253;

ten theses, 254, 255, 263;

at the debate, 265 sqq.;

appointed pastor at Geneva, vi. 414

Bernard, John, i. 57, 134, 256; ii. 333

Bernard, Louis, throws off his priestly robes, iv. 283;

marries, 305;

writes to Calvin, vii. 14

Berne, i. 154, 155, 182;

friendly to Geneva, 276, 277;

embassy to Geneva, 280;

exiles at, 283;

receives news of Huguenot triumph at Geneva, 302;

alliance with Friburg and Geneva, 303, 305, 306, 307, 308, 310, 376;

Genevese and Savoyard deputations to, ii. 307;

admonishes duke of Savoy, 338;

warns Geneva, 338;

triumph of the Scriptures at, 346;

Bernese Lutherans at Geneva, 385, 390, 392, 400, 420;

prepares to succour Geneva, 424, 432;

asks help of Geneva, 442;

refuses help to Geneva, 445;

deputies propose renunciation of alliance, 446;

demands it again, 449;

Genevese embassy to, 450;

alliance maintained, 450;

joint-suzerain of Orbe, iii. 205;

orders that all fathers of families should attend Farel's preaching, 217;

opens churches at Granson to reformers, 238, 239;

with Friburg publishes first act of religious liberty in Switzerland, 244;

intervenes in favor of religious liberty at Geneva, 365;

counter embassies to, from Geneva, 402, 403, 404;

embassy to Geneva, 428;

the deputies counsel yielding to the bishop, 453;

sends Farel to Geneva, iv. 207;

embassy to Geneva, 215;

protects the reformers, 216;

compels opening of a church to them, 219;

insists upon trial of Furbity, 220;

deputies assist at his examination, 243 sqq., 255;

farewell of the embassy, 256;

intervention on behalf of Maisonneuve, 273;

Genevese embassy to, 309;

exhorts Savoy and Burgundy to cease hostilities against Geneva, 317, 318;

intervenes for Maisonneuve and Janin, 322;

supports duke of Savoy, 340;

refuses aid to Geneva, v. 316;

negotiates with duke of Savoy on its behalf, 360;

helps Geneva, 372;

declares war against duke of Savoy, 373;

march of the army under Nägueli, 374;

demands sovereignty of Geneva, 397;

reduction and annexation of Vaud, 398;

the envoys at Aosta, 450, 451;

the Bernese take Yverdun, and abolish Romish worship, vi. 229;

edict issued for disputation at Lausanne, 234;

ordinances for the Pays de Vaud, 263;

treaty with Lausanne, 265;

issues edict of reformation for the Pays de Vaud, 272;

synod of, 320;

another synod convoked, 327;

a patched-up peace, 327;

another synod, 327 sqq.;

deputies of, at Geneva, support the malcontent Huguenots, 340;

letter to the Reformers, 348;

an embassy to Geneva promised, 348;

and not sent, 349;

sanctions the Genevese confession, 350;

dismissal of Megander, 367;

deputation of country pastors to Berne, 367, 368;

views of Bernese on church and state, 371;

on worship, 372;

convoke a synod at Lausanne, 373;

letters to Calvin and the Council of Geneva, 376;

letter of the council to the Genevese on behalf of Calvin and Farel, 418;

delegates sent with them to Geneva, 431;

received by the council, 433;

dispute about treaty with Geneva, 512;

a new treaty, 513;

quarrel about it, 514;

summons the Genevese to a trial at Lausanne, 516;

sentence against Geneva, 516;

proposes fresh discussion, 517

Berquin, Louis, arrested and liberated, i. 332;

his character, 332;

preaching in Artois, 332;

assailed by priests and nobles, 333;

his books examined by the Sorbonne, 334;

imprisoned, 335;

interrogated, 343;

threatened with the stake, 343;

proceedings stopped by Francis I., 344;

partial liberation, 358;

set free, 377;

his task, 378;

resolves to attack the papal power, 403;

letter to Erasmus, 404;

rejects advice of Erasmus, 405;

attacks Beda and the Sorbonne, 406;

censured by Erasmus, 407;

abuse of, 431; ii. 30;

judges appointed to try him, 33;

Margaret's intercession, 34;

arrested, 35;

his letter discovered, 35;

sentence pronounced, 36;

appeals, 37;

efforts of Budaeus, 38;

a fall and a recovery, 39;

sentenced to be burnt, 40;

execution hurried on, 41;

martyrdom, 43 sqq.;

effect on spectators, 44, 55

Berthaud, appointed to preach in Paris, ii. 117;

his end, 119;

confined by the king's orders, 125;

forbidden to preach, 228;

burning of, demanded by Beda, 231;

set free, 234;

arrested, iii. 113;

before the king, 117;

sent to a convent, 125

Berthelier, Philibert, Genevese patriot, i. 2;

his character and aim, 30, 36, 39;

accepts from the Bastard the government of Peney, 40;

friendship with Bonivard, 47, 50;

tears up his commission, 56;

his school of liberty, 59, 64;

frustrates attempt of the duke to seize Levrier, 64;

his intercourse with Bonivard, 66, 67, 68;

calls a meeting of patriots, 69 sqq.;

his exhortation to unity, 70;

watched by agents of the bishop, 71;

practical joke about Claude Gros' mule, 73;

threatened with a fine by the vidame, 74;

scheme to get rid of him, 76, 80;

demanded by the bishop, 83;

warned, 83;

escapes with the Friburgers, 84;

the search for him, 84;

at Friburg, 84;

his speech to the guilds, 86;

offered a pardon by the duke, 92;

alleged to be a 'charmer', 97;

his return to Geneva, 110;

promotes the Swiss alliance, 110;

obstacle to destruction of liberty, 112;

his trial, 112;

his energy and devotion, 130, 131;

his proposition for consultation of patriots, 134;

his friendship with Marty, of Friburg, 136;

rouses the Genevese to action, 143;

tried by the syndics and acquitted by the council, 144;

rejects bribe offered by the duke, 153, 160, 161, 173, 178, 185;

the bishop 'watches for' him, 188;

his serenity, 188;

his retreat, 188;

arrested, 189;

in prison, 190;

his religious faith, 191;

refuses to be tried by Desbois, 192;

proposal to rescue him, 193;

sentence of death, 195;

execution, 196;

procession through Geneva, 196;

impression produced by his death, 197;

sanguis semen, 198, 213, 282;

his memory honored, 314; iv. 210

'Bésolles war,' the, i. 181, 207

Beyaerts, Jan, vii. 550, 551;

removes pictures from the churches, 552;

arrested, 554, 555

Beza, Theodore, i. 386, 396, 398; ii. 8, 19, 21, 22;

birth and early life of, first meets Calvin, 23

Bible, the, in French, prohibited in France, i. 342;

difficulty of obtaining at Paris, ii. 87;

Latin, of Stephens, 87;

first French published, v. 272;

act passed by Scottish parliament for freedom to read, vi. 163

[Tyndale, Cromwell, Cranmer, and names of various versions]

Biderman, John [Blanchet]

Billik, Carmelite, papal delegate at Ratisbon, viii. 102

Bilney, Thomas, character and opinions of, iv. 77;

his preaching, 78;

friendship with Latimer, 78;

arrested, 79;

attempts of monks to convert him, 79;

his trial, 80;

condemned, 80;

his last evening, 81;

martyrdom, 82, 83, 93

Bishopers and Commoners, at Geneva, ii. 329, 350

Bishops, of England, their reply to petition of the Commons, iv. 13, 14;

the reply criticised, 15;

resist attack on their privileges, 17;

their subterfuge, 18;

alliance with the king against reformers, 72;

attempt to impose on lower clergy the payment promised to the king, 73 sqq.;

begin persecution of Lutherans, 77;

submit to the king, 89;

their oath at consecration, 89;

renounce orders of the pope prejudicial to the king, 90;

election of, regulated, 180;

declare the papacy a human invention, 181;

suspension of their jurisdiction, v. 83;

decline to answer German envoys, viii. 156;

find a compromise impossible, 180, 181;

protest against referring the translation of the Bible to the universities, 257

Bishops, government by, i. 284, 285;

arguments for temporal power, iii. 452

Bishops in Denmark, excluded from the Diet, vii. 220

'Bishop's Book,' the, viii. 261

Blancherose, physician, takes part in disputation at Lausanne, vi. 242, 245, 250, 253, 254

Blanchet, i. 69;

his adventures, 109;

imprisoned at Turin, 114;

his examination, 115;

tortured, 116, 121;

sentenced to death, 122;

beheaded, 123;

treatment of his remains, 123, 124;

agitation in Geneva, 124, 127, 182

Blois, Roussel and Lefèvre at, i. 363;

a 'placard' on the king's door, iii. 106

Bockhold [John of Leyden]

Bocking, Friar, instigates imposture of Maid of Kent, v. 8, 9;

before Star Chamber, 15

Bocquet, Christopher, preaches at Geneva, iii. 329;

again, 336, 353;

ordered to leave Geneva, 354

Boehmer, Edward, his researches on the brothers Valder, iv. 457 note, 467 note

Bohemia, the Reformation in, vii. 417;

the Calixtines, 417;

the Taborites, 417

Boiling to death, penalty for poisoning, iv. 68

Bois-le-Duc, martyrs at, vii. 537

Boisseau de la Borderie, Jean, iii. 46

Bologna, Conference of, ii. 142 sqq.;

another congress, iv. 22;

meeting of Clement VII. and Charles V., 126;

beginning of reformation at, 451;

address of evangelicals to John of Planitz, 452

Bologna, University of, appealed to by Henry VIII. on his divorce, iv. 40;

the judgment, 41

Boniface VIII., Pope, ii. 461

Boniface, Cardinal bishop of Ivrea, arrests Curione and his friends, iv. 416

Bonivard, Francis, his arrival at Geneva, i. 46;

birth and education, 46;

friendship with Berthelier, 47, 50, 57;

rejects proposal made to him to seize Levrier, 63, 64;

warns him, 64;

his character, 67;

fascinates Berthelier, 67;

their intercourse and aims, 67, 68;

his difference with the bishop, 72, 76, 80, 83, 96;

attempts to save Pécolat, 98;

resolves to 'bell the cat', 100;

gets inhibition of the metropolitan served on the bishop, 100;

his advice to Pécolat's friends, 103, 104;

goes to Rome, 117;

what he saw there, 118;

fails in his suit for bishopric, 120;

warned of danger at Turin, 121;

his flight, 121;

discouraged, 131, 134, 143, 151, 153;

his speech in chapter, 157;

his protest, 159;

pacifies the people threatening the canons, 160, 161, 168, 169;

escapes from Geneva, 173, 175;

betrayed, 185;

compelled to resign his priory, 186;

imprisoned by the duke, 186, 191, 199;

set at liberty, 211, 245, 255, 264;

his estimate of La Baume, 265;

restored to his priory, 314;

advocates expulsion of the prince-bishop, ii. 329, 334, 336;

detested by papal party, 348;

threatened with expulsion from his priory, 348;

his estimate of excommunication, 349;

reflections on state of Geneva, 352, 353;

his reply to proposal of Huguenots, 354;

his fief at Cartigny, 358;

maintains reciprocity of rights between prince and subject, 358;

obtains support of the council to his claim, 359;

takes possession of Cartigny, 360;

loses it, 360;

his expedition to recover it, 360;

his grass mown by Pontverre, 371;

among the Lutherans, 385;

his raids to recover his rents, 401;

fires at the papal proctor, 401;

illness of his mother, 402;

obtains safe-conduct to visit her, 403;

at Seyssel, 403;

slandered at Geneva, 403;

perplexity, 404;

safe-conduct extended, 405;

proposes to give up his priory, 405;

at Moudon, 406;

journey to Lausanne, 406;

kidnapped, 407;

imprisoned at Chillon, 408;

treatment, 408;

liberation of, demanded and refused, 432;

incidents of his confinement, v. 399;

orders given for his death, 400;

liberated, 401;

made free of city of Geneva, marries, 416;

a prediction fulfilled, 417, 418

Bonivard, Jean Aimé, prior of St. Victor, i. 46;

orders his culverins to be cast into church bells, 47;

his death, 47

Bonner, Edmund, envoy to Marseilles, iv. 168;

forces his way into the pope's palace, 169;

presents the king's appeal to a council, 170;

threatened by the pope, 173;

ambassador in France, viii. 177;

conveys to Cromwell the Bibles printed at Paris, 177;

appointed bishop of London, 202;

declares against Cromwell, 211;

his activity, 237;

assails Grafton, 238;

persecutes citizens of London, 238 sqq.;

admonitions to his diocese, 257

Borthwick, Sir John, cited before Cardinal Beatoun, escapes to England, vi. 127;

his property confiscated and his effigy burnt, 128;

withdraws from the court, 168

Bothniensis, Nicolaus, president of assembly at Upsala, vii. 340

Bothwell, Earl of, opens negotiations on the part of Scottish nobility with Northumberland, vi. 85;

withdraws from the court, 168;

sides with Beatoun, 169;

prohibits preaching of Wishart in Haddingtonshire, 194;

arrests him, 196;

gives him up to the regent, 197

Boulet, Bernard, treasurer of Geneva, i. 257;

assaulted by Richardet, 258;

his friends turn it to account, 259;

reports it to ducal council, 259;

appears at a general council, 260;

condemned, 285

Bourbon, Constable of, i. 325, 337

Bourges, University of, ii. 23;

centre of reformed doctrine, 24, 29;

declares for divorce of Henry VIII., iv. 40

Bouteville, Prior of, iii. 14, 17

Boxley, fraud of monks at, v. 89

Brandenburg, George, margrave of, vii. 392

Brask, bishop of Linkoping, resolves to suppress the Lutheran heresy, vii. 242, 243;

entreats the pope that Olaf may be sentenced to death, 244, 257;

his violence, 262;

remonstrates with Magnus, 263;

demands trial of the reformers, 263;

circulates books against them, 264;

his services to Sweden, 268;

letters to Gustavus, 268;

excommunicates Olaf, 268;

stirs up the people against him, 269;

censures the primate, 276;

attends diet of Westeraas, 282;

at secret meeting of the bishops, instigates opposition to reforms, 283;

gains Thure Joensson, 284;

his speech at the diet, 287;

deprived of his castle, 294, 295;

leaves Sweden, 295;

his death, 295

Brereton, William, arrested, v. 136;

examined, 148;

beheaded, 159

Briconnet, bishop of Meaux, i. 355, 366, 428; ii. 57; iii. 76

Brion, Denis, burnt, iv. 364

Brothers, enmities of, viii. 99;

love of, 119, 120

Brouwart, Jean de, i. 349

Brown, George, made archbishop of Dublin, v. 131

Bruccioli, translates New Testament into Italian, iv. 410

Bruly, Pierre, preaches at Ghent, vii. 546;

removes to Strasburg, 547

Brunswick, beginning of reformation at, viii. 319;

evangelical preaching decreed, 319;

organization by Pomeranus, 320

Brussels, the reformation at, vii. 565;

persecution, 568 sqq.

Bucer, reformer, his qualifications as peacemaker, ii. 62;

his confidence in Margaret, 63;

letter to Luther, 63, 88, 89, 183;

interview with William Du Bellay, 245;

mission of Chelius to, 263;

his proposals examined before Francis I., 264 sqq.; iii. 67;

his opinion of Servetus, 86, 150, 152, 153, 154;

with Calvin visits Erasmus, 156;

condemns divorce of Henry VIII., iv. 42, 349, 352, 353;

prepares to go to France, 361;

his works read in Italy, 408;

joint envoy to Henry VIII., v. 118;

proposes a conference with Calvin, vi. 275;

advocates union of Lutherans and Zwinglians, 324;

defended by Myconius and Grynæus at Basel, 325;

gets another synod held at Berne, 327;

with Capito goes to Berne, 327;

his views, 328;

agrees to Calvin's view of the sacrament, 329;

revises Megander's catechism, 366;

attends synod of Zürich, 422;

invites Calvin to Strasburg, 445;

acquaintance with Juan Diaz, viii. 101;

delegate to conference of Ratisbon, 102;

writes to Cranmer, 147, 187

Buchanan, George, sent to Paris, vi. 16;

his epitaph on Madeleine of Valois, 108;

account of him, 118;

imprisoned, 119;

escapes to France, 119

Buckmaster, Dr., vice-chancellor of Cambridge University, iv. 29, 30, 31, 37;

presents the sentence on the divorce to the king, 37;

conference with the king, 38

Budaeus, William, ii. 9;

one of the judges on trial of Berquin, 36;

tries to save him, 38 sqq., 40, 50, 65, 140;

present at torture of De la Croix, 242; iv. 393

Budé, Matthew, goes with Juan Diaz to Geneva, viii. 101

Bugenhagen [Pomeranus]

Bullinger, iv. 353; vi. 323; vii. 23; viii. 144, 145;

dedicates works to Henry VIII., 146, 147

Bulls, papal, proclamation of Henry VIII. against, iv. 44

Burgos, viii. 38, 41

Burgundians, at Geneva, i. 9;

compilation of code, i. 9;

first and second kingdoms of the, 9

Burgundy, Marshal of, takes part with Savoy in advance on Geneva, iv. 310, 315

Burrey, Denis, governor to Erick, son of Gustavus Vasa, vii. 325, 326;

goes in search of Erick and is slain by his order, 329

Bursinel, meeting of knights at, Order of the Spoon instituted, ii. 355

Butler, John, writes to Bullinger, viii. 198

[Students, English]

Cadan, peace of, ii. 255; iv. 373

Cadena, Louis of, opposes scholasticism, viii. 16;

his exile, 17

Cajetan, Cardinal, sent into Hungary, vii. 351

Calcagnini, Celio, iv. 427

Calixtines, the, in Bohemia, vii. 417;

correspond with Luther, 418, 421;

the majority adopt his views, 421

Calmar, blockaded by the Danes, vii. 246

Calmar, Union of, vii. 121;

violated by Sweden, 128;

dissolved, 257

Calvi, bookseller of Pavia, circulates the works of the reformers, iv. 407, 408

Calvin, i. 2, 4;

distinction between his reformation and that of Luther, 4;

his influence on politics, 4;

his disciples in foreign countries, 5;

founder of American republic, 5;

the charge of despotism against him, 5;

his plea for Servetus, 6;

his work, 68, 317;

his great idea, 319;

the complete reformer, 321;

his origin, 322;

compared with Margaret of Angoulême, 323 sqq.;

enters college of La Marche, 381;

influence of Mathurin Cordier on him, 382, 383;

removes to Montaigu College, 384;

a Spanish professor, 385;

classical studies, 385;

his moral and devout character, 386;

a strict Romanist, 386;

a hard student, 386;

has a benefice, visits Noyon, 387;

first breath of the new Gospel, 387;

friendship with Olivétan, 388;

chronology of his student life obscure, 388;

intercourse with Olivétan, 389;

resists Olivétan's innovations in religion, 389;

secret struggles, 390;

alarm of his teachers, 390;

confession to the priest, 391;

distress of mind, 391;

conversion, 394;

reverence for church authority, 396;

investigates claims of the pope of Rome, 397;

longing for unity with truth, 398;

results of his conversion, 398;

its date, 399;

shyness and reserve, 400;

his father's grief and plan, 400, 401;

consents to study law, 401, 404

—, goes to Orleans, ii. 1;

enters household of Duchemin, 2;

falls under influence of L'Etoile, 3, 4, 5;

proctor of the Picard nation, 6;

demands the maille de Florence at Beaugency, 6;

a close student, 7;

visits house of F. Daniel, 8;

acquaintance with Wolmar begins, 9;

studies Greek, 10;

his fellowship with Wolmar, 11;

inward struggles, 11;

accused of schism, 12;

sympathy with the Psalmist, 12;

phases of his conversion, 14;

renunciation of the world, 15;

his motto, 16;

his great qualities recognized, 16;

study of the Bible and of the law, 17;

sought as a teacher, 17;

teaches in families, 18;

called to Noyon, 20;

his father's illness, 20 sqq.;

his first extant letter, 21;

first meeting with Beza, 22;

goes to Bourges, 23;

reads works of Luther and Melanchthon, 24;

Wolmar's appeal to him, 25;

hesitation, 25;

preaches, 27;

intrigues of priest, 28;

again called to Noyon, his father's death, 29, 47, 48;

curé of Pont l'Evêque, 49;

preaches, 49;

goes to Paris, 50, 51;

his visitors, 51 sqq.;

visit to a nunnery, 52;

social habits, 54;

renounces the law, 54;

speaks at secret meetings, 55;

his extensive correspondence, 56;

returns to Paris, 58;

observant of the Sorbonne, 60;

works in obscurity, 61;

his activity, 87;

rejects Daniel's proposal of office in Roman church, 84;

his commentary on Seneca, 85;

publishes it, 86;

form of his name, 86;

makes his book known, 87;

a search for Bibles, 87;

interview with a young 'Frondeur', 89;

writes to Bucer, 89;

intercourse with La Forge, 90;

with Tillet, 91;

abstinence, 92;

first intercourse with Margaret of Navarre, 93;

declines to enter her service, 93;

quoted, 123;

preaches at Paris, 138, 176, 178, 183, 184;

his labors at Paris, 198;

writes address for Cop to deliver, 199;

the address, 199;

his idea of a universal church, 202;

in favor with Margaret, 205;

interview with her, 205;

his arrest ordered by the parliament, 209;

escapes, 210;

recognized on his way, 211;

in concealment, 212, 262;

his narrative of conversion of the provostess of Orléans, 272 sqq.

—, flight, iii. 4;

received by Du Tillet, 6;

his Doxopolis, 8;

his studies, 9;

sketches his Christian Institutes, 10;

combats materialism, 12;

love of nature, 13;

teaches Greek, 14;

visits prior of Bouteville, 15;

conferences, 16;

sermons, 18;

preaches in Latin, 18;

visits Roussel, 22;

visits Lefèvre, 23;

goes to Poitiers, 44;

attends disputations at the university, 45;

his friends, 47;

his teaching, 47;

visits the lieutenant-general, 48;

in the garden, 48;

his grotto, 51;

view of the mass, 52, 53;

sends evangelists into France, 58;

care for the young, 60;

leaves Poitiers, 64;

renunciation of Roman orders, 64, 65;

goes to Paris, 66;

saddened, 77;

first contact with the Spirituals, 78;

attacks them, 81, 82;

encounters Servetus, 86;

agrees to conference with him, 87;

Servetus absents himself, 87;

first theological work, Psychopannychia, 88;

his bitterness, 89;

leaves Paris, 91;

reaches Strasburg, 91;

comments on procession of relics, 127 sqq.;

his mission, 149;

received by Zell, 150;

friendships, 153;

his estimate of Strasburg reformers, 153;

meets Erasmus at Friburg, 156;

goes to Basel, 157;

received by Catherine Klein, 157;

silent growth, 159;

friendships, 160;

his book on Immortality criticised, 161;

translation of New Testament, 162;

hears of persecution at Paris, 163;

his plea for compassion, 163;

effect of the martyrdoms on him, 169;

resolves to publish his Institutes, 170;

goes to the fountain head, 171;

account of the Institutes, 172, 180;

letter to the king, 182;

publication of the Institutes, 191;

starts for Italy, 192;

his object, 193;

agreement of Luther and Calvin, 368;

in preparation for Geneva, 458

—, his influence in England, iv. 2;

condemns divorce of Henry VIII., 42;

his place in the Reformation, 208;

protests against union with popery, 353;

writes to Francis I., 383;

welcomes Caraccioli at Geneva, 464;

expected at Ferrara, 489

—, expected at Ferrara, v. 421;

arrives at Ferrara, 421;

his interviews with the duchess, 422, 423;

preaches, 426;

his portrait painted by Titian, 431;

intercourse with Master François, 431 sqq.;

his letter to Duchemin, 436, 437;

writes to Roussel, 439 sqq.;

his influence in Italy, 441;

arrested by the Inquisition, 444;

rescued, 445;

his wanderings, 446;

reaches Aosta, 447, 451;

'Calvin's farm', 452, 453;

monuments of his flight, 454;

returns to France, 455;

at Noyon, 455;

arrives at Geneva, 456;

meeting with Farel, 458;

consents to stay at Geneva, 462;

visits Basel, 463;

his vocation as reformer, 464;

his concession to the state, 465;

his place in history, 466 sqq.;

mention of him in a council minute, 469

—, his arrival at Geneva, vi. 221;

refuses any official charge, 222;

reader in holy Scripture, 222;

character of his teaching, 223;

his view of church discipline, 225;

retained by advice of the council, 228;

goes with Farel to Lausanne, 228, 236;

his speeches at the disputation, 247, 255;

begins to take part in church government, 273;

his work compared with Luther's and Zwingli's, 275;

elected pastor at Geneva, 276;

biographies of him, 276 note;

prepares a catechism, 280, 281;

and a confession of faith, 282;

his memoir on order in the church, 285 sqq.;

requires that all should profess the reformed faith, 292;

encounters the Spirituals, 299 sqq.;

intervenes between Viret and Caroli at Lausanne, 300, 307;

accused of Arianism by Caroli, 308;

his reply, 309;

avoids use of the term 'Trinity', 310;

writes to Megander, 312;

goes to Berne, urges assembly of a synod, 312;

at synod of Lausanne, 313;

unmasks Caroli, 315;

his confession on the Trinity, 315;

his views of the early creeds, 317;

confronts Caroli at synod of Berne, 320;

his speech at another synod, lays the storm between Zwinglians and Lutherans, 331, 332;

gains support of the civil power in church affairs, 333;

pleads for the hospitals and the schools, 334;

proposes compulsory swearing to the confession of faith, 337;

at the council, 347;

goes to Berne, vindicates himself and the reformers, 348;

applies to the council for their support, 350;

proposes to the council to exclude the disturbers from the Lord's Supper, 352;

difference with Du Tillet, 356;

blames the proceedings of the government and is warned to let it alone, 364;

writes to Bucer, 370;

excluded by Berne from colloquies of the Vaudois, 372;

sent with Farel and Jean Philippe to synod of Lausanne, 373;

has conference with Bernese delegates, 375;

before the council, 377, 378;

protests against imprisonment of Courault, 383;

refuses to accept order for adoption of Bernese usages, and is forbidden to preach, 386;

his perplexity, 389, 390;

with Farel declines to administer the supper, 392;

his embarrassment, 392, 393;

preaches, 398, 399;

a disturbance in the church, 401;

banished, 403;

is refused a hearing by the council, 405;

sentence of the general council, 406;

his reflections, 408;

leaves Geneva, 409;

goes to Berne, 416;

with Farel complains to the council, 416, 417;

at synod of Zürich, 421 sqq.;

his demands, 422;

returns to Berne, 426;

interview with Kunz, 427;

before the senate, 429;

reconducted to Geneva by Bernese, 431;

banished by vote of general council, 439;

at Berne, 441;

at Basel, 442;

at Strasburg, 445;

returns to Basel, 446;

settles at Strasburg, 447;

his letter to the Genevese, 453;

his position at Strasburg, 456, 457, 458;

pastor and teacher, 459, 460;

his view of the Lord's Supper, 461;

his poverty, 462;

at Frankfort, 473;

meets Melanchthon, 474 sqq.;

replies to Sadoleto, 487 sqq.;

intercourse with Caroli, 498;

refuses to return to Geneva, 504;

household troubles, 504;

marriage projects, 505, 506;

Idelette de Bure, 508;

married, 509;

difference between wives of Luther and Calvin, 510;

attends assembly at Hagenau, 511;

fruits of exile, 526

—, his recall desired, vii. 3;

letter to his friends, 3, 4, 5;

his perplexity, 6, 9, 10;

deputy to conference at Worms, 7;

receives letter of recall, 8;

his reply to Geneva, 10, 11;

meets Melanchthon and Cruciger at Worms, 15;

friendship with Melanchthon, 15 sqq.;

his Song of Victory, 19;

deputy to diet of Ratisbon, 21;

letter to Bernard, 21;

loses his friend Feray, 23;

his estimate of Contarini, 25;

his part at Ratisbon, 26;

his reply to manifesto of the papacy, 27-36;

resists concessions made by the Protestants, 37;

writes against reference to a council, 38;

his moderation, 39;

complains of the princes, 40;

leaves Ratisbon, 41;

at Strasburg, 42;

edict of expulsion revoked, 43;

writes to Farel, 47;

leaves Strasburg, 48;

visits Farel at Neuchâtel, 49;

returns to Geneva, 51;

his house there, 52, 53;

benefit of his Strasburg life, 53;

before the council, 54, 55;

colleagues appointed to draw up with him articles of a constitution of a church, 55, 56;

his project of the ordinances, 60;

his desire for frequent communion, 74;

limits of his responsibility for ecclesiastical ordinances, 80, 81;

his active duties, 82;

his preaching, 82;

his method, 83;

his sermon to young men, 86;

on fitful devotion, 87;

on self-love, 88;

on grace unbounded, 90;

on predestination, 92;

his impartiality, 103;

efforts for peace, 104;

gentleness and strength, 105;

loses his friend Porral, 110;

illness of his wife, 110;

reconciles Pierre Tissot and his mother, 112, 113;

his place in the Reformation, 115 sqq.;

his doctrines moderate, 117;

compared with Zwinglius, 117;

his desire for union, 118

—, correspondence with Enzinas, viii. 98;

visited by English students, 144;

his view of the Six Articles, 189

Cambray, treaty of, ii. 61

Cambray, bishop of, his cruelties, iii. 437

Cambridge, University of, appealed to by Henry VIII. on his divorce, iv. 30;

meeting of the doctors, &c., 30;

a committee appointed, 31;

sentence, 32;

disowns primacy of the pope, v. 20

Camillo, Giulio, invited to Paris by Francis I., iii. 74

Campbell, Alexander, prior of the Dominicans, his interviews with Patrick Hamilton, vi. 52;

reports them to Beatoun, 53;

accuses him on his trial, 62;

insults him at the stake, 67;

dies mad, 68

Campbell, John, of Cessnock, protects Lollards, vi. 6;

denounced by monks, 7;

acquitted by James IV., 8

Campeggio, papal legate, ii. 144;

deprived of See of Salisbury, iv. 180;

at diet of Nürnberg, 410, 411;

reclaims see of Salisbury, v. 173

Canaye, Jacques, iii. 75

Canirmius, Frederick, vii. 500

Canons, i. 157;

conspiracy of, at Geneva, 311;

imprisoned, ii. 326;

liberated, 331;

quit Geneva, 332

Canterbury, visitation of, v. 85, 86;

state of the monasteries, 86, 87

Capito, i. 361, 380; ii. 246; iii. 150, 153, 154, 244;

writes to Calvin, vi. 275;

at synod of Berne, 329;

agrees to Calvin's view of the sacrament, 332;

attends synod of Zürich, 421;

approves the course taken by Farel and Calvin, 424, 425;

his distress, 464;

dedicates a book to Henry VIII., viii. 147

Cappel, battle of, ii. 256, 442;

announced at Geneva, 444; iii. 166

Caraccioli, Galeazzo, iv. 464;

friendship with Caserta, 464;

converted, goes to Geneva, 464;

made cardinal, v. 64

Caraffa, Giovanni Pietro, Cardinal, iv. 476, 479, 482;

made cardinal, 487; viii. 149

Cardinals, college of, refuses consent to papal gift of Geneva to Savoy, i. 52;

hats asked for by Charles V., Francis I., and Henry VIII., ii. 162

Carlstadt, invited by Christian II., goes to Denmark, vii. 133;

offends by his violent speech and is dismissed, 135, 136

Carmentrant, a creature of the Bastard of Savoy, i. 71, 72, 112

Carne, Sir E., envoy with Revett to the pope, v. 3, 4;

interview with Du Bellay at Bologna, 4;

too late, 5

Carnesecchi, Pietro, among friends of Valdez, iv. 473;

character and career of, 473;

his power under Clement VII., 474;

goes to Naples, has interview with Charles V., 473;

religious decision, 476, 477, 479, 480

Caroli, Peter, escapes to Switzerland, iii. 123;

accounts of, v. 259;

Farel's interview with him, 261;

offers himself as umpire at a disputation, 262;

takes part in disputation, 266 sqq.;

at disputation of Lausanne, vi. 243 sqq.;

made first pastor of Lausanne by the Bernese, 265;

his career and character, 303, 304;

between Rome and the Gospel, 304;

quarrels with Viret, 305;

condemned to made a retractation, 307;

but is spared, 307;

his ambition, 307;

accuses Calvin and others of Arianism, 308;

retracts the charge, 311;

unmasked and condemned at synod of Lausanne, 314, 318;

appeals to Berne, 318;

agitation caused by the debates, 319, 320;

at synod of Berne, exposed by Farel, 321, 322;

deprived of his functions and banished, 322;

his flight, 322;

turns to the reformers, 498;

at Strasburg, 498;

goes to Metz, 499;

his death, 499

Carranza, Bartholomeus, birth and early life of, viii. 112, 113;

denounced to the Inquisition, 113;

promotions, 113;

his influence at Valladolid, 113;

his almost evangelical teachings, 113;

fervor of his preaching, 118;

preaches before Philip II., in London, 118;

assertion of evangelical faith, 120;

elected primate of Spain, 120;

his last years, 120;

preaches at the burning of San Romano, 123

Cartelier, Francis, i. 41, 150, 168;

gives signal for entry of Savoyards into Geneva, 171, 176, 181, 300;

character, ii. 308;

condemnation, 308;

pardoned by the bishop, 309

Carthusians, of London, refuse to take oath of succession, v. 47;

take it, 48;

commanded by the king to reject papal authority, 59;

their resolution, 59;

a general confession, 60;

again commanded to acknowledge royal supremacy, 60;

three priors sent to the Tower, 61;

and found guilty of high treason and executed, 62, 63

Casale, Da, agent of Henry VIII. at papal court, v. 64, 77;

informs the pope of divorce of Queen Anne, 161, 172

Caserta, Giovanni Francesco, iv. 464

Cassander, George, account of, viii. 40, 41

Cassilis, Kennedy, Earl of, taken prisoner by the English, vi. 146;

liberated and sent to Scotland by Henry VIII., 157;

on failure of Henry's scheme, returns to captivity, 171;

released with his brothers, 171;

a friend of Wishart, 192

Catherine of Aragon, Queen of Henry VIII., iv. 26;

refuses arbitration, 67;

leaves Windsor, 71;

writes to the pope, 87;

refuses to appear before Cranmer at Dunstable, 133;

her firmness, 133;

the divorce pronounced, 134;

her cause and fate compared with Anne's, 137, 138;

joins in conspiracy against Henry VIII., v. 13;

her firmness, 19;

her marriage declared null and her child illegitimate, 19;

writes to Mary, 111;

refuses to renounce title of Queen, 111, 112;

austerities, 112;

illness, letter to the king, 114;

her death, 115

Catherine de' Medici, i. 363;

marriage of, with Henry duke of Orleans, proposed by Francis I. ii. 149;

what she brought to France, 150;

intrigues around her, 152;

full powers sent by Francis for concluding the contract, 155;

escorted to Nice by French fleet, 189;

the marriage celebrated at Marseilles, 195;

in her train, Death, 195;

and corruption, 196, 215; iii. 49;

opposes plans of Francis I., iv. 355

Caturce, Jean de, studies New Testament, ii. 78;

at Twelfth Night Supper at Limoux, 78, 79;

arrested, 79;

condemned to be burnt, 81;

his degradation, 80;

a Dominican preacher confounded, 81;

burnt, 81

Cauvin, Gerard, i. 387, 400; ii. 20 sqq., 29, 48

— Anthony, ii. 48, 49

— Mary, ii. 48

Cazalla, Augustine, attends lectures of Carranza, viii. 115;

his mother, 115;

preacher to Charles V., accompanies him to Germany, 115

Celibacy of the clergy, iv. 115

Chablais, Provena de, summons Geneva to receive duke Charles III., i. 165;

declares war, 166

Chabot, put to the torture, iv. 325

Chabot, Philippe de, ii. 184

Chaillon, Anthony de [Bouteville]

Chamois, François, at Geneva, demands withdrawal of Calvin's 'Confession,' vi. 484

Champion, Anthony, bishop of Geneva, i. 26;

his attempt to reform the clergy, 27

Chapeaurouge, Etienne de, syndic of Geneva, i. 292;

endeavors to stop the fight in the Molard, iii. 418;

appointed syndic, iv. 242;

again, v. 394;

refuses to swear to the Confession, vi. 340;

at the general council, 343;

elected syndic, 361;

one of the delegates to Berne, 512;

signs a treaty, 513;

again sent to Berne, 514;

arrested, liberated on bail, 516;

his flight, 518;

sentenced to death, 519

Chappuis, Eustace, i. 91;

employed to make a breach between the Swiss and the Genevese, 91;

at Friburg, 92;

Savoyard ambassador to Swiss Diet, 153, 200;

Imperial ambassador to England, iv. 22

Chappuis, Dominican, intrigues for duke of Savoy, ii. 369, 370;

banished from Geneva, 370, 371;

takes part in great disputation, and is ordered to leave Geneva, v. 265

Charlemagne, at Geneva, i. 11, 12;

characteristics of his age, vi. 317

Charles V., i. 9, 91, 218, 234, 266;

receives news of battle of Pavia, 324;

his projects, 324;

proposes dismemberment of France, 325;

receives Margaret of Valois, 328;

unmoved by her appeals, 329;

proposes to imprison her, 336;

Notes in this chapter

Note 11 · 'My Lord Chancellor and Master Rich took pains to rack me in their own hands, till I was nigh dead.' Bale's Works, p. 224. Fox, Acts, v. p. Note 1 · 'In lapides aliquoties dentes acuisse referuntur, sperantes juxta regis vaticinium illos conversos iri in panem.'—Gerdesius, iii. p. 154.Note 2 · 'Cum trium liberorum mater facta esset, eos omnes occiderit, sale condierit et comederit.... Infantium manus ac pedes, urbe capta, in salsam Note 3 · Hortens. in Ep. ad Erasmum, p. 152. Kersenbroik, in Bello Monast. p. 59. Gerdesius, iii. p. 104. Ranke, iii. p. 555. Raeumer, Geschichte Eur Note 4 · Brandt, Reform. i. p. 51.Note 5 · 'A milite transfuga episcopo ... via indicata ... capiendi civitatem.'—Gerdesius, iii. p. 104.Note 6 · 'Rex vero latitans in turri quadam.'—Cochlæus, p. 255.Note 7 · 'Huc, illuc, ad principes ducebantur spectaculi et ludibrii causa.'—Gerdesius, iii. p. 105.Note 8 · 'Supplicio ultimo candentibus forcipibus distracti decesserunt.'—Sleidan, lib. x. p. 166. Heresbach, Epist. ad Erasmum, Corvinus. Gerdesius,Note 9 · 'Parum curo. Satan furit sed stat Scriptura.'—Luther, Epp. iv. p. 548.Note 10 · 'Si qui improvide commiscerent ea quæ toto tamen cœlo distabant, Evangelii purioris professionem cum violentis illis Ecclesiarum et Rerumpub Note 11 · 'Deplorabo quoad vixero.'—Ubbonis Confessio, in Gerdesius, iii. p. 113.Note 12 · Psalm lxviii. 20.Note 13 · John viii. 51.Note 14 · See Note, p. 361.Note 15 · This name has first been written Keschel—altered to Kessel.Note 16 · Pius II. died in 1464.Note 17 · 'Gaspar Veronensis, p. 1038, 1043.'Note 18 · 'Diese Aufforderung nimmt sich in der Gründonnerstagsbulle v. 7 April, 1463, bei Raynaldus, 1463, n. 84 etwas wunderlich neben den Flüchen a Note 19 · 'Die ausführlichste Nachricht giebt Pius, Comment. p. 185, 186, einige werthvolle Notizen Niccolo della Tuccia, Cronaca, etc. ed. Orioli. Ro