Chapter IV · (continued 2)

It was on the basis of the Christian tradition that science first attempted to treat history, not as the history of a single people or, at best, as a number of histories of successive or contemporaneous races and States, but as true world history. At the outset, world history was objective in character. The underlying thought was that the whole of mankind was controlled by a single idea which governed all events, and that the task of humanity consisted in carrying this idea into realization. Augustine's Civitas Dei was the first attempt at a world history based on the idea of the religious vocation of mankind. That this exposition is limited to the legendary history of the Israelitic people, supplemented by the history of Jesus as transmitted in the Gospels, and by the Apocalyptic prophecies of a future world, should not cause surprise. The limitation is due to the fact that the idea of humanity is considered solely from the religious point of view. The Church, as the institution about which religion centres, is glorified by Augustine's work as the divine State. The adoption of this religious viewpoint causes the history of mankind to appear as record, not of human experiences that come as a result of human striving and activity, but of events that are from the very beginning divinely foreordained.

Nevertheless, Augustine's remarkable work long continued to determine the general direction of conceptions relating to the history of mankind. Up to the eighteenth century, religious development was regarded as establishing the only connection between the various periods of history. The sole exception to this occurred in the case of Giambattista Vico. In his New Science (1725), Vico sought to combine the development of language and of jurisprudence with that of religion. True, the question regarding the origin of the State and the causes of changes in constitutions had concerned men from the time of the early Sophists on. Particularly during the Hellenistic period and at the time of the Renaissance, such inquiries were of focal interest, as a result of the great political changes that were then taking place. Yet, whenever the underlying laws of such changes were sought, it was the single State that formed the basis of investigation; by comparing its vicissitudes with those of other States, the attempt was made to arrive at a general law along some such line as the Aristotelian classification of States into monarchies, aristocracies, democracies, etc. There was hardly ever a suggestion that the historical sequence of civilizations and of States was a connected process intelligible in causal or teleological terms. Religion alone was conceived as a phenomenon which was, on the one hand, independent of the limits of a single people, and yet, on the other, subject, in its development, to law. The idea that Christianity was destined to be a world religion, together with the fact that it had originated historically and had spread widely, did not admit of any other interpretation. Within this Christian circle of ideas, moreover, the historical development and growth of religion were, quite naturally, brought into connection with the world beyond, in which the development was thought to await its completion. The religious philosophy of history thus terminated in a prophecy whose culmination was the final triumph of Christianity. The Age of Enlightenment, after effecting a unification of Christianity with the religion of reason, again made the world of historical experience the scene of triumph. This triumph was held to consist in the ultimate development of Christianity into a religion of reason—a conception in which the idea of the destiny of Christianity to become a world religion undergoes a philosophical transformation which recurs even in the writings of Kant.

Apart from this transformation, which was only partially complete even in the Age of Enlightenment, the idea of religious development that grew up in connection with Christian thought involves two presuppositions. The first of these is that the pathway of mankind was determined by God, and not voluntarily chosen by man himself. It is not to religious thought that the characteristic features of the development must be ascribed. The development, moreover, is not immanent in religion; it is the result of external causes. The second presupposition is that this development follows a preconceived plan; it embodies a purpose—indeed, it expresses purpose in the very highest degree precisely because it proceeds from the will of God. Even the co-operation of individuals in the fulfilment of this plan is but the result of divine predetermination, or happens because God has made known His purposes to these individuals. Thus, this course of thought leads with inner necessity to the conception of revelation. This conception combines two essentially irreconcilable ideas, offsetting each by the other. The religious destiny of man is thought to lie outside his own control: it is imposed upon him from without, and is communicated to him in the form of an illumination which he receives from the supersensuous world. Thus, religious development itself becomes a supersensuous process, which falls beyond the possibilities of the ordinary means of human knowledge. As its goal lies in the supersensuous, so also is the development itself a supersensuous process that extends over into the world of sense.

But at this point the religious view of world history necessarily came into sharp conflict with the philosophical view, though the latter had in certain respects appropriated the idea, developed by the former, of a teleological direction of human destinies. The philosopher, always trusting the guidance of his own reason, might admit both a goal and a plan, but that these should be inaccessible to the lux naturalis, as the philosophy of the Enlightenment called rational knowledge in distinction from lux supranaturalis, or revelation, he could not concede. The logical outcome of this course of thought was an auxiliary concept which appeared to surmount the difficulty, and also possessed the happy characteristic of leaving every one free to retain, along with the natural light, as much or as little of the supernatural thought of an earlier period as he might deem wise. This auxiliary concept was that of education—a conception that would readily suggest itself to an age vitally interested in pedagogical questions. The thought here involved represents merely a special application to this particular instance of the idea that the world is governed by a personal deity. Thus it came about that, from the time of Locke and Leibniz down to that of Lessing and Herder, the favourite conception of history was that of an education of mankind. But it is significant that the very work whose title incorporates this idea, Lessing's Education of the Human Race, really ends by displacing it. True, as a result of Biblical tradition, the idea of education is here brought into connection with the thought that the Jewish race is the chosen people of God. Freed from this connection, however, and applied to mankind in general, the idea of education, in Lessing's work, becomes that of self-education, or, what is the same thing, that of a development determined by the general laws of mental life. Hence conditions were ripe for the further advance made by Herder, in his Ideas on the Philosophy of the History of Mankind. Though frequently lapsing, in his discussions of details, into the transcendent teleology of the preceding period, Herder nevertheless did away in principle with the restriction of the history of mankind to religious development, substituting for the latter the development to humanity.

Thus was determined the programme which historical science, at about the same time, accepted as its own—the programme of a universal history, whose task did not consist in presenting a loosely connected series of the histories of separate States, but in describing the common participation of peoples and States in the development of a universal culture. Furthermore, the way was cleared for the philosophical position that history is not, as was once thought, the expression of a predetermined plan whose purpose is that of a divine education, but that it is the result of laws immanent in historical life itself. Though variously expressed and partly obscured by surviving ideas of the preceding period, this is the fundamental conviction common to the nineteenth-century philosophers of history. It received its most complete expression in the writings of Hegel, not merely in his Lectures on the Philosophy of History, but in his entire philosophy, which reflects throughout a broad historical outlook. History had by this time come to be regarded as a strictly self-dependent development of ideas in which each advance proceeds with rigid logical necessity from that which went before. In other words, it was thought of as a development of reason in time, or, in the phraseology of a religious world-view, as the living development of God himself. God is no longer conceived as a transmundane being who guides the destinies of mankind according to a preconceived plan. On the contrary, He is represented as immanent in the world. His innermost nature is described as the world-reason, and this is said to be unfolded particularly in the history of mankind.

However superior this conception may be to the preceding semi-mythological and semi-rationalistic theory of a divine education, it is clearly apparent that it was the outcome of a continuous development, characterized, we may doubtless say, by strict logical necessity. Antecedent to it were, first, the conception that this world is a preparation for the kingdom of God, and, later, the thought that life is an education in accordance with a predetermined plan. That the Hegelian conception is the result of such a development is evident from the very fact that it continues to regard the destinies of mankind as guided by a plan. This plan has, from stage to stage, merely passed from transcendence to immanence, inasmuch as it is finally thought to be present to the mind of the philosopher who interprets the meaning of history. Hence this later philosophy of history resembles the earlier in still another respect. Ultimately, both are more concerned with the future than with the past, thus being at once history and prophecy. Even at the later period, the central question to whose answer everything else is preparatory concerns the final goal toward which mankind is striving. Hence it is that the philosophers of this age are led time and again to divide the total life of humanity into periods inclusive of past, present, and future, precisely as did the world-plan of Augustine, whose basal conception was the idea of redemption. Since these periods are not derived from the progress of events, but are for the most part imposed upon it in conformity to the dictates of logic, the course of history is mapped out by reference to logical categories. Each of the great cultural peoples is portrayed as representing a specific idea, and, disregarding everything that might disturb their sequence, these ideas are arranged in a logical series. Thus, Hegel begins his reconstruction of history with an account of the Chinese as the people who possessed the earliest civilization. He does so, however, not because Chinese culture was as a matter of fact the earliest, but because it has apparently been more stable than other cultures, as well as more closely bound up with rigid external forms. Correspondingly, all succeeding stages of history are arranged by Hegel according to the principle, on the one hand, of a progress from bondage to spiritual freedom, and, on the other, of a transition from finite limitation to a striving for the infinite. This philosophy of history should not be criticized for its lack of knowledge concerning the beginnings of culture. Its fundamental error lies in the fact that, in tracing the development of mankind, it is guided, not by the rich concrete actuality of events but by a logical schematism which is in large measure imposed upon history, and only to a far less degree abstracted from it. That which was once a plan prescribed by God for mankind here at length becomes a plan elaborated by philosophers.

Without question, therefore, a philosophy of history must henceforth adopt a different course. True, it cannot dispense with principles that are in a certain sense external to history itself. Yet the function of such a philosophy would appear to consist in considering historical life from the point of view of the purposes that come to realization within it, and of the values that are created on the various levels of historical culture. Such a teleology of history—indeed, in the last analysis, every teleology—must be preceded by a causal investigation, which begins, here as everywhere, by entirely ignoring purposes and values. Now, history is really an account of mental life. As such, it gives consideration to physical factors only in so far as they furnish the indispensable basis of mind. Hence the direct approach to a philosophy of history which aims, not to acquire a knowledge of reality from a priori concepts but, conversely, to derive ideas from reality, is a psychological account of the development of mankind. Although the concrete significance of the particular, as such, precludes the historian from disregarding it, everything that is merely particular should be ignored by one who is giving a psychological account of events. The aim, in this latter case, should be that of discovering the determining motives of historical life and its changes, and of interpreting these by reference to the universal laws of mind. Supplementing this aim should be the endeavour to gain, so far as possible, an insight into the laws that are immanent in history itself. Our first three chapters have attempted to give an account of the development of folk consciousness during the periods that, for the most part, preceded self-conscious historical life. But neither this account nor the bare outline which our final chapter gives of the beginnings of the development to humanity must pretend to be a substitute for, or in any way to represent, a philosophy of history. The difference between an investigation such as ours and a philosophy of history is precisely the same as that which distinguishes a psychological description of mental life in general from a philosophical interpretation. But, if anywhere, it is especially in the field of history that a psychological analysis, concerned primarily to understand life in its actual occurrence, must precede questions regarding the meaning of events and the value which individual historical characters possess as respects both themselves and their permanent influence. In other words, we may henceforth demand that any philosophy of history which seeks to contribute to our understanding of the questions just mentioned, should be based on a psychological account of the development of mankind.

The point that we would emphasize is not that the philosophy of history has failed, in the past centuries, to find a satisfactory solution of its problem, and that its failure was inevitable. To the historical mind there is a far more important consideration. This consists in the fact that, when freed from its original mythological and teleological connections, the general conception of a history of mankind developed during these centuries has given clear definition to the idea of humanity in its most universal form. Humanity, it has been shown, includes within itself all antecedent social phenomena—peoples and States, religion and culture. This entire social complex has been subsumed under the principle that law is immanent in all history.

INDEX

Prepared by Dr. Alma de Vries Schaub on the basis of the German Index compiled by Dr. Hans Lindau.

Abraham,45, 154, 355, 361, 384, 435; and Isaac, 435 Adornment, 21, 86, 100, 105, 110, 120, 131, 449 ff. Adventure, Märchen of, 279 f., 395 Æsculapius, 439 Agamy, 36, 169, 181 Age, of the development to humanity, 470 ff.; of heroes and gods, 281 ff.; of personalities, 320; of primitive man, 11 ff.; the totemic, 116 ff. Age-groups, 41, 51, 131 Agricultural ceremonies, 135 Agriculture, 126 f., 140, 486; Animals in, 120 f., 124 Alexandrianism, 490 Allegories, 421 ff. Amulets, 86, 227 ff., 292, 439, 451 Anabaptists, 444 Ancestor, Animal, 117, 132 f., 204, 230 ff.; Demon, 467; Human, 204, 214, 230 ff.; Totem, 186 Ancestor cults, 205, 230 ff. Ancestor theory, 361 f. Ancestor worship, 117, 186 f., 204, 214, 410, 480 Ancestral spirits, 419 Animals, Breeding of, 120, 289 ff., 420; Domestic, 120, 289 ff., 420; Sacred, 121; Soul, 83, 190 ff., 214, 368, 412 f.; Totem, 117 ff., 131 ff., 143, 188 ff., 193, 200, 260, 412 f.; Transformations into, 133, 272 ff., 412 f. Animal cult, 117, 136 Animal dance, 464 Animal fable, 272 Animal mask, 95, 105, 135 Animal names, 187 f. Animal sacrifice, 210 f., 433 f. Animal totem, 117, 138 f., 186, 214 Animism, 139, 193, 204 f. Anthropology, Prehistoric, 14 f. Anthropophagy, 31, 209 f. Arbitrator, 331 Architecture, 261, 451 ff. Art, 94 ff., 104, 256 ff., 322, 448 ff., 490; Formative, 100 ff., 256 f.; Imitative, 107 f.; Memorial, 23 f., 107 f.; Miniature, 453; Musical, 262 ff., 456 ff. Aristotle, 12 f., 19, 350, 504, 517 Asceticism, 198 Augustine, 516, 521 Aversion, 194 Awe, 194 Bachofen, J.,, 34 ff. Baptism, 444 f. Barter, 168; Secret, 10, 21, 31 ff., 55, 120; Marriage by, 157 Beyond, Belief in a, 394 ff., 412, 420 f., 423 ff., 431, 495, 502 Blessedness, 396, 403 f., 406 Blood, Relation of soul to, 191, 206 ff., 213; Taboo of, 200, 210 Blood-magic, 191 Blood-relationship, 208 f. Blood-revenge, 163, 314, 333, 339 ff., 344 ff. Blowpipe, 100 f., 104 Boat, 129 Boomerang, 27 f., 125, 177 Bow and arrow, 16, 26 ff., 33, 49, 112, 124 Breath, Relation of soul to, 192 f., 205 ff., 212 f., 242 Bücher, Karl, 267 Buddha, 381 f., 425 f., 498 f., 504, 507 Buddhism, 10, 478, 496 ff., 515 Bull-roarer, 99 f., 181, 266 Burial, 216 ff., 397 Bush soul, Capture, Marriage by, 154 ff., 163, 168 Castle, 324 f., 327, 452 Castration, 290 f., 294 f. Cattle-raising, 120, 124, 137 f. Causality, 92 f. Cave, 22 ff., 106, 108 Celestial cults, 251 Celestial märchen, 275 f. Celestial mythology, 76, 80, 91, 130 f., 134 ff., 140, 189, 220, 246, 258, 355 ff., 419 Celestial phenomena, 304 ff. Ceramics, 30, 80, 135, 259 f. Ceremonies, Intichiuma, 185 f., 188 f., 244 ff.; Sanctification, 442 ff.; Vegetation, 135 f., 189, 249, 418 ff Chaos, 388, 390, 392 Chief wife, 45f., 168 ff., 316 Chieftain, 121, 134, 195, 233 Chieftainship, 119, 125, 233, 314, 332 Christianity, 10, 478, 496 ff., 515 f. Church and State, 491 f. Churingas, 177, 181, 185, 190, 204, 221, 224 ff. Circumcision, 445 Cities, Foundation of, 311, 323 f. Clan names, 141 ff. Classes, Differentiation of, 125, 311, 316 ff. Club, Men's, 41, 47, 119, 131, 173 f., 255, 312, 409 Coat of arms, 143, 232 Colonization, 300 f. Common property, 248, 317 ff. Community labour, 136, 247 f. Compurgator, 335 Conception totemism, 176, 180 ff., 189 f., 191, 193 Conjuration, 269, 427 f. Conscience, 329, 431 Consecration gift, 438 ff. Constitution, 349 ff. Contract, Marriage by, 158 f. Cord magic, 86 f., 202, 415, 440 Corporeal soul, 82, 191 f., 205 ff., 211 ff., 216, 221 f., 406 Corroboree, 184, 464 Cosmogony, 370, 385 ff., 393, 404 Cosmopolitanism, 489 Counter-gods, 370 Counter-magic, 84, 105, 201, 203, 444 f. Counting, Systems of, 304 ff. Couvade, 198 Creation-myths, 388 ff. Cremation, 218 ff., 397 Crouching graves, 218 Cults, Ancestor, 117, 204f., 230 ff.; Celestial, 251 f.; of the dead, 452; Deity, 205, 325, 414 ff., 424 ff.; Demon, 249 ff.; Hero, 204; Magic, 416 f.; Mystery, 420 ff., 502; of saints, 178 f.; of the soil, 245 ff.; Soul, 421 f., 502; Totemic, 236 ff.; Vegetation, 135, 243 ff., 250 f., 294, 418 ff. Cult associations, 119, 136, 143, 161, 179 f., 255 Cult ceremonies, 90 Cult practices, 426 ff. Cult songs, 96, 267 ff., 461 Custom, 350 Dance, 90, 95 f., 104, 249, 262 ff., 449, 457; Ceremonial, 264; Ecstatic, 249, 264, 418, 423 Dance-song, 95 f. Dead, Disposal of the, 81, 215 ff., 234 f., 238 f., 397, 405; Realm of the, 398 ff.; Sacrifice to the, 238 ff., 253 f., 433 f. Deaf and dumb, The, 59 f. Death, 81 f., 494 Debt, 343 Degeneration theory, 225, 353 Deity cult, 205, 325, 414 ff., 424 ff. Deity saga, 384 f. Demon battles, 370, 404 f. Demon cult, 249 ff. Demons, 75 ff., 81 ff., 105, 196, 201, 203, 217 f., 221 f., 224, 236, 263 f., 284 f., 351 ff., 361 ff., 387 ff., 418 ff.; and the epic, 458 f.; and heroes, 283 ff., 369, 372 f., 454; Vegetation, 441 Destiny, 366 Development, Theory of, 353 ff. Devourment, Märchen of, 276 ff. Differentiation of classes, 125, 311, 316 ff.; of vocations, 311, 321 ff. Digging-stick, 26, 100, 120, 124, 126 f. Dionysian mysteries, 447 Discoveries, Geographical, 492 Divination, 441 f. Divine State, 329, 373, 388, 411, 416, 494 Dog, 22 f., 124, 290 Domestic animals, Breeding of, 120 f., 289 ff. Drama, 9, 462 ff., 490 Dreams, 189 f., 193, 205 f., 401, 407 Dress, 21; Origin of, 85 ff., 120, 126, 131, 133, 449 Duel, 336 Dwelling, 21 ff., 106 Dwarf peoples, 19, 77 f., 115, 353 Eclipse of the sun, 81 Ecstasy, 249, 397, 423 f., 434 Education and history, 519 Elysium, 403 f. Emotion, 81, 92 f., 105, 114, 264, 268, 356, 367 ff., 423, 466, 468 f.; as related to magic, 93 Endogamy, 118, 149, 151, 166 Enlightenment, 11, 470, 517 Epic, 9, 280, 450, 457 ff. Ethnology, 5 f., 122 Eunuchs, 294 Evil magic, 274 Exogamy, 46, 118, 144 ff., 163 ff., 183, 196, 289 f. Family, 12f., 34 ff., 235, 311 ff.; Joint, 153, 312 ff.; The original, 12; Single, 313, 315 Father-right, 36, 314 Fear, 81, 92, 194, 200, 224, 370, 400 Fetish, 186 f., 214, 220 ff., 352 f., 439, 454 Fetishism, 139, 186 f., 204, 352 Fire, 30 f., 124; Acquisition of, 30 ff; Kindling of, 49, 292; Lustration by, 201 f., 218 ff., 243, 338, 407, 443 f., 446; Solstice, 202; Trial by, 243, 338 First-fruits, Sacrifice of, 440 f. Flood, Universal, 391 ff. Flood saga, 391 ff. Flute, 97, 266 Folk psychology, History of, 1 ff.; Methods of, 6 f.; Problem of, 3 f.; relation to ethnology, 5 f.; relation to general psychology, 3; relation to philosophy of history, 522 f. Food, of primitive man, 24 ff.; Prohibitions on, 199 f. Forest-dwellers, 19, 122, 395 Formative art, 99 ff., 256 f. Fortitude, 242 f., 247 Foundation of cities, 311, 323 ff. Frazer, J. G.,, 38, 152, 189 f. Fusion, Racial, 111, 288 f. Gathering of food, 24 f., 124, 140, 144 Genetic psychology, 4 Gesture language, 58 ff., 69 Gestures, Graphic, 62 f,; Pointing, 61 f.; Significant, 63 Gift, 432ff.; Consecration, 438f.; Marriage by, 158, 163f.; Votive, 438 f. Gift theory of sacrifice, 240, 432 ff. Gillen, Messrs. Spencer and, 18, 38, 188 Gods, Abode of, 364, 366; Age of heroes and, 8 f., 121, 235 f., 281 ff.; Battles of, 370, 388 f., 404 f.; Belief in, 285 f.; Characteristics of, 282 ff., 362 ff.; Cult of, 205, 325, 414 ff., 424 ff.; Decline of, 365; and demons, 366 f., 369, 459; Development of, 362 ff.; Images of, 223 f., 247, 450, 453f.; Judgment of, 337; of the moment, 362 ff.; Origin of, 350 ff., 364 ff., 369; Particular, 362 ff.; Perfection of, 364 f.; Personality of, 236, 366 ff.; of the present, 234; Saga of, 228, 374 f., 384 f.; Superpersonal, 390, 467, 504 ff. God-man, 506 f. Greek language and culture, 488 ff. Grimm, Jacob, 459 Graves, Crouching, 218 Group-marriage, 38, 41 f., 44 f., 48, 168 ff., 316 Guardian animal, 190, 232 Guardian deity, 325, 501 Guardian spirits, 178, 369 Guide, 407 f. Guilt, 203, 253, 430 Gynocracy, 35 f. Hades, 398, 401, 404 Hammurabi, Code of, 330, 338, 343, 347, 411 Harvest, Sacrifices in connection with, 440 f. Heart and soul, 207 Heaven, 395, 404 Heavens, Mythology of the, 76, 80, 91 f., 130 f., 134 f., 140, 189, 220, 246, 258, 355 f., 419; Phenomena of the, 304 ff. Hegel, 520 f. Helios, 358 f. Hercules, 376 f., 382, 407 Herd, 52, 121 Herder, 52, 470, 472, 519 Hermes, 407 f. Hero, 9, 281 ff,; Cult of the, 204; and demon, 283 ff., 369, 372 f., 454; and god, 282 ff., 364, 369 ff., 454 Hero saga, 228, 356, 374 ff. Heroic age, 281 ff. Heroic song, 9 Hillebrand, Karl, 1 Historical consciousness, 478 Historical religion, 509 History, 510 ff.; and saga, 377 ff. Hobbes, Thomas, 11 f., 34, 36, 111 Hoe, 120, 126 f., 134 Hoe-culture, 134, 138, 246, 248, 250, 289 Horde, 52, 120, 145, 180, 237, 302, 471, 511 Horse, 293 Hospitality, 341 Hostage, 343 Howitt, A. W., 18, 37f., 142, 188 Human nature, 471 f., 475 Humanity, 9, 470 ff.; Ideal of, 410 Hunting, 24 f., 140, 144; Use of dog in, 22 f. Hut, Conical, 261, 451; Pole, 261; Spherical, 261 Hymns, 385, 393, 430, 461, 465 Ideals, Religious, 410 Ideas, of a beyond, 393 ff., 420, 423 ff., 431, 495; Concrete, 72; Mythological, 74 Idols, 131 Images, Divine, 223 f., 447, 450, 453 f. Imitation of animals, 95 Immortality, Belief in, 233, 394 ff., 412, 420 f., 423 ff., 431, 495, 502 Imprisonment, 342 ff. Individual rulership, 287, 313 Individualism, 489, 492 Infanticide, 43 f., 175, 237 Infinitude, 505 f. Instruments, of concussion, 265; Musical, 97 ff., 265 f., 457, 468; Stringed, 97 f., 266; Wind, 265 f. Initiation ceremonies, 202, 241 ff., 247 Intelligence of primitive man, 109 ff. Intichiuma ceremonies, 185 f., 188 f., 244 ff. Islamism, 10, 316, 497 Javelin, 124 f. Joint family, 153, 312 ff. Jordan festival, 203, 446 Judaism, 497 Judge, 331 ff., 347; Appointed, 331; in the underworld, 403 Judgment of the gods, 337 Judicial functions, Division of, 348 f. Justice, Administration of, 331 ff. Jus primæ noctis, 46, 168 Jus talionis, 345 ff. Kant, 470, 517 Kern, H., 55 Kidneys, as vehicles of the soul, 209, 211 f., 221, 434 f., 445 Kiss, 242 Klaatsch, Hermann, 15 Knife, 131, 449 Kollman, Julius, 77 Labour, Community, 136, 247 f.; Degradation of, 321 f.; Division of, 49 f., 300; Equalization of, 322 f. Landscape painting, 456 Lang, Andrew, 153, 187 Language, 53 ff., 137; Gesture, 58 ff., 69 Lawgivers, 307 f. Lazarus and Steinthal, Messrs., 2 Legal system, 327 ff. Legends, 381 ff., 421 f.; Mura-mura, 231; of redemption, 382 f.; Religious, 381; of saints, 381 ff., 464 Lessing, 414, 519 Lie, 63, 114 Lippert, Julius, 205, 231 Liturgy, 463, 465 ff. Loin cord, 85 ff. Lustration, 201 ff., 219 f., 252 f., 338, 407, 412, 443 ff. Magic, Belief in, 75 ff., 81, 84 ff., 92, 94 f., 105, 376 f., 434 ff.; Cord, 86 f., 202, 415, 440; Evil, 274; Imitative, 354; Protective, 85, 449 Magic staff, 335 f. Magic test, 337 f. Magical offering, 440 Magical transference, 201 ff. Magician, 84 f., 330, 378 Man, E.H., 79 Mankind and human nature, 471 f., 475 Mannhardt, W.., 249, 292, 441 Märchen, 270 ff.; of adventure, 279 f., 395; Celestial, 275 f., 395; of devourment, 277 ff. Märchen-cycle, 380 Märchen-hero, 356, 375 ff., 387, 459 Märchen-myth, 270 ff., 387 ff., 413, 458 f. Mark community, 309 f. Market, 327, 463 Marriage, 12, 34 ff., 89; by barter, 157; of brother and sister, 118, 148 ff.; by capture, 153 ff., 163, 167 f.; by contract, 158 f.; by gift, 158 f.; Group, 38, 41 f., 44 f., 48, 168 ff., 316; Modes of contracting, 155 ff., 172 f.; Pirrauru, 168 ff.; by purchase, 158 f.; Single, 51 Mask, 95, 105, 135, 262 ff. Maternal descent, 35 ff., 47, 146 ff., 165, 173 f., 196 f., 314 Maternal rule, 35, 314 Martin, Rudolf, 50 McLennan, J. F., 145, 153 Meal-times of primitive man, 24 Medicine-men, 83 f., 89, 105, 180, 223, 233, 254 f., 330, 341, 409 Memorial art, 24, 107 Men's club, 41, 47, 119, 131, 173 f., 255 f., 312, 409 Metempsychosis, 412 ff. Migrations, 111, 287 f.; Folk, 126 ff., 164, 288 f.; Tribal, 120, 138, 191, 488 Military organization, 310 Milk industry, 137 f., 289, 296 f. Mimic play, 459, 462, 490 Monogamy, 34, 36, 43, 46 ff., 89, 114, 167, 169 ff., 311 ff. Monotheism, 77, 225, 231, 353 ff. Monumental edifices, 452, 490 Morality, Primitive, 114 f. Morgan, Lewes, 38, 152 Mother-right, 34 ff., 314 Müller, Max, 225 Mummy, 207 Mura-mura legends, 176 f., 231 Murder, 339 f., 346 Music, 95 ff., 264 ff., 449, 456 f., 464, 466 ff.; Absolute, 468 Musical instruments, 97 ff., 265 f., 457, 468 Mystery cults, 420 ff., 502 Myth, 75 f., 375 f., 384 ff., 413 ff.; Celestial, 76, 80, 91, 130 f., 134 ff., 140, 189, 220, 246, 258, 355 ff., 419; Cosmogonic, 385 ff., 404; and cult, 414 ff.; Märchen-, 270 ff., 387 ff., 413, 458f.; Theogonic, 384 ff.; of the underworld, 397 ff.; of world destruction, 391 f. Mythical hero, 379 Mythology, Nature, 76 Narrative, 270 ff. Nature, Man of, 11 ff. Nature-demons, 370 Nature-mythology, 76 Neanderthal skull, 14 f. Nirvana, 499 Nomads, 120, 138, 419 Novel, Short, 464 Numbers, Sacred, 305, 407; Social organization and, 304 ff. Oath, 335 f. Offering, 432 ff. Oracle, 442 Ordeal, 336 f. Orders, 255 Organization, Military, 310; Political, 302 ff.; Tribal, 117 ff., 132, 140 ff., 152 Ornamentation, 100 ff. Other-world ideas, 394 ff., 410, 420 ff., 431, 495, 502 Painting, 106 ff., 456, 468 Palace, Royal, 452, 454, 481 Pasha, Emin, 114 Passion plays, 463, 465 Particular gods, 362 f. Paternal descent, 37, 146 ff., 173 f., 196 f., 314 Paternal rule, 35, 314 Patriarchal family, 313 Patriarchal period, 35 f. Penal law, 338 ff. Penitential psalm, 430 f. Personalities, Age of, 320 Personality, 489, 505 Phallus cult, 212 Philology, 2, 53, 490 Philosophy, 354, 496, 504, 518; of history, 519 ff. Pirrauru marriage, 168 ff. Plant totem, 134, 176, 184, 188 ff., 192, 199, 214, 245 Platform disposal of the dead, 216, 405 Plough, 134, 138, 248, 289 ff., 298 Poison, Arrow, 26; Plant, 25 f. Poetry, 267 ff., 457 Pole-houses, 261 Political organization, 302 ff. Polyandry, 42 ff., 167, 171 f., 313 Polygamy, 41 f., 47, 166 ff., 312 Polygyny, 42 ff., 139, 167, 170 ff., 312, 315 f. Polytheism, 80, 355, 357, 371 Pottery, 30, 80, 135, 259 f. Praise, Hymns of, 430 Prayer, 427 ff.; Penitential, 430 f.; of petition, 427 f., 439; of thanksgiving, 429 f., 439 Prehistory, 13 f., 451 Preusz, K. Th., 242, 435, 464 Priesthood, 321, 330, 332 Priests' Code, 200, 210, 329, 345, 432 Primitive man, Discovery of, 11 ff. Property, 47, 114, 120, 138, 173 f., 195 f.; Common, 248, 317 ff.; Private, 298, 300, 317 ff. Prophetic signs, 442 Promiscuity, 36, 38, 169, 181 Prohibition of certain foods, 199 f. Protection, Right to, 340 ff. Protective magic, 85 Psyche, 205 f., 212 ff., 217, 220, 241, 405 Punishment, 338, 342, 404, 406 f., 431; and sacrifice, 433 Puppet show, 464 f. Purgatory, 407 f., 412 Purification, 201 f., 219 f., 499; Rites of, 201, 443 f. Cf. Lustration. Pygmies, 19, 77 ff., 115, 353 Rain-magic, 253, 268 Rain priests, 249, 263, 268 Rattle, 100, 266 Ratzel, Friedrich, 5 Realm of the dead, 396 f., 400 Reconciliation, 432 Redemption, 410, 447, 495 f.; Legends of, 381; Religions of, 496 Reformation, 492 Refrain, 96 f., 104 Relationship, Malayan system of, 38 ff. Religion, Origin of, 75 ff., 282 ff. Religious ideals, 410 Renaissance, 455 f., 491 f., 517 Retribution, Idea of, 401, 408, 411, 413 Revelation, 518 Rhythm, 103 f., 268 f. Rights, Equality of, 320 Rings, Exchange of, 87 Root languages, 68 f. Roskoff, G.G., 75 Rousseau, J.J., 12 Rulership, Individual, 287, 313 Sacredness, 195 f., 199 Sacrifice, 253 f., 295 f., 427, 431 ff.; Animal, 210 f., 433 f.; to the dead, 238 ff., 253 f., 433 f.; Human, 210, 433 ff., 440, 447; of reconciliation, 432 Sacrificial animal, 210 f. Sacrificial feast, 446 f. Saga, Deity, 384 f.; Flood, 391 ff.; Hero, 228, 356, 374 ff. Saints, Legends of, 381 ff., 464; Worship of, 178 f. Sanctification, 427; Ceremonies of, 442 Sanctuary, 341 f. Sarasin, F. and P., 19, 49, 75, 90 Satisfaction of wants, 448 f. Satyric play, 464 Scapegoat, 203 Scarab, 229 Schmalz, E., 60 Schmidt, Wilhelm, 78 f., 114, 353 Schultze, Leonard, 88 Schweinfurth, Georg, 18 f., 77 Science, 449, 489 f. Scott, W. R., 60 Sculpture, 261, 453 ff., 490 Secret barter, 10, 21, 31 ff., 55, 120 Secret societies, 254 ff. Secondary wives, 45, 168 ff., 316 Self-education, 519 Self-mutilation, 294 f., 434 Sex totemism, 119, 176, 182 f., 186 f., 190, 193 Sexual organs and the soul, 211, 434, 445 Shadow soul, 192 f., 205 f. Shamans, 84 Shame, Feeling of, 88 Shield, 125, 131 Sickness, 81, 83 ff., 90, 494; Demons of, 82 f., 105, 236 Sin offering, 432 f. Single marriage, 51 Skull, 217; Neanderthal, 14 f. Slave, 154, 156 Slavery, 139 Smoke, 220 Snake society, 256, 269 Social psychology, 4 Society, Primitive, 50 ff. Soil, Cults of the, 245 ff. Solstice festivals, 420 Solstice fire, 202 Song, 95 ff., 104, 267 ff., 449, 458, 460 ff.; of praise, 430; Work, 268 f., 461 Soul, Breath, 192 f., 205 ff., 212 f., 242 f.; Corporeal, 82, 191 f., 205 ff., 211 ff.; 216, 221 f., 406; Ideas of the, 190 ff., 394 ff.; and kidneys, 209, 211 f.; Shadow, 192 f., 205 f.; Vehicles of the, 207 ff., 211 f., 221, 434 f., 445 Soul animals, 83, 190 ff., 214, 368, 412 f. Soul belief, 204 ff. Soul cults, 421 f., 502 Souls, Exchange of, 242; Transmigration of, 412 ff. Sound and meaning, 65 ff. Spear, 125 Speech, 496 f. Spencer and Gillen, Messrs., 18, 38, 188 Spencer, Herbert, 187, 205, 231 Spirit villages, 396 Sprinkling, 203, 445 f. State, 8 f., 119, 285 f., 287, 303, 472 ff.; Church and, 491 f.; Divine, 329, 373, 388, 411, 416, 494; Forms of the, 349, 517 Steinen, Karl von den, 102 Steinthal, H., 2, 68 Stipulation, 334 Stringed instruments, 97 f., 266 Stuhlmann, Franz, 114 Substitute, 435 Sun, Eclipse of the, 81 Sweat-lodges, 252 Sword, 131, 299 Symbolism, 334, 422, 447 Symmetry, 103 f. Taboo, 131 f., 193 ff., 203, 219, 341; on foods, 199 f.; on relations by marriage, 196 ff. Talisman, 89, 104, 227 ff. Tattooing, 21, 87, 131, 135, 255, 257 ff., 451 Teleology, 522 Temple, 195, 324 f., 450, 452 f., 465, 467, 481 Theft, 114; of women, 46 Theogony, 384 ff., 417 Thinking, Primitive, 68 ff. Tippamalku, 168 ff. Torture, 344 Totem, 8, 116 ff., 203 f., 412 f.; Inanimate, 177, 185 ff. Totem animal, 117 ff., 131 ff., 143, 188 ff., 193, 200, 260, 412 f. Totem friendships, 162 ff. Totem poles, 143 f., 232 ff. Totemism, 116 ff.; Animal, 117 ff., 131 ff., 138 f., 175 ff., 193, 214, 245, 412 f.; Conception, 176, 180 ff., 189 f., 191, 193; Individual, 119, 175, 178 ff., 187, 189 f.; Plant, 134, 176, 184, 188 ff., 192, 199, 214, 245; Sex, 119, 176, 180, 182 f., 186 f., 190, 193; Tribal, 177 ff., 187 Trade, 121, 300 f., 452 Transference, Magical, 201 ff. Transformation into animals, 133, 272 ff., 412 f. Transmigration of souls, 412 ff. Tribal division, 117 f., 141, 143, 159 ff. Tribal migrations, 120, 138, 191, 488 Tribal organization, 117 ff., 132, 140 ff. 152 Tribal warfare, 119 f., 123, 125 Tylor, Edward, 205 Underworld, 397 ff., 402 ff. Unity of the world, 483 Universalism, 492 Usener, Hermann, 361 f. Vegetation ceremonies, 135 f., 189, 249, 418 ff. Vegetation cults, 135, 243 ft, 250 f., 294, 418 ff. Vegetation demons, 441 Vessels, 30, 49 Vico, G., 516 Vision, 407, 442 Vocations, Differentiation of, 311, 321 ff. Votive offering, 438 Wagon, 292 ff. Wants, Freedom from, 110, 114; Satisfaction of, 448 f. Warfare, 33, 111, 209; of the gods, 370, 388 f., 404 f. Water, Lustration by, 201 ff., 219 f., 252 f., 338, 443 ff.; Trial by, 338 Weapons, 26 ff., 120, 124 f., 131, 133, 299 Week, 305 Wergild, 163, 339 Westermann, D., 58, 68 Wheel, 291 f. Wife, Chief, 45 f., 168 ff., 316; Secondary, 45, 168 ff., 316 Wind instruments, 265 f. Witchcraft, 338 Work-songs, 268 f., 461 World, Unity of the, 483 World culture, 477, 484 ff., 512 World destruction, Myths of, 391 f. World empires, 476, 478 ff., 484 ff., 493, 512 World history, 474 f., 478, 509 ff. World language, 487, 493 World religions, 10, 477, 491, 494 ff. Writing, 486 f.