Parts of Speech.

These are eight in number, in Bisayan: article, noun, pronoun, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjection.

ARTICLES.

There are three classes:

Definite: an (the)

Indefinite: in (a)

Personal: hi or si (no equivalent in English).

The definite article, as well as the indefinite, is used in Bisayan in the same manner as its equivalent in English. The definite article, however, is sometimes used before proper nouns, and it is very often used before the demonstrative and possessive pronouns. Examples:

The personal article is always used before the names of persons; it is also used before the personal pronouns, except the third persons. Examples.

Hi Pedro (Peter)

Hi acó (I)

Hi icao (you)

These articles do not change in gender. Examples: an amáy (the father), an iróy (the mother); hi Juan (John), hi María (Mary).

The definite and indefinite articles change in the plural in the following way:

The personal article does not change, in person or number, except in the third person plural where it takes the form of the third personal pronoun third person, plural number. Examples:

Hi quitá (we)

Hi camó (you, in plural)

Hirá Pedro ng̃an hi Juan (Peter and John)

DECLENSION.—Articles have two cases: nominative and objective.

SINGULAR PLURAL

NOMINATIVE: an in hi or si an mg̃a in mg̃a hirá or sirá

OBJECTIVE: han or san hin or sin ni, can han mg̃a or san mg̃a hin mg̃a or sin mg̃a nira, canda

Examples:

An batà nagbahása han surát ni Pedro (the boy reads Peter’s letter).

Hirá Carlos ng̃an hi Juan naghátag canda Tomás ng̃an hi Pedro hin mg̃a bucád (Charles and John gave flowers to Thomas and Peter).

The objective case covers all the different cases used in other languages after the nominative, that is to say, the genitive, dative, accusative and ablative cases.

RULES. 1. The Bisayan articles are used immediately before the words to which they refer.

2. The definite article may be used without expressing the object to which it refers, having, in this case, the nature of a relative pronoun. Examples:

An nagtótoon, nahabábaro (He, who studies, learns).

An mg̃a nagtututdò ha aton (They who teach us.)

3. The personal article is always necessary before the names of persons. It is not correct to say “Pedro nagsusurat”; hi is needed, and it must be: “hi Pedro nagsusurat” (Peter is writing).

EXCEPTIONS. 1. Between the definite article and the word to which it refers, other words may be placed, in some instances, as in this phrase:

An iní ng̃a baláy (this house), or

an maopay ng̃a batà (the good boy or girl).

The regular order in constructing the last phrase is:

an batà ng̃a maopay.

2. When the names of persons are in the vocative case, the personal article is not used. Thus we say:

Mariano, cadí dao (Mariano, come, please).

Pamatì, Juan (listen, John).

3. In the objective case of hi, can is used before the verb, and ni after the verb. Examples:

An can Juan guinsurát (what John wrote)

An guinsurát ni Juan (what John wrote)

N.B.—The indefinite article, when needed at the beginning of the sentence, is replaced by the phrase “usa ng̃a” So, if we wish to say “a boy came yesterday,” we should not say

in batà nacánhi cacolop; but

usá ng̃a batà nacánhi cacolóp.

This phrase usá ng̃a is not a perfect article, but it has the character of an adjective, even when used as an article. Therefore, both the indefinite in and the phrase usá ng̃a may be used in the same sentence. So, we can say, changing the regular order of the last sentence:

Nacánhi cacolóp in usá ng̃a bata (a boy came yesterday).

NOUNS

These are substantive and adjective. Both may be grouped in the following classes: primitive, diminutive, figurative, verbal, compound, derivative, proper, common, positive, comparative, superlative, cardinal, ordinal, partitive, distributive and collective. Nothing particular needs be said about the primitive.

DIMINUTIVE

Examples:

PRIMITIVE DIMINUTIVE

baláy (house) balaybálay

saróual (trousers) sarouálay

carahà (frying-pan) caraháay

balóto (little boat) balotóhay

As is seen, the diminutive is formed by the repetition of the primitive or by adding to the latter the affix ay or hay.

The primitive is repeated when it has not more than two syllables. As,

from

dáhon (leave), dahondáhon,

cáhoy (tree), cahoycáhoy.

The affix ay or hay is added when the primitive has more than two syllables; ay being used in cases where the noun ends with a consonant, or a vowel with a grave or angular accent; and hay being employed when the primitive ends with a vowel otherwise accented or non-accented or a vowel that is pronounced separately from the consonant preceding it, or is preceded by more than one consonant. As,

from

But the dissyllabic primitive is not repeated when its first vowel is followed by more than one consonant, or when the last vowel has an acute accent or is pronounced separately from the consonant preceding it. In such cases the affix ay or hay is employed, the rules established for the use of these affixes being applicable to such diminutives. As,

from

Generally, as it has been observed in the preceding examples, the adjectives follow the same rules. As,

from

matám-is (sweet), matam-isay,

malomó (soft), malomóhay,

halípot (short), halipótay.

from

There are some adjectives that have irregular diminutives. Such are the following:

FIGURATIVE

We call those nouns figurative that are applied to the objects which, not being of the same nature as that which is expressed by their roots, show nevertheless analogy or similarity with those represented by the corresponding primitive, in their meaning, form, use, or application.

Examples:

from

When the primitive has not more than two syllables, the formation of its figurative follows the same rules as those for the dissyllabic diminutive. As,

from

hadì (king), we have

hadihadi (a person who, by his vanity or harshness, resembles the figure of a king).

But when thy primitive has more than two syllables, or its last vowel is preceded by more than one consonant or is pronounced separately from the consonant—preceding it, its figurative is formed by adding to the root a prefix composed of its first syllable if it begins with a consonant or of its first vowel if it begins with a vowel and the syllable ro (a particle that bears the idea of imitation, repetition, or collection). As,

from

VERBAL

These are formed from the verb-root transformed by particles referring to the agents or the objects of the roots.

Examples:

from

sáyau (to dance)

parasayáu (dancer),

tigsayáu (person who sometimes dances),

magsarayáu (person appointed to dance)

from

umá (to farm) paraúma (farmer), tig-úma (person used to do farming), mag-urúma (person in charge of farming), urumáhan, contracted urúmhan (place designed for farming), urumáhon, contracted urúmhon (ground or plant to be cultivated);

from

surat (to write), the similar verbals as above, so far as the idea of the root and the use permit, with this variant: susurátan, not sururátan, susuráton, not sururáton;

from

toóc (to weep), the similar verbals, so far as the root and the use permit, and this besides: matóoc (weeper);

from

bóong̃ (to break), the similar verbals, and this: maboroóng̃ (liable or expected to be broken);

from

inóm (to drink), the similar verbals, and the following: mainominóm (an inviting drink);

from

sosón (to correct), the similar verbals, and this: hinóson (person fond of or bold in correcting);

from

útang̃ (to borrow),

It may be observed that not all of the verb-roots produce the same number of verbal nouns. It depends on the particular character of every idea conveyed in the root, and mainly on the use.

For the sake of clearness, we shall see first the affixes.

An, on.

These particles refer to the complement of the verb-root, an to the indirect object of the action (generally regarding the place where the act occurs), and on to the direct object (generally referring to the termination of the action).

An or on is used when the root ends with a consonant or a vowel with a grave or angular accent.

An h preceds them when the roots ends with a vowel otherwise accented or non-accented, or pronounced separately from the preceding consonant or consonants.

The particle an or han is simply added to the root, as,

from

or is employed either with the interfix r combined with the first vowel of the root or with the first consonant and vowel of the root instead, as

from

cáon (to eat) caraonán

from

tíroc (to assembly) titiroeán (meeting place);

or with its first vowel if the root commences with a vowel, as

from

aro (to ask) aaroán (place designed for asking).

The particle on has the same use as an, as

caturogón,

siringbahon,

lilibácon (from libác, to backbite),

aaroon.

NOTE.—The affix an is sometimes doubled, as,

from

from

tambò (to lock out), tamboànan, from tambóan (window).

Para, tig.

Para bears the idea of habit, custom or occupation. Tig conveys the idea of a repeated, but not frequent, act.

They are simply prefixed to the root without any other complementary particle, as,

from

cánhi (to come). paracánhi, tigcánhi.

Ma, with on, with ro, or with r.

The particle ma conveys the idea of fondness, desirableness, or passive potentiality or possibility.

When, it means fondness, it is employed either by putting it at the beginning of the root without any other particle, as

from

cáon (to eat), macáon (glutton),

or by combining it with the affix on or hon, according to the case, as

from

catúrog (to sleep), macaturogón (sleepy head),

from

arába (to moan), maarabahón (person fond of moaning).

When the prefix ma, bears the idea of desirableness, it is placed before the doubled root, when the root has not more than two syllables and its last vowel is preceded by not more than two consonants or is not pronounced separately from its preceding consonant or consonants, as

from

from

oná (to commence), maonaoná (provocative, quarrelsome),

and in cases where the root has more than two syllables, or if not, where its last vowel is preceded by more than two consonants or is pronounced separately from the consonant or consonants preceding it, then this prefix is employed in combination with the interfix ro preceded by the first consonant and vowel of the root or by the vowel only if the root begins with a vowel, as

from catúrog, macarocaturóg,

from,, bányac, (to kick), maharobányac,

from,, síd-ap, (to look at), masirosíd-ap,

from,, arába, maaroarabá,

from,, ígham, (to grunt), mairoígham,

from,, ós-og (to draw near from afar), maoroós-og.

When the particle ma conveys the idea of passive potentiality or possibility, it is used with the interfix r combined with the first vowel of the root. The r with its complementary vowel is put after the first syllable of the root. As,

from bóong (to break), maboroóng (brittle)

from,, abót (to reach), maarábot (attainable).

The particle ma is frequently replaced by the prefix ig or i combined with the interfix r or its substitutes, as

from tambal (to cure), igtarámbal or itárambal (medicine),

from,, surat (to write), isusúrat (thing to write with).

Mag and the r.

The prefix mag bears the idea of forcible, necessary, or continuous agency. It is employed with the interfix r combined with and before the first vowel of the root. This combination is placed between the first and the second syllable of the root. But when there is an r in the root, the interfix r is replaced by the first consonant of the said root. If the root begins with a vowel, the interfix r is sometimes suppressed, the said first vowel being used instead of the interfix. As,

from sódoy (to stroll about), magsotodóy (one who strolls about)

from,, bilíng̃ (to seek or search), magbiríling̃ (searcher),

from,, siríng̃ (to request), magsisíring̃, (petitioner), not magsiríring̃,

from,, ósoc (to set up), mag-orosóc (person designed to set up),

from,, arót (to cut the hair), mag-aárot (barber).

The particle mag is frequently contracted into ma, in which case the root is considered as having an r, as

from suláy (to tempt), manunúlay (tempter),

from,, tábang̃ (to assist), mananábang̃ (helper).

Hi

This particle conveys the idea of boldness. When the root begins with a labial consonant, except the m, the said consonant is transformed into m, as

from bása (to read), himása (person bold in reading),

from,, pitíc (to leap), himític (person bold in leaping).

When the root begins with an m, the prefix hi is not commonly used but the prefix para ma, or tig, as

from múlay (to teach), para-, ma-, or tigmulay, not himúlay,

from,, mogó (to observe), para-, ma-, or tigmógo, not himógo.

from ásoy (to refer), hing̃ásoy (garrolous),

from,, cáon (to eat) hingáon (bold in eating),

from,, gúbat (to invade), hing̃úbat (bold in invading).

When the root commences with the nasal consonant ng̃, the prefix hi is ordinarily replaced by the prefix para, ma, or tig, or the first syllable of the root is made long, as

from ng̃isi (to laugh, showing the teeth), para-, ma, or tig̃ngisi, or ñgisi (person fond of grinning).

When the root begins with any other consonant, except l, n, r, the said consonant is suppressed and the letter n is appended to the prefix, as

In all of these cases, the syllable following the prefix hi is sometimes doubled, according to the use, as,

Um.

This particle bears the idea of option. It is used among the verbs for the subjunctive mode. It is always combined with the interfix r or its substitutes, and is placed between the first consonant and the first vowel of the root. When the root begins with a vowel, the interfix is placed immediately before the vowel. Examples:

from cáon (to eat), cumaraón (person going to, or expected to, eat),

from,, abót (to arrive), umarábot (person expected to arrive),

from,, arò (to ask), umaarô (person expected to ask).

Some roots without r follow the rule as if they had an r, as,

from sacá (to go up, to board), sumasáca (boarder).

Observations: 1. There are verbals formed with ma combined with the interfix r or its substitutes. This formation takes place only in the intransitive verbs commencing with the particle ca which then conveys the idea of passivity. As,

from caauód (to be ashamed), macaaráuod (shameful),

from,, cabórong̃ (to be confused), macabobórong̃ (confusing),

from,, casína (to be angry), macasisína (odious).

2. The infinitives of the verbs, which are always preceded by the particle pag, are frequently employed as substantives. In such cases the particle pag is transformed in the plural, its g being then replaced by the letter ng̃ if the root begins with a vowel or a guttural consonant, except g, or by the consonant n when the root commences with a dental consonant, or by the m if it begins with a labial. In the plural, the roots commencing with a consonant lose said consonant. When the root begins with a nasal or with the guttural g, said consonant is preserved and the g of pag is replaced by n. Examples:

from arò (to ask), cáon (to eat), dáop (to approach) bása (to read), ng̃oyng̃oy (to groan), gábot (to, pull), we have:

SINGULAR PLURAL

pag-arò (asking) pang̃arò,

pagcáon (eating) pang̃áon,

pagdáop (approaching) panáop,

pagbása (reading) pamása,

pagngoyngoy (groaning) panngóyagoy,

paggábot (pulling) pangábot,

3. The infinitives of roots commencing with the particle ca are also used as substantives, and then with or without the prefix pag.

from cabido (to be sorry), pagcabídò, cabídò, (sorrow).

In such cases, the affix an or on is sometimes employed, as

from casáquit (to be sad), casaquítan (sadness),

from,, casína (to be angry), casinahón (anger).

COMPOUND

The use gives the following:

DERIVATIVE

We consider under this heading the nouns derived from other nouns. Those originated from a verb are already treated as verbals. Most of the derivatives are adjectives.

The derivatives, like the verbal, are formed with particles, prefixes, interfixes, and affixes.

The usual particles are ca, ma, maca, mag, maqui, hi, pala, tag, as prefixes; r, in as interfixes; and an, on as affixes. As,

Ca bears the idea of quality, and is used alone or in combination with the affix an. As

from hatáas (high), cahatáas (height),

from,, dáot (bad), caraótan, carát’an (badness).

from,, pauà (light), capauà (clearness).

It is sometimes combined with the interfix in and the joined affix anon, as

from masúgot (obedient), camasinug’tánon (obedience).

Ma conveys the idea of abundance and future condition. In the first case, it is added at the beginning of the primitive, which is the form of great many adjectives, as,

from ísog (courage, rage), maísog (courageous);

and when it means future condition, it is used with the interfix r combined with the first vowel of the primitive, as,

from asáua (wife), maarasauá (woman betrothed)

The particle ma is frequently combined with the interfix in and the affix on or ánon. In plural, the ma is appended with g. As

from túman (performance), matinumánon (faultless) plural, magtinumánon

from,, sugót (obedience), masinug’tánon (obedient)

It is also used without any affix, and then the primitive is doubled as from tubâ (a wine) matubatubâ (person or thing that smells as tubâ).

Maca has the idea of potentiality, and is added to the beginning of the primitive, by doubling the first syllable of the primitive or by using the intermix r combined with the first vowel of the primitive. As,

from álo (shame), macaaálo (shameful),

from,, lípay (joy), macalilípay (rejoicer),

from,, budlay (grievance), macaburúdlay (grievous).

Mag conveys the idea of mutual relationship, and also of continuity in a few cases. It is simply added at the beginning of the primitive.

Relationship. Examples:

from patód (cousin), magpatód (cousins each other).

It is sometimes appended with tala, as from amáy (father), magtalaamáy (father and son, or father and daughter).

The derivatives formed with mag conveying the idea of mutual relationship, are always in plural.

Continuity. Examples:

from ága (morning), Mag-ága (the whole night until the morning);

from,, colóp (evening); magcólop (the whole day until the evening.)

Maqui signifies the idea of fondness, and is employed without any other transformative particle, as,

It is used in very few cases to form verbals, as

from hámpang̃ (to be present during a conversation), maquihahampang̃on (person fond of being present or taking part in a conversation).

Pala means resemblance. It is combined with the affix an. As,

from buyo (betel nut), palabuyóan (applied to the wine of cocoanut, that resembles the taste of the betel nut)

from,, biráu (a plant), palabirauán (applied to the fruit of cocoanut that resembles the color of biráu)

from,, camote (sweet potato), palacamotián (applied to the fruit of “nang̃ca” (a tree) that resembles the color of camote)

from,, gátas (milk) palagatásan (applied to the young rice or corn whose grain is yet liquid resembling the milk)

Tag conveys the idea of ownership or authorship. It is simply added to the primitive. As

from baláy (house), tagbaláy (owner of a house)

from,, sugò (order), tagsugò (author of an order).

It is sometimes used to indicate distribution, and then it is frequently combined with the prefix ma preceding it. As

from túig (year), tagtuig (year by year)

from,, ádlao (day), matag-ádlao (every day).

These last particles are sometimes replaced by iquina which expresses the same idea. As

from túig, adlao, búlan (month), pagcáon (meal)

iquinatúig (every year)

iquinaadlao (every day)

iquinabulan (every month)

iquinapagcáon, (every meal)

The interfix r, which bears no particular meaning, is here employed under the same rules as those established for its use in the figurative and verbal nouns.

The interfix in expresses imitation. It is added at the beginning of the primitive if the latter commences with a vowel. Otherwise, it is placed before the first vowel of the primitive. As,

These particles are sometimes employed jointly, the an preceding the on. This compound affix, anon, bears the idea of great abundance, or birth or residence place, and is preceeded by an h according to the same rules established for an and on. Examples:

OBSERVATIONS. There are other forms of derivatives, viz: ca cat iquina or quina, taga, tagum or tagun, hi.

Ca means also company, as from tupad (to be side by side) catúpad (the person side by side).

Cat means season, as from “áni” (harvest), “cat-aní” (harvest time).

Iquina or quina expresses nature, as from “táuo” (man), “buhi” (alive), “iquinatáuo” (property peculiar to men), “quinabuhi” (life).

Taga, means origin or residence, posession, or measure, as from “Leyte” (Island so called), “súndang̃” (bolo), “íroc” (armpits), we have: “taga Leyte” (from Leyte), “tagasúndang” (one who bears a bolo), “tagairoc” (up to the armpits). When this particle taga means measure, it is sometimes replaced by pa, as from “háuac” (belly), “paháuác” (up to the belly).

Tagum expresses the idea of power, virtue, or peculiarity. When the primitive commences with n, the m of tagum is suppressed. When the primitive begins with a consonant not labial, the said m is replaced by n. It is sometimes combined with the affix an, As: from “matá” (eye) “baba” (mouth), “lipong” (confusion), we have “tagumatá” (peculiar disease of the eye), “tagumbabáan” (person whose words have a peculiar power or virtue), “tagunlipóng̃an” (one who has the power to make himself invisible).

Hi is also combined with the interfix r and the affix an, as from “polós” (profit), “himorólsan” (profitable). Among verbs ha is used instead of hi, as from “cáon” (to eat), “hacaraón” (eatable).

NOTE.—The past participles take sometimes the affix an, as

from cauil (fish-hook), quinauilán (fish caught with “cauil”)

bitánà (a kind of fishing net), binitanáan (fish caught with “bitanà”).

There are other transformative particles not so important as those already mentioned, and which the use will show to the student.

PROPER AND COMMON

Like in other tongues there is in Bisayan a distinction between proper and common nouns. Tacloban, Catbalaógan, Ilong̃-ílong̃ (Iloilo), Espanya (Spain), Pedro (Peter), Guillermo (William), etc., are proper nouns; bucad (flower), bató (stone), áyam (dog), etc., are common.

The Bisayan language has also familiar names for persons. As

of Pedro, Péndong̃, Endong̃, Edóng̃, Edós, Pedó, etc;

of,, Juan, Uáuang̃, Uauay, Uáuà, Uuán, Uuâ, etc;

of,, Vicente, Tenteng̃, Titíng̃, Sente, Setée, etc;

of,, Rafael, Pápeng̃, Paéng̃, Paél, Pápè, etc;

of,, Margarito, Titong̃, Itong̃, Titoy, Itoy, etc.;

of,, Francisco, Quicoy, Incoy, Quicò, etc;

of,, Juana, Uánday, Uáday, etc.;

of,, Antonio, Tónyo, Todóc, etc.;

of,, Alejandro, Andong̃, Andoy, etc.;

of,, Isabel, Sabel, etc.;

of,, Gregorío, Goyóng̃, etc.;

of,, Saturnino, Satúr, etc.;

of,, Claudia, Calán, etc.

Among the names of places, there are a few formed by the preposition can (which means possession or property), and the particles ca (which denotes abundance), and guin (which conveys the idea of past passive action), as

NOTE.—The names of persons among the Bisayan people are all Christian at the present time. Many of the surnames are Spanish, many others being of Bisayan origin as Lágbas, Pócpoc, Macasáit, Cabaobao, Balasbas, Yagomyom, etc.

To indicate relationship, as the English papa, mamma, and respect, confidence, or tenderness, there are a number of Bisayan nouns, which show by themselves the relation between the speaker or writer and the person to whom the noun is applied. Examples:

for papa, tátay or tatáy, tátang̃ or tatáng̃, itáy, or itáng̃;

for,, mamma, nánay or nanáy, nánang̃ or nanáng̃, ináy, or ináng̃.

There are others applied to grandfathers and grandmothers, and also to those persons who act or are considered as fathers or mothers. Examples:

Mano, manóng, mamo, mamoy, babay, dudoy, dudù inco, tutoy, yuyu, iyô (applied to elder brothers, uncles or elder male relatives of any degree, even to persons not related to but respected by the speaker or writer).

Tío, or tí, tia or tí (applied as á form of politeness and respect, respectively to men or women not related to or unknown by the speaker or writer).

Idoy, íntoy, budóy, busóy, and idáy, inday, udáy, idíng, iyíng, bididay, nonay, neneng, (applied with tenderness to boys or girls respectively).

NOTE.—The word cuán (so and so), not meaning anything by itself, is applied to persons or things whose names the speaker or writer does not know, or venture, or wish to express. As the phrase “so and so”, it helps a great deal in a conversation, and is used also instead of the verbs and other parts of speech.

The words inín (contracted of iní nga) and adâ (I guess, perhaps) are also used in the conversation, as auxiliary particles, they being then equivalent to the English why.

Examples:

Question.—“¿Guinsorat mo na an balos?” (Have you already written the answer?)

Answer.—“Oo guincoan co na gad” (Yes I already have).

Q.—¿Háin an basahón? (Where is the book?)

A.—Inin … aadto ada ha ac solód (why … I guess it is in my room)

Q.—Mapiráu, ¿ano in bubuhaton co? (I am sleepy, what shall I do?)

A.—Ada … catúrog (Why … to sleep).

POSITIVE, COMPARATIVE, AND SUPERLATIVE.

As in other languages, there are three degrees for adjectives, also used for substantives in Bisayan. These degrees are positive, comparative and superlative.

Nothing particular needs be observed about the positive degree, except what is mentioned in the foregoing paragraphs:

from hatáas (high), harohataás (higher),

from,, hobóg (intoxicated), horohobóg (more intoxicated),

from,, táuo (man), tarotauó (more of a man).

In the formation of adjectives prefixed with ma, this particle is preferably disregarded, as if such particle did not exist, as

from maópay (good), maoroopáy (better)

from,, magbuság (white), maboroboság (whiter), etc.

There is another form of comparative consisting in the use of the combined particles labi (more) and ca, as

labí ca maopay (better),

labí ca mabusag (whiter).

This last form is sometimes used for superlatives.

The superlatives are of three classes:

Those which do not admit any comparison, and which we call absolute or supreme superlatives, as

guimaopáyi (the best of all);

those which are not so absolute, and which we call ordinary superlative, as,

and those which convey the idea of excess, and which we call excessive superlatives, as

As is seen from the preceding examples, the supreme supertive is formed by adding to the beginning of the primitive the prefix gui and by appending to said primitive the affíx i. The first syllable of the primitive may be doubled as use permits. As,

from hatáas (high, tall), guihataási, or guihahataasi (the highest)

táuo (man), guitáu’i (a true and perfect man).

The first form is also adopted for the substantives to show the highest degree of identity as in this phrase:

An guiaamáyi mo gud an natauág ha imo

(It is your very father who calls you).

The ordinary superlative is formed with the particles capin ca or labí ca placed before the primitive, or with the particles caópay, ng̃a capin, or hin sogong̃ put after the primitive. As,

from mabido (sorry)

capín ca mabidò (very sorry)

labí ca mabidò

mabidò caopay

mabidò ng̃a capín

mabidò hin sogóng̃

The excessive superlative is formed with the particle uraúra ca placed before the primitive, or the particle ng̃a uraúra located after the root. As,

from maasín (salty)

uraúra ca maasín (excessively salty)

maasín ng̃a uraúra

The idea of the excessive superlative is also expressed sometimes with the particles “lapás ca” (excessively), or with the phrase “dirí sonô hin ca” or “dirì socól hin ca” (out of measure), placed before the primitive, as

lapás ca maasín

dirì sonô hin ca maasín

dirì socól hin ca maasín.

NOTE.—The particles “labi” and “capin” take sometimes the affix an, as

from mahúsay (orderly, beautiful),

labínan ca mahúsay (very beautiful);

from masáquit (painful),

masáquit ng̃a capínan (very painful).

CARDINAL, ORDINAL, PARTITIVE, AND DISTRIBUTIVE.

The cardinal adjectives are the following:

As it is noticed above, the cardinals are formed by the preposition “cag” (and), the prefix “ca” (which means collection) and the affix “an”, added to the primitives “usá, duhá, tuló, upáo, lima, unóm, pitó, ualó, siyám, napulo, gatós, yocót, ribo”, the phonetical reasons being taken in consideration. Thus we say:

caruhaán, not caduhaán,

catloan, not catuloán,

cap’atán not caupatán,

calim’an not calimahán,

caúnman, not caunoman.

The word “usa” is frequently contracted, especially in familiar language, by the supression of the last vowel. Thus:

us ca gatos instead of “usá” ca etc.

us ca yocót

us ca ribo

In reading the numbers, the English way is followed, the particles “uga may” being sometimes employed especially in cases of large amounts. Thus, to read this number

987654321,

we would say:

“Casiyamán cag ualó cayocót, pitó cagatós caúnman cag limá caribo, ng̃a may upát ca yocót, tuló ca gatós caruhaán cag usá.”

NOTE—In Bisayan, there is no word corresponding to the English zero (0). However, its figure is used in Bisayan. It is suggested that the word “lung̃ág” (empty), or “uaráy” (nothing) be adopted as corresponding to the word “zero” which is derived from modern Latin zephiram from Arabic cafrun, cifrun or sefer (empty).

The ordinals are formed by employing the particles “ica” (which bears the idea of order), placed before the cardinal. As

ica usá,

ica napulò

ica calim’an

ica upat ca gatós

ica siyam ca yucót

icá pito ca ribo.

The ordinal of usa has also simple forms, as siyahan, siyapá, and frequently admits the particle icag instead of ica, as icag usá.

The partitives have exactly the same form, as the ordinals, except in that the ordinals cag usa, siyahan and siyapá are never used as partitives; and that there is the form tung̃â and its variants catung̃â, tung̃â or catung̃â hin or ng̃a (half), employed instead of icaduhà.

The phrase ca bahín (part) is frequently used in the partitives to avoid confusion. Thus

an icaupát ca bahín (the fourth part)

The particle ica is sometimes contracted into caas “catung̃a” (half), “cauróg” (most).

The distributives are formed by adding to the cardinals the particle tag (which conveys the idea of distribution). As

tag dúha (two, each)

tag caualóan (eighty, each)

tag yúcot (thousand, each)

When the distributive bears the meaning of portion, the particle iquina is combined with tag. As

iquina tag duha (each two), etc.

COLLECTIVE

Gender.

The gender is scarcely regarded. We have however for few nouns the natural and grammatical genders.

Examples of natural gender:

MASCULINE FEMININE

laláqui (male person) babaye (woman)

lalaquí (male not person) babayé (female not person)

amay (father) iróy (mother)

bána (husband) asáua (wife)

bata (uncle) dadâ (aunt)

baylo (brother in law) hipág (sister in law), etc.

Examples of gramatical gender:

Number

of táuo (man) “mg̃a táuo,” or “catauóhan” (men),

of dacò (large), dagcò (large, plural).

of matam-is (sweet), magtam-is (sweet, plural),

of hatáas (high), hagtáas (high, plural).

When the noun is preceded by numeral adjectives, the singular keeps its form, as

usá ca táuo (one man), napulò ca tauo (ten men),

usá ng̃a baláy (one house), calim’an ng̃a baláy (fifty houses).

Some adjectives do not admit the interfix g, for euphonical reason, as

of hubyà (lazy), mg̃a hubya, not húgbyà, etc.

Case.

There is no inflection for Bisayan nouns to distinguish their different cases, as in Greek and Latin. The cases are determined by the prepositions and by variable parts of speech preceding the noun.

IMPORTANT OBSERVATION.

There are great many Bisayan nouns composed of the same letters, but which have different meanings according to the accent they bear. Of these are the following:

Transposition of accents.

The accent of a word frequently changes its place upon its transformation.

In the diminutives formed by repetition of the root or by the affix ay, the acute accent is always placed upon the penult. As

from baláy, balaybálay

from,, saróual, sarouálay

from,, balóto, balotóhay.

The grave accent of the root is preserved; and its angular accent becomes grave, which is preserved in its repetition. As

from dacò, dacòdácò

from,, bohô (hole), bohòbóhò (little hole).

When the primitive has the acute accent on its penult, said accent is transferred to the last syllable of the original primitive, the repeated primitive following the preceding rules. As.

from dáhon, dahóndáhon

from,, cáhoy, cahoycáhoy

from,, halípot, halipótay

from,, maópáy, maopay-ópay

from,, hatáas, hataastáas

In the figuratives, the same rules are followed; and when the interfix ro is employed, the primitive generally loses its acute accent which is placed upon the penult of the figurative. As

from sacayán, sarosacáyan.

In the verbal nouns, it is a general rule that when the verb root has its acute accent on its penult, its verbals have said accent trasplaced to their last syllables, and viceversa, as

from sarát, (to write), from bása (to read)

parasúrat parabasá

tigsúrat tigbasá

magsusúrat magbarasá

susurátan barasahán

susuráton barasahón

masúrat mabasá

isusúrat, ibarasá;

except when the transformative particle is ma meaning desirableness, in which case the acute accent is always on the last syllable; and also in case of the particle hi, where the accent is always put on the penult. As

masuratsurát,

himása.

In case where the penult, of the verb root is necessarily long, as when its vowel is followed by more than one consonant, and when the last syllable of the root is pronounced independently from the consonant or consonants preceding it, then the original acute accent of the root is preserved on the penult of the verbal. As

from cánhi (to come), dól-ong (to bear, to accompany)

paracánhi paradól-ong

tigcánhi tigdól-ong

cumaránhi domoról-ong

caranhían dorol-óngan

caranhíon dorol-óngon

macanhíon madol-óngon

icaránhi idoról-ong

hang̃aránhi hinonól-ong

In the derivatives, when the accent is on the penult of the primitive, it is also placed on the penult of the derivative; and when the accent is on the last syllable of the primitive, it is also put on the last syllable of the derivative, as

from áram, maáram

bayáu, mabaráyau

púsod, himósod

búua, buuáon

tubác, tubacón.

It must be noted that we refer to the acute accent. It sometimes happens that the last syllable of the primitive has angular accent, in which case such accent is discomposed, the grave being kept and the acute being transposed to the penult of the derivative, as

from salâ, saláan,

In the derivatives formed with taga, or tag, or maqui the accent of the root is not changed. As

from bódo, (salted fish), tagabódo

baláy (house), tagbaláy

calámay (dark sugar) maquicalámay

The comparatives formed with, the interfix ro, have always the accent on the last syllable no matter where it was in the primitive. As

from halábà (long), harohalabâ

uguis (white), urouguís.

The superlatives formed with the prefix gui and the affix i always have the accent on the penult, without regarding where it was in the primitive. As

from halárum (deep), guihahalarúmi

matahúm (beautiful), guimamatahúmi

The collectives follow the way in which their primitives are accented, so, if their, primitives have the accent on the penult, they have it on the penult, and when the primitives have the accent on the last syllable they also have it on their last syllables. As

from bátà (child), cabatáan

baláy (house), cabalayán.

It must be observed also that there are nouns which, thru phonetical variations, have more than one forms. Of such words are the following:

There are also words composed of the same letters but sounding differently and having different meanings thereby, on account of the separation with which some of their syllables are pronounced. As

bágo (a tree), bag-o (new)

lauay (saliva), lau-ay (repugnance)

tagóc (resin), tág-oc (inarticulate voice).

bágang (an insect), bág-ang (grinder)

bútol (bulky), bút-ol (throat)

bulánon (moony), bul’ánon (from Bohol), etc.

PRONOUNS

There are four classes: personal, demonstrative, possessive, and relative.

PERSONAL.

They are the following:

Declension

The cases are four; nominative, genitive, objective, and vocative.

First person.—Singular.

Plural.

Second person.—Singular.

Nominative.— Icáo, ca (thou, you)

Genitive.— Nimo, imo, mo (of, by thee, or you)

Objective.— Ha imo, dimo (to, for, etc. thee, or you)

Vocative.— Icao (thou, or you)

Plural.

Nominative.— Camó (you)

Genitive.— Niyo, iyo (of, by you)

Objective.— Ha iyo, díyo (to, for, etc. you)

Vocative.— Camó (you)

Third person—Singular.

Nominative.— Hiyá (he, or she)

Genitive.— Niya, iya (of, by him, or her)

Objective.— Ha iya, díya (to, for, etc. him or her)

Vocative— Hiyá (He, or she).

Plural.

Nominative— Hirá (They)

Genitive— Nira, ira (of, by them)

Objective— Ha ira, dira (to, for etc., them)

Vocative— Hirá (they).

DEMONSTRATIVE.

They have the same forms both for the singular and plural, as follows:

adí (this, these, nearer to the speaker than to the listener)

ini (this, these)

itó (that, those, nearer to the speaker than to the listener, corresponding to the Spanish “ese, esa, eso, esos, esas”)

adto (that, those, far from both the speaker and the listener, and corresponding to the Spanish “aquel, aquella, aquellos, aquellas”).

When used before the nouns, they have the particle nga after them; said particle being frequently contracted with the pronun. As

adí ng̃a, contracted adín,

iní ng̃a, contracted inín,

itó ng̃a, contracted itón,

ádto ng̃a, contracted ádton.

The form itón sometimes takes again the particle ng̃a. So it is said itón ng̃a batâ (that boy or girl).

Adí, adto in some places have their variants yadi, yadto.

In plural, the particle mga is placed after the preceding combinations;

They have two cases: subjective and objective.

Declension.

Adí.—Singular

Subjective— Adí, adí ng̃a, adín (this)

Objective— Hadí, hadí ng̃a, hadín, or hadin mg̃a (of, etc. this)

Plural.

Subjective— Adí, adi ng̃a mg̃a, adín mg̃a (these)

Objective— Hadí, hadi ng̃a mg̃a, hadín, or hadin mg̃a (of, etc., these).

Iní.—Singular

Subjective— Iní, iní ng̃a, inín (this)

Objective— Hiní, hiní ng̃a, hinín (of, etc., this)

Plural.

Subjective— Iní, ini ng̃a mg̃a, inín mg̃a (these)

Objective,— Hiní, hini ng̃a mg̃a, hinin mg̃a (of, etc., these).

Itó.—Singular.

Subjective.— Itó, itó ng̃a, itón, itón ng̃a (that)

Objective— Hitó, hitó ng̃a, hitón, hitón, ng̃a (of, etc. that)

Plural.

Subjective.— Itó, itó ng̃a mg̃a, itón mg̃a, itón ng̃a mg̃a (those)

Objective.— Hitó, hitó ng̃a mg̃a, hitón mg̃a, hitón ng̃a mg̃a (of, etc., those)

Adto.—Singular.

Subjective.— Adto, adto ng̃a, adton (that)

Objective.— Hadto, hadto ng̃a, hadton (of, etc., that)

Plural.

Subjective.— Adto, adto ng̃a mg̃a, adton mg̃a (those)

Objective.— Hadto, hadto ng̃a mg̃a, hadton mg̃a (of, etc., those)

The forms adton and hadton are frequently used instead of itón, hitón when the object referred to is very close to the listener. Itón is sometimes replaced by the forms hadto and haton. Examples:

mopáy adtón hiní (that one is better than this)

condî darodacô iní hadton (but this is larger than that)

say co hatón (I prefer that one).

POSSESSIVE.

They are the following:

SINGULAR PLURAL

acon, co (my, mine) aton, ta, amon (our, ours)

imo, mo (thy, thine, your, yours) iyo (your, yours)

iya (his or her) ira (their)

The forms co, mo, ta are used only after the nouns.

They have also two cases: subjective, and objective.

Declension.

Acon.—Singular.

Subjective.— Acon, co (my, mine)

Objective.— Ha acon, han acon (of, etc., my)

Plural.

Subjective.— Aton, ta, amon (our, ours)

Objective.— Ha aton, han aton, ha amon, han amon (of, etc., our)

Imo.—Singular.

Subjective.— Imo, mo (thy, thine, your, yours)

Objective.— Ha imo, han imo (of, etc., your, thy)

Plural.

Subjective.— Iyo (your, yours)

Objective.— Ha iyo, han iyo (of, etc., your)

Iya—Singular.

Subjective— Iya (his, her, hers)

Objective.— Ha iya, han iya (of, etc., his, her)

Plural.

Subjective.— Ira (their)

Objective.— Ha ira, han ira (of, etc., their)

These plurals refer to the subjects possessing. The plural referring to the objects possessed, is formed in each case by using the particle mg̃a, as

Acon mg̃a cabogtóan (my brothers or sisters)

Iyo mg̃a láuas (your bodies)

Ira mg̃a cabalayán (their houses)

RELATIVE

They are as follows:

These pronouns, except hin’o and bisan hin’o have no inflection for cases.

Ng̃a.

This relative always refers to the subject of the verb. It never relates to the complement. So the sentence:

“the house that Peter builds is big”,

cannot be translated literally into Bisayan. It is expressed by passive voice. Thus:

“an baláy ng̃a guintitindog ni Pedro, dacô”;

literally “the house that is being built by Peter is big”, And this:

“the book which you gave me yesterday”

is translated:

“an basahón ng̃a ihinátag mo ha acon cacolóp”;

literally “the book which was given by you to me yesterday”

This pronoun is indispensable when a substantive is qualified by an adjective, as

It differs from the conjunction ng̃a (that) in that the pronoun always refers to a noun, never to a verb.

NOTE.—This particle ng̃a expresses in some instances the idea of “saying,” “question,” “answer,” etc., as when we say:

Ng̃a ni Pedro: “tágui acó hin salapí.” Dáyon batón ni Juan, ng̃a niya: “uaray co salapí.”

Peter said: “give me money.” John immediately replied by saying: “I have no money.”

Make Guillermo come. Tell him: “you are needed there.”

When applied to the third person it is frequently combined with the particle laóng̃ as:

Násiring̃ hi Pedro, ng̃alaóng̃: “magtotoón aco.”

Peter said: “I shall study”.

This special idea conveyed by the word ng̃a seems to show in other instances in the Bisayan tongue, as when it is said depreciatively:

¡Ca damò hin im ng̃ang̃a!

How many things you ask or talk!

where the doubled ng̃a means request or talking.

Anó.

This pronoun has the same use as the English what, except when the latter is used as an objective relative, in which case the said English pronoun is translated by the article an. As when it is said:

“What you need is patience, not science,” which is translated:

An guinquiquinahang̃lan mo an pag-ílob, dirì hibaró.

Bisan anó.

Bisan ano means “anything” or “whatever.” Examples:

Whatever you do I’ll know it.

Bisan ano in buháton mo, hisasabotán co.

Give me anything eatable.

Tágui aco hin bisan anó ng̃a hacaraón.

It is frequently replaced by ano lâ, or anoano lâ. Ex.:

Anything you may desire, I’ll give you.

Ano lâ ng̃a caruyágon mo, ihahatag co ha imo.

You wish to see everything.

Anoano lâ buót mo hiquit’an.

When it is preceded by an article, it means “which,” as

Which horse do you like?

¿An anó ng̃a cabayo in buót mo?

Hin’o

This relative is only used in the interrogative phrases. It is not employed as the English “who” when this relative serves as “that”. So this phrase

“that person who talks is my brother” is translated: “itón tauo ng̃a nagyayácan, acon bugto,” not “itón tauo hin’o nagyayácan, etc.”

It has two cases: subjective and objective.

Declension

SINGULAR PLURAL

Subjective— Hin’o (who) Hirá hin’o (who)

Objective— Canáy, can canáy (of, etc. whom whose) Canda canáy (of, etc., whom, whose)

Bisan hin’o

Bisan hin’o means “whoever” or “anyone”. Example:

Whoever is there, let him come.

Bisan hin’o in adâ, pacanhía.

Anyone knows him.

Bisan hin’o náquilála ha iya.

It also has two cases: subjective and objective.

Declension.

SINGULAR PLURAL

Subjective.— Bisan hin’o (whoever) Bisan hirá hin’o (whoever)

Objective.— Bisan canáy (of, etc., whomever) Bisan canda canáy (of etc., whoever)

Hain.

Hain means “which.” Examples:

Which of these hats is yours?

¿Háin hiní ng̃a mg̃a calò in imo?

Similarly to “ano,” the pronoun “háin” is only used in the interrogative forms, never as ng̃a (that). So the phrase

“the book which you saw”

is translated

“an basahón ng̃a imo quinità”

(literally: the book that was seen by you), and not

“an basahon háin icao quinmità.”

Bisan háin.

It is equivalent to the English “whichever,” Examples:

Whichever of those books satisfies me.

Didâ hitó ng̃a mga basahón bisan háin maopay co.

NOTE.—These relatives hain and bisan háin must not be confounded with the adverbs of the same form, háin (where) and bisan háin (wherever). The former refer only to nouns, the latter to verbs.

CONTRACTIONS.

The pronouns are frequently contracted as follows:

acó, ácon, to ac

nácon to,, nac

dácon to,, dac

camí to,, cam

quitá to,, quit

námon to,, nam

ámon to,, am

náton to,, nat

áton to,, at

dámon to,, dam

dáton to,, dat

icáo to,, ic

nímo to,, nim

imo to,, im

dimo to,, dim

camó to,, cam

adi to,, ad

iní to,, in

itó to,, it

adín to,, ad

itón to,, it

hadí to,, had

hadín to,, had

hiní to,, hin

hinín to,, hin

hitó to,, hit

hitón to,, hit

hatón to,, hat

ácon to,, ac

áton to,, at

ámon to,, am

imo to,, ini

bisan anó to,, bis ano

bisan háin to,, bis hain

VERBS

The verbs may be grouped in the following classes:

As to their conjugation: active, passive, negative, interrogative, suppletory, impersonal, defective.

As to their inflections: primitive, and progressive.

The Active verb represents the subject as acting, as:

acó násugò (I order).

The Passive verb represents the subject as being acted upon, as:

acó sinúsugò (I am ordered).

The Negative verb involves a negation, as:

ayáo catúrog (do not sleep).

The Interrogative verb involves a question, as:

¿diín ca cadto? (where did you go?)

The Suppletory verb supplies the lack of all auxiliary and a few other verbs as from ini (this), we have:

íiní acó (I am here), to express the verb “to be,” in Bisayan.

The Impersonal verb has not a definite subject, as:

náurán (it rains).

The Defective verb lacks one or more of its principal parts as,

iyá (receive it).

The Primitive verb is used in its original and simplest form as:

acó násurát (I write).

The Progressive verb denotes continuance of the action, as:

acó nagusurát (I am writing).

CONJUGATION

VOICES

They are active and passive. The passive voice has three classes: direct, indirect, and instrumental.

The direct passive is where the subject is the direct object in active voice, as:

suratá an acon ng̃aran (write my name; literally: let my name be written by you).

The indirect passive is where the subject is an indirect object of the verb in its active voice, as:

suratí an imo amáy (write to your father; literally: let a letter be written by you to your father),

The instrumental passive is where the subject is the instrument or real object of the action, as:

igsurát iní ng̃a pluma (write with this pen; literally: let this pen be used by you in writing.)

MOODS AND TENSES

There are four moods: infinitive, indicative, imperative, and subjunctive,

The infinitive has two tenses: present, and gerund; three in passive voice: present, gerund, and past participle.

The indicative has three. The ordinary forms have present, past and future. The irregular forms have present, imperfect past, and past.

The imperative and subjunctive, have each one tense: present.

Infinitive: The present is frequently used as a noun, as:

an pagcáon (the meal).

The gerund is frequently used in compound sentences for past tenses, as:

han pag-abot co (when I arrived: literally: upon my arriving).

The past participle is employed as an adjective as:

hinigugma co ng̃a iróy. (my dear mother; literally: mother loved by me).

NOTE.—There are in Bisayan forms resembling and equivalent in many instances to the Latin infinitive future ending in rus, in active, and in dus, in passive, as amaturus and amandus. Such Bisayan forms are those formed by the particle um combined with the interfix r or its substitutes (See page 20), as:

cumaráon (one who is to eat)

caraonón (a thing to be eaten).

Indicative. Ordinary forms. The present corresponds to the same tense, in English, and also to the Spanish and Latin imperfect past. As:

nácaon acó (I eat)

nácaon acó han pag-abot mo (I was eating when you arrived)

The past tense represents the English present perfect, and past, indicative mood. As:

nagsurát acó (I have written, I wrote)

The future corresponds to the English future tense, as:

másurat acó (I shall write)

Suppletory forms. The present represents the English present and future tenses, indicative. As:

He is here: hiyá háhani.

He will be here tomorrow: hiyá hahaní buás.

The imperfect past and past tense corresponds to the same tense of the Latin and Spanish languages: as

Imperative and Subjunctive. The single tense (present) of each of these moods corresponds to the same tense in English, as:

cadto búas (go there to-morrow)

cun cumadto ca buas, tauága acó (If you go there tomorrow, call me).

han imo pag-abót nacacatima na acó (when you arrived, I had already finished).

2. The English future perfect tense is supplied in Bisayan by the future tense, indicative, of the potential form. As

umabút ca ng̃anì macacatima na aco (when you arrive, I shall have finished).

3. The Latin and Spanish imperfect past tense, subjunctive mood, is supplied in Bisayan by the present, subjunctive, and future indicative. As

Cun gumican acó niyán, diri co hiya igquiquita buás (If I should go today, I would not meet him tó-morrow).

4. The Latin and Spanish perfect past tense, subjunctive, is supplied in Bisayan by the past tense, indicative.

5. The Latin and Spanish plusquamperfect past tense, subjunctive, is supplied in Bisayan by the past and future (potential) tenses, indicative, respectively. As

Cun nagdágmit acó, hinaabután co cunta hiyá (If I had hastened, I should have reached him).

6. The Latin and Spanish imperfect future tense, subjunctive, is supplied in Bisayan by the present subjunctive.

7. And the perfect future tense, subjunctive, of said languages, is supplied in Bisayan by the present, indicative, potential form.

NUMBER AND PERSON.

There are two numbers: singular and plural.

There are three persons: first, second, and third. Except in the imperative, the inflections of the verbs generally do not change, in each tense. However, the progressive and suppletory forms frequently undergo some changes in plural, as

acó nagsusurát (I am writing),

camí nanunurát (we are writing)

INFLECTIONS.

The inflections are determined by particles, which are shown in the following tables:

(In the tables below, the dash represents the root; the sign (d) means that the first syllable of the root is doubled; s and p mean singular and plural, respectively).

TABLE 1

Primitive active

Infinitive

Present, and gerund: PAG—, s; PANG—, PAM—, PAN—, p

Indicative

Present: NA—

Past: INM—, or —INM—

Future: MA—

Imperative

(the root unaltered)

Subjunctive

UM—, or —UM—

OBSERVATIONS:

Infinitive. The present and gerund are formed by the prefix pag, and the root. In the plural, the g of pag undergoes the following changes:

When the root begins with a vowel o: with the consonant c, the pag is changed into pang the c then being suppressed. Examples:

from “arò” (to ask), pag-arò, pl. pang̃aro.

“catúrog” (to sleep), pagcátúrog, pl. pang̃atúrog.

If the root commences with a labial consonant, except m, pag is transformed into pam, and then the labial consonant disappears. Examples:

from “báyad” (to pay), pagbáyad, pl. pamáyad.

“pilì” (to select), pagpilì, pl. pamilì.

When the root begins with m, pag is transformed into pan, the m of the root remaining in it. Example:

from “múlay” (to teach), pagmúlay, pl. panmúlay.

If the root commences with any other consonant, pag is replaced by pan, the said consonant being then suppressed except when it is a g or h. Examples.

from “hapon” (to perch), paghápon, pl. panhápon,

from,, “gúbat” (to invade), paggúbat, pl. pangúbat,

from,, “búao” (to visit), pagdúao, pl. panúno,

from,, “tubò” (to grow), pagtubò, pl. panubò,

from,, “surát” (to write), pagsurát, pl. panurát.

(long na) nápilì acó (I select)

(short na) napílì acó (I was selected).

Past.—This tense is determined by the interfix inm placed between the first consonant and the first vowel of the root.

When the root commences with a vowel, this particle is simply prefixed to the root. As,

NOTE.—The m of imn is frequently suppressed. As,

from “múlay” (to teach), abót (to arrive)

from,, minúlay, inábot.

Future.—The particle determining this tense is the prefix ma which must be always pronounced long, so as not to confound it with the short ma used among the verbal and derivative nouns. As,

(long ma) hiyá mácáon (he or she will eat)

(short ma) hiyá macaón (he or she is a glutton)

(long) máborong̃ (there will be fog)

(short) mabórong̃ (confuse)

Imperative.—It is simply the root without any transformative particle.

NOTE.—There is a form consisting in doubling the first syllable of the root. But this form is used only in the preceptive language, as when we say: “tauágon ca ng̃anì, bábatón” (whenever you are called, always answer).

Subjunctive.—The single tense of this mood is determined by the interfix um which is placed between the first consonant and the first vowel of the root. If the root begins with a vowel, the interfix is added to the beginning as from “arò” (to ask), “umarò,” from “cáon” (to eat) cumáon.

Example:

Root: surát.

Infinitive

Present, and gerund singular: pagsurát (to write, writing)

plural: panurát

Indicative

PRESENT

SINGULAR PLURAL

acó násurat I, write, etc. camí quitá násurat we write

icao they, you camó you

hiyá he, she hirá they

PAST

acó, etc. inmurát (I, etc. wrote) camí, etc. sinmurát (we, etc. wrote)

FUTURE

acó, etc. másurat (I shall, etc. write) camí, etc. másurat (we shall, etc. write)

Imperative

Subjunctive

acó, etc. sumurát (I may, etc. write) camí, etc. sumurát (we may, etc. write)

TABLE 2.

Progressive active

Infinitive.

(the same as that of the primitive active)

Indicative

Present: NAG(d)—, s; NANG(d)—, NA(d)—, or NAN(d)—, p.

Past: NAG—, s: NANG—, NA—, or NAN—, p.

Future: MAG(d)—, s; MANG(d)—, MA(d)—, or MAN(d)—, p.

Imperative.

PAG—, s; PANG—, PA—, or PAN—, p.

Subjunctive

MAG—, s; MANG—, MA—, or MAN—, p.

OBSERVATIONS.

Infinitive. Its forms are exactly the same as those of the primitive active.

Its plural is formed according to the first letter of the root. When the root commences with a vowel, or with the consonant c as

arò (to ask)

cáon (to eat)

the formation takes the following process: ng̃ is added to the beginning of the root, c being suppressed, as

ng̃aro, ng̃áon;

the first syllable is doubled,73 as

ng̃ang̃aro, ng̃ang̃áon,

to which the particle na is prefixed, as

nang̃ang̃arò, nang̃ang̃áon,

which is the final form.

When the root commences with a labial consonant, as

báyad (to pay)

múlay, (to teach)

pili (to select),

the formation of the plural is as follows: the first consonant of the root is replaced by m, or not altered if it is an m, as

máyad, múlay, mili;

then the first syllable is doubled,73 as

mamáyad, mumúlay, mimilí;

and the prefix nan is employed, as

nanmamáyad, nanmumúlay, nanmimili,

the final form.

The last n of nan is frequently suppressed, as

namamáyad

namimili.

When the root begins with a dental consonant as

dapò (to approach)

tábon (to cover)

surát (to write)

the formation of the plural consists in replacing the first consonant by n, as

napó, nabon, nurat,

nanapo, nanabon, nunurat,

to which the particle na is prefixed as

nanánapó, nanánabon, nanúnurat,

the final form.

If the root commences with any other consonant, the plural is formed by doubling the first syllable of the root, and by prefixing the particle nan to the root so transformed. Examples:

from hugas (to wash), nanhuhugas.

lohód (to kneel down), nanlolohod.

rabot (to pull), nanrarabot.

Past. The singular is formed by adding to the root the prefix nag.

The plural is formed exactly as the plural present, except in that the first syllable of the root transformed is not doubled.

Future.—The formation of this tense is the same, both in singular and plural, as that of the present, except in that the prefixes used here are mag, ma, man, mang, instead of nag, na, nan, nang.

Imperative.—In singular, the prefixes pag and mag are employed. In plural, the prefixes, pa, pan, pang, ma, man, mang, are used in the same way and cases as the prefixes na, nan, nang, in the present indicative.

Subjunctive.—It is formed in the same way as the future indicative, except in that the first syllable of the root is not doubled here.

Root: surát (write)

Infinitive

Present, and gerund singular: pagurát (to be writing, being writing)

plural: panurat

Indicative

PRESENT

SINGULAR PLURAL

acó, etc., nagsusurát (I am, etc. writing) camí, etc. nanunurát (we are, etc. writing)

PAST

acó, etc. nagsurát (I was, etc. writing) camí etc. nanurát (we were, etc. writing)

FUTURE

acó, etc. magsusurát (I shall, etc. be writing) camí, etc., manunurát (we shall, etc. be writing)

Imperative

pagsurát icao (be writing) panurát quita, camó (let us, you be writing)

magsurát hiya (let him or her be writing) manurát camí, hirá (let us, them be writing)

Subjunctive

acó etc. magsurát (I may, etc. be writing) camí, etc. manurát (we may, etc. be writing)

TABLE 3

Primitive direct passive

Infinitive

Present, and gerund: PAG—A, s; PANG—A, PAM—A, PAN—A, p

Past participle: IN—, or —IN—

Indicative

Present: IN(d)—, or —IN(d)—

Past: IN—, or —IN—.

Future: (d)—ON.

Imperative

—A.

Subjunctive

—ON.

Infinitive. The present and gerund are determined in singular by the prefix pag and the affix á. Pag is used as in the active voice. The affix a is accented (if the last syllable of the root is accented) and simply appended to the root prefixed by pag. This affix is sometimes ha. The use of a or ha follows the same rules established for the use of the affixes an and han (See page 15 of this book).

In plural the prefixes pang, pam, pan, are employed in combination with the affix a. The said prefixes are used in same way as their similar in the primitive active. (See page 62 of this book).

The past participle is formed by the interfix in placed between the first consonant and the first vowel of the root. If this begins with a vowel the in is prefixed to the root. As

from “cáon” (to eat), quináon (eaten)

from,, “inóm” (to drink), ininóm (drunk)

Indicative.—Present. This tense is formed by doubling the first syllable of the root and by then placing in it (after doubling the said first syllable) the interfix in, in a similar way as in the past participle. (See the preceding observution). As,

Past.—The formation of this tense is exactly the same as that of the past participle seen above.

Future.—This tense is formed by doubling the first syllable of the root and appending to it the affix on. As

from “caón,” cácaónon

from,, “inóm,” iinomón, contracted iinmon.

Imperative.—The single form of this mode, consists in the root appended by the affix “á.” It must be observed that this affix “á” in the imperative bears the idea that the order or command is always directed to the second person or first plural, If such order or command is directed to some other person, not to the second, or first (quitá) plural then the subjunctive is used. As

higugmaá an Dyos (love God; lit.: let God be loved by you)

higugmaá ta an catadúng̃an (let us love justice; lit.: let justice be loved by us).

higugmaón nira an igcasitáuo (let them love the fellow-man: lit.: let the fellowman be loved by them).

The last form is also frequently used for the second person, singular and plural, and for the first person, plural. As

higugmaón mo an Dyos (love God)

higugmaón niyo, etc.

higugmaón námon, etc.

higugmaón ta, etc.

Subjunctive. The single form of this mode consists in the root appended by the affix on, as it is seen in the preceding examples.

Example:

Root: surát

Infinitive

Present, and gerund singular: pagsuratá (to be written, being written).

plural: panuratá

Past participle: sinurát (written)

Indicative

PRESENT

SINGULAR PLURAL

acó, etc. sinúsurat (I am, etc. written) camí, etc. sinúsurat (we are, etc. written)

PAST

acó, etc. sinurát (I was, etc. written) camí, etc. sinurát (we were, etc written)

FUTURE

acó, etc. susuratón (I shall, etc. be written) camí, etc. susuratón (we shall, etc be written)

Imperative

suratá acó, icáo, hiyá, camí, quitá, camó, hírá (let me, thee, you, him, her, us, you them he written by you)

Subjunctive

acó, etc. suratón (I may, etc. written) camú, etc. suratón (we may, etc. be written)

TABLE 4.

Progressive direct passive.

Infinitive.

Present, and gerund: PAG—A, s; PANG—A, PAM—A, PAN—A, p.

Past participle: GUIN—, s; PINA—, PINAN—, p.

Indicative

Present: GUIN(d)—, s; PIN(d)—, PINAN(d)—, p.

Past: GUIN—, s; PINA—, PINAN—, p.

Future: PAG(d)—ON, s; PA(d)—ON, PAN(d)—ON, p.

Imperative

PAG—A, s; PA—A, PAN—A, p.

Subjunctive

PAG—ON, s; PA—ON, PAN—ON, p.

OBSERVATIONS.

The past participle is formed by the prefix guin added to the root.

Past. The same as the present, except in that the first syllable of the root transformed is not doubled.

Example:

Root: surát

Infinitive

Present, and gerund singular: pagsurátá (to be written, being written)

plural: panuratá

Past participle: guiusurát s.; pinanunurát p. (written).

Indicative

PRESENT

SINGULAR PLURAL

acó, etc. guinsusurát (I am, etc. being written) camí, etc. pinanunurát (we are, etc. being written)

PAST

acó, etc. guinsurát (I was, etc. being written) camí etc. pinanurát (we were, etc. being written)

FUTURE

acó, etc. pagsusuratón (I shall be, etc. being written) camí, etc. panunuratón (we shall be, etc. being written)

Imperative

Pagsuratá acó, icao, hiya, camí, hira (let me, you, him or her, us, you, them be being written).

Subjunctive

acó, etc. pagsuratón (I may be, etc. being written) camí, etc. panuratón (we may be, etc. being written)

TABLE 5

Primitive indirect passive

Infinitive.

Present, and gerund: PAG—I, s; PA—I, PAN—I, PANG—I, p.

Past participle: —IN—AN, or IN—AN

Indicative.

Present: IN(d)—AN, or —IN(d)—AN

Past: —IN—AN, or IN—AN

Future: (d)—AN

Imperative.

—I

Subjunctive.

—AN

OBSERVATION:

Indicative.—Present. This tense is determined by doubling the first syllable of the root, and then (after the said first syllable being doubled) by placing the interfix in between the first consonant and the first vowel of the root. If the root begins with a vowel, the interfix in is prefixed to the root whose first syllable has been already doubled.

Past.—This tense has the same form as the past participle.

Future.—The form of this tense consists in doubling the first syllable of the root and by appending to it the affix an.

Imperative. Its form consists in the root appended by the affix i.

Subjunctive. It’s form is the root appended by the affix an.

Example:

Root: surát

Infinitive

Past participle: sinuratán (addressed with a letter)

Indicative

PRESENT

SINGULAR PLURAL

acó, etc. sinusuratán (I am, etc. addressed with a letter) camí, etc. sinusuratán (we are, etc. addressed with a letter)

PAST

acó, etc. sinuratán (I was, etc. addressed with a letter) camí, etc. sinuratán (we are, etc. addressed with a letter)

FUTURE

acó, etc. susuratán (I shall be, etc. addressed with a letter) camí, etc. susuratán (we shall be, etc. addressed with a letter)

Imperative

uratí acó, icáo, hiyá, camí, quita, camó, hirá (let me, thee, you, him, her, us, you, them be addressed with a letter)

Subjunctive

acó, etc. suratán (I may be, etc. addressed with a letter) camí, etc. suratán (we may be, etc. addressed with a letter)

TABLE 6.

Progressive indirect passive

Infinitive

Present and gerund: PAG—I, s; PAN—I, PAN—I, PANG—I, p.

Past participle: GUIN—AN.

Indicative

Present: GUIN(d)—AN, s; PINA(d)—AN, PINAN(d)—AN, PINANG(d)—AN, p.

Past: GUIN—AN, s; PINA—AN, PINAN—AN, PINANG—AN, p.

Future: PAG(d)—AN, s: PA(d)—AN, PAN(d)—AN, PANG(d)—AN, p.

Imperative

PAG—I, s; PA—I, PAN—I, PANG—I, p.

Subjunctive

PAG—AN, s; PA—AN, PAN—AN, PANG—AN, p.

OBSERVATIONS.

Infinitive.—Present, and gerund. Their single form is the same as their corresponding primitive form indirect passive.

Past participle. It is distinguished by the prefix guin.

Future.—The same as that of the progressive direct passive, except in that the affix an is used here instead of on.

Imperative.—The same as that of the progressive direct passive, except in that the affix i is used here instead of a.

Subjunctive—Also the same as that of the progressive direct passive, except in that the affix an is here used instead of on.

Example:

Root: surát

Infinitive

Present, and gerund singular: pagsuratí

plural: panuratí

Past participle: guinsurát

Indicative

PRESENT

SINGULAR PLURAL

acó, etc. guinsusuratán camí, etc. pinanunuratán

PAST

acó, etc. guinsuratán camí, etc. pinanunuratán

FUTURE

acó, etc. pagsusuratán camí, etc. panunuratán

Imperative

pagsuratí acó, icáo, hiyá, camí, quitá, camó, hirá

Subjunctive

acó, etc. pagsuratán camí, etc. panuratán

TABLE 7

Primitive instrumental passive.

Infinitive.

Present, and gerund: PAG—AN, s; PA—AN, PAN—AN, PANG—AN, p.

Past participle: I—IN—, IIN—

Indicative

Present: I—IN(d)—, IIN(d)—

Past: I—IN—, IIN—

Future: I(d)—

Imperative

I—

—AN

Subjunctive

I—

OBSERVATIONS:

Infinitive, Present, and gerund. The same observation is made as that on the same tenses of the primitive, active, with the addition that here the affix an is appended to the root.

Past participle. It is formed by the prefix i and the interfix in. If the root commences with a vowel, the prefix and the interfix are joined, as

from “arò” (to ask), iinarò.

Indicative.—Present, past. They are the same as the present and past tenses indicative of the primitive direct passive, with the addition of the prefix i.

Future.—It is formed by doubling the first syllable of the root and by using the prefix i. As

isusurát, iaaro.

Imperative.—The first form consists in prefixing to the root the particle i. The second form consists in affixing to the root the particle an.

Subjunctive. It consists in prefixing to the root the particle i.

NOTE.—The instrumental passive is also employed to express substitution; as when we say in English:

Read this word for me: ibása acó hiní ng̃a polong̃ (literally: let me be substituted by you in reading this word).

Example:

Root: surát

Infinitive

Present and gerund singular: pagsuratán (to be used in writing, being used in writing)

plural: panuratán

Past participle: isinurát: used in writing

Indicative

PRESENT

SINGULAR PLURAL

acó, etc. isinusurát (I am, etc. used in writing) camí, etc. isinusurát (we are, etc. used in writing)

PAST

acó, etc. isinurát (I was, etc. used in writing) camí, etc. isinurát (we are, etc. used in writing)

FUTURE

acó, etc. isusurát (I shall etc. be, used in writing) camí, etc. isusurát (we shall etc. be, used in writing)

Imperative

isurát or suratán acó, icao, hiya, camí, quitá, camó hira (let me, thee, you, him, her, us, you, them be used in writing).

Subjunctive

acó, etc. isurát (I may etc. be, used in writing) camí, etc. isurát (we may etc. be, used in writing)

TABLE 8.

Passive Progressive Instrumental

Infinitive

Present and gerund: PAG—AN, s; PA—AN, PAN—AN, PANG—AN, p.

Past participle: IGUIN—

Indicative

Present: IGUIN(d)—, s; IPINA(d)—, IPINAN(d)—, IPINANG(d)—, p.

Past: IGUIN—, s; IPINA—, IPINAN—, IPINANG—, p.

Future: IG(d)—, s: IPA(d)—, IPAN(d)—, IPANG(d)—, p.

Imperative

PAG—AN, s; PA—AN, PAN—AN, PANG—AN, p.

IG—, s; IPA—, IPAN—, IPANG—, p.

Subjunctive

IG—, s; IPA—, IPAN—, IPANG—, p.

OBSERVATIONS:

The observations made on the conjugation of the progressive direct passive are applied to the above conjugation except in that the present, and gerund take the affix an, and that the past participle, the present, and past indicative, and the subjunctive, plural, take the prefix i, and in that the imperative has the affix an, and the subjunctive singular the affix on, and the future, imperative, and subjunctive have a g after the prefix i.

Example:

Root: surat

Infinitive

Present, and gerund singular: pagsuratán

plural: panuratán

Past participle: iguinsurát.

Indicative

PRESENT

SINGULAR PLURAL

acó, etc. iguinsusurát. camí, etc. ipinanunurát

PAST

acó, etc. iguinsurát camí, etc. ipinanurát

FUTURE

acó, etc. igsusurát camí, etc. ipanunurat

Imperative

Pagsaratán or igsarát acó, icáo, hiyá. Panoratán or ipaanrát camí, quitá, camó, hirá.

Subjunctive

acó, etc. igsurát. camí, etc. ipaaurát.

NEGATIVE FORMS

These forms consist in employing the adverbs “diri” before the inflections of the infinitive, present and future indicative, and subjunctive; “uaráy” before the past indicative, and “ayáo” before the imperative.

As to the inflections of the root, they are the same as those of the corresponding; affirmative except the past indicative, which always takes the inflections of the imperative.

Example:

Negative Primitive Active.

Root: surát

Indicative.

Present, and gerund singular: diri pagsurát (not to write, not writing)

plural: diri panurat

Indicative

PRESENT

SINGULAR PLURAL

diri acó, etc. násurát (I do not, etc. write) diri camí, etc. násurát (we do not, etc. write)

PAST

uaráy acó, etc. surát (I did not, etc. write) uaráy camí, etc. surát (we did not, etc. write)

FUTURE

diri acó, etc. másarát (I shall not, etc. write) diri camí, etc. másurat (we shall not, etc. write)

Imperative

ayáo surát icáo, quitá, camó (let you, us not write)

diri sumurát hiyá, camí, hirá (let him, us, them not write)

Subjunctive

diri acó, etc. sumurát (I may not, etc. write) diri camí, etc. sumurát (we may, etc. not write)

NOTE.—The past consists sometimes, among the primitive forms, in the root having the first syllable doubled; and among the progressive forms, it consists in the prefix pag and the root whose first syllable is doubled. In plural, the pag undergoes the same changes as in the active conjugation.

Examples:

uaráy acó susurát (I did not write)

uaráy acó pagsusurát (I did not write)

Negative Progressive Active.

Root: surát

Infinitive

Present, and gerund singular: diri pagsurát (not to be writing, not being writing)

plural: diri panurát

Indicative

PRESENT

SINGULAR PLURAL

diri acó, etc. nagsusurát (I am, etc. not writing) diri camí, etc. nanunurát (we are, etc. not writing)

PAST

uaráy acó etc. pagsurát (I was etc. not writing) uaráy camí etc. panurát (we were etc. not writing)

FUTURE

diri acó etc. magsusurát (I shall etc. not be writing) diri camí, etc. manunurát (we shall not, etc. be writing)

Imperative

ayao icao pagsurát (do not be writing) ayao quitá, camo panurát (let us, you, not be writing)

diri hiya magsurát (let him not be writing) diri camí, hirá manurát (let us, them not be writing)

Subjunctive

diri acó, etc. magsurát (I may, etc. not be writing) diri camí, etc. manurát (we may, etc. not be writing)

INTERROGATIVE FORMS

They are determined by the phrases “cay anó” (why), and by “diín”, “háín” (where), and by “san-o”, “cacan-o” (when, past and future respectively).

Cay ano

The interrogative conjugation by this phrase simply consists in the regular conjugation of the verb, placing before every inflection the said phrase followed by the particle ng̃a. As

¿cay anó ng̃a nasurat ca? (why do you write?)

¿cay anó ng̃a sinmurát hiya? (why did he or she write?)

¿cay anó ng̃a macadto quita? (what shall we go there for?) etc.

Diin, hain.

The interrogative primitive formed; by these adverbs, has only two inflections: one which consists in the original root, and which is the past tense indicative; and the other which consists on the same root, its first syllable being doubled; this last form is for the present and future tenses, indicative. These three tenses are the only tenses that this conjugation has. The adverb “diín” is for the present and past tenses. The adverb “háin” is for the future. Thus:

Present: ¿diin acó susurat? (where do I write?)

Past: ¿diin ca surát? (where did you write?)

Future: ¿háin camí susurát? (where shall we write?)

¿diín ca pagsusurát? (where are you writing?)

¿háin camó panunurát? (where will you be writing?)

In passive voices, these same forms are followed except in that the root takes the affix a in the direct passive and the affix i in the indirect passive, and the prefix i for the primitive form, or the prefix ig for the progressive form, in the instrumental passive. Thus:

¿diín suratá?

¿diín suratí?, etc.

NOTE.—Instead of the prefix ig or i, in the instrumental passive, the affix an is frequently employed. As

¿diín susuratán? for ¿diín isusurát? etc.

Cacan-o san-o

“Cacan-o” is placed before the past indicative; “san-o” is used before the future, indicative. They are the only two tenses of this kind of conjugation. As to the inflections in the primitive form, the past is simply the root, and the future is the root, whose first two letters are doubled. As

¿cacan-o camo surat? (when did you write?)

¿san-o ca cácanhi? (when will you come?)

In the progressive form the root takes the prefixes pag for the singular and pa, pan, pang in plural.

In the passive, the affix a is used in the direct passive; the affix i, in the indirect passive; and the prefix i or ig in the instrumental. These prefixes are frequently replaced by the affix an. Examples:

¿cacan-o surata?

¿Ban-o susuratí? etc

IMPORTANT OBSERVATION. The verb referred to by any adverb of time takes the same form, as to the indicative, as the adverbs cacan-o and san-o. As

SUPPLETORY VERBS

Irregular conjugation

The suppletory verbs in Bisayan are those formed by the pronouns “iní”, “adí”, “itó”, “itón”, “adtó”, “adtón”; to supply the English “to be”, and those formed by the adverbs “dinhi”, “didi”, “dida”, “dídton”, “díthon”, “dídto”, to supply the same verb “to be” and also the verbs “to come”, and “to go.” Of these verbs we call pronominal those derived from pronouns, and adverbial those derived form adverbs.

PRONOMINAL FORM.

This is a defective form, as it has only one inflection which consists in doubling the first vowel it being for the present tense, indicative mood. Ex.:

iini acó (I am here)

aadí camí (we are here)

iito hiya (he or she is there)

iiton hira (they are there)

aadto ca (you are there)

aadton camo (you are there)

NOTE. In same places of Leyte, as Dulag, these forms are not used but instead of them, the pronouns are doubled as: iniini, adiadi, itoito, etc.

In using these forms it is preferable to have the pronouns follow them.

ADVERBIAL FORM.

This conjugation is common to the adverbs dínhi, didí, didto, dithon, didto.

Root: dinhi (here)

Infinitive

Present, and gerund singular: pagdinhi (to be here, being here)

plural: paninhi

Indicative

PRESENT, AND FUTURE

SINGULAR PLURAL

acó, etc. aanhi or hahaní (I am, etc. shall be, etc. here) camí, etc. aanhi or hahani (we are, etc. shall be, etc. here)

Imperfect past, and past.

acó, etc. didinhi or nacanhi (I was, etc. here) camí etc. didinhi or nacanhi (we were, etc. here)

Imperative

dinhi icao, etc. (be here, etc).

Subjunctive

acó, etc. maanhi or mahani (I may etc. be here) camí, etc. maanhi or mahani (we may, etc. be here)

OBSERVATIONS.

SINGULAR PLURAL

pagdinhi paninhi

pagdidí panidí

pagdidâ panidâ

pagdidton panidton

pagdithon panithon

pagdidto panidto.

Indicative.—Present and future. It is formed by replacing the first two letters of the root with the prefix a doubled. As

from dinhi aanhi,

from,, didí aadí

from,, didâ aadâ

from,, didton aadton

from,, dithon aathon

from,, didto aadto

NOTE.—The form hahani is the transformation of aanhi, where the h is doubled and transposed by placing each h before each a. The other pronouns have not such a form.

Imperfect past and past. Their single form consists in doubling the first two letters of the root, as

Imperative.—It simply consists in the root.

Subjunctive.—It has two forms. The first consists in in prefixing to the root the particle ma; the second form consists in replacing the first two letters of the root with the prefix maa. As

from dinhi, madínhi, maánhi

from,, didí. madidí, maadí

from,, didâ, madidâ maadâ

from,, didton, madidton, mandton

from,, dithon, madithon, maathon

from,, didto, madidto, maadto.

NOTE—The form mahani is a transformation of maanhi like hahani of aanhi.

The verbs that supply the English “to come” and “to go” are conjugated as ordinarily. But they have a basis for conjugation, derived from the original root, and which we call conjugational root. So from the original roots

dinhi, didí, didá, didton, dithon, didto,

we have the corresponding conjugational roots:

cánhi, cadi, cadá, cadton, cathon, cádto.

The form followed in this conjugation is that of a primitive. Thus from the root “canhi”, we have:

Infinitive, present and present participle: pagcanhi (to come, coming)

NOTE.—But the plural of this tense is irregular. It is

pagpacánhi (to come, coming, plural).

Indicative present: acó, etc., nácanhi.

Indicative,, past: acó, etc., quinmánhi.

Indicative,, future: acó, etc., mácanhi.

Imperative: cánhi, etc.

Subjunctive: acó, etc. cumánhi.

NOTE. The past, indicative, and the present, subjunctive, have the irregular forms, nacanhi and macanhi respectively, which must not be confounded with the present and future, indicative, as the accent of the former in past and subjunctive is on the penult and not on the first syllable as in the present and future indicative.

Observation.

We have seen that when the verb “to be” refers to a place it is frequently expressed in Bisayan either, by the pronominal form or by the adverbial form.

But when the verb “to be” is equivalent to the Spanish “estar”, i.e., when it represents state, situation, or contingent condition, it is then expressed by the particles pag, nag, ma, na added to the words which are predicate of “to be” in English. As

I shall be sorry: magmamabidò acó.

In cases where the verb “to be” needs to be represented by an independent word, the expressions “amo”, “asya”, “asáy”, “say” (which express identity, rather than a mere essence, substance or existence) are frequently employed. As

Peter is the owner of this house Hi Pedro ámo an tag-iya hiní ng̃a baláy

hi Pedro asya an tag-iya, etc.

hi Pedro asáy tag-iya, etc.

hi Pedro say tag-iya, etc.

In other cases, the verb “to be” is not translated into Bisayan. As

God is omnipotent: an Dyos macagagáhum.

IMPERSONAL VERBS

The impersonal verbs follow the two forms: primitive, and progressive.

Owing to the fact that the Bisayan tongue has indirect and instrumental passive, all of the verbs, no matter to what class they belong, have passive voice. So the intransitive verbs of other languages have passive voice in Bisayan, The same thing happens to the impersonal verbs. They have indirect and instrumental passives which are complete in their conjugation.

Thus, in passive, there is no impersonal verb in Bisayan. The forms of conjugation of this kind of verbs are the same as those of the regular verbs.

Examples:

nagdadalogdog (it thunders)

nagiinuran (it rains persistently)

inuuranán hirá (the rain falls on them; literally: they are rained)

etc.

DEFECTIVE VERBS

The following belong to such class: may (to have) which has only, one form.

á (no, I do not wish)

iyá (receive it)

ohò (look at it)

May is also used as impersonal and then it means “there, is, there was, etc.”; conó (he or she says or said; they say or said;—it is said, it was said)

ambót (I do not know)

The English “to have” is also expressed in Bisayan by the root may-adà, whose irregular conjugation as follows:

Infinitive

Present, and gerund: pagcaada or pagcamay-adà (to have)

PRESENT

SINGULAR PLURAL

acó, etc. may ada or nagcacaada. (I etc. have) camí, etc. may adá or nangagcacaada (we, etc. have)

PAST

acó, etc. nagcaada (I, etc. had) camí, etc. nangagcaada (we, etc. had)

FUTURE

acó etc. magcacadá (I shall, etc. have) camí, etc. mangacacaada (we shall, etc. have)

Imperative

pacaadá

Subjunctive

magcaadá

NOTE 1. The strict meaning of the form may-ada is “to acquire”, rather than “to have”, for which the defective may is used.

2. The impersonal and defective may is very frequently joined to verbs in passive voice, it keeping its impersonal character. As

May naquita co nga bucad (I saw a flower; literally: There is a flower seen by me),

its regular order being:

may bucad nga naquíta co.

May tinagan co hin salapi (I gave money to someone; literally: there is some one given by me with money);—where the words “tauo nga” are tacit, the regular form being:

May tauo nga tinagan co hin salapi.

OTHER CLASSES OF VERBS

There are other kinds of verbs whose distinguishing character consists in their conjugational roots. They are always derived from the ordinary verbs, but bear different meaning, although conjugated as ordinarily.

The conjugational roots in active voice are different from those in passive.

From the original root SURAT we have the following classes:

ACTIVE VOICE

Conjugational root Indicative Present Classes

sinurat nagsisinurat CONTINUATIVE

casurat nacacasurát ABSOLUTE POTENTIAL

cagsurat nacacagsurát RELATIVE POTENTIAL

isusúrat náisusurat ABSOLUTE APTATIVE

ipagsusúrat náipagsusurat RELATIVE APTATIVE

pagpasurát nápasurát ABSOLUTE PERMISSIVE

papagsúrat napapagsurát RELATIVE PERMISSIVE

papágsurat pinasusurát ABSOLUTE IMPERATIVE

papagsurát pinapagsurát RELATIVE IMPERATIVE

susúrat nasusúrat IMPREMEDITATIVE

suratsúrat nasuratsúrat ABSOLUTE DIMINUTIVE

suratsurát nágsusuratsúrat RELATIVE DIMINUTIVE

suratsurát násuratsurát ABSOLUTE REPETITIVE

suratsurát nagsusuratsurát RELATIVE REPETITIVE

pasuratsúrat nagpapasuratsurat RECIPROCATE

From the original root “hadì,” we have

pacahádi napacaháhì IMITATIVE

From the original root “buság,” we have

pagticabusag náticabusag ABSOLUTE GRADUAL

pagticabusag nagtiticabusag RELATIVE GRADUAL

From the original root “sayáo,” we have

sayáo nagsasayáo FIGURATIVE

As it may be observed above, one original root may give a great number of different classes of verbs, as the nature of the root and use may permit. The subdivision absolute and relative of these classes corresponds exactly to the primitive and progressive forms already explained.

The continuative is distinguished, in its conjugational root, by the interfix in and it expresses persistence of the action. As

nagtitinóoc an batà (the child is crying persistently)

The potential is determined, in its conjugational roots, by the prefix paca or pacag (absolute and relative) and it means ability on the part of the subject to execute the action expressed by the original root. As

dirì hiyá nacacasurát, cay dirí maaram (he cannot write, because does not know how to)

dirì hiyá nacacagsurát, cay damò in buhat (he cannot write, because he is busy)

The optative has, in its conjugational root the prefix i or ipag (absolute and relative), and it represents the idea of desire. The absolute means a desire about to be executed; the relative signifies a mere intention; As

náilalacat na hiyá han ac pag-abotá (he was about to depart when I met him)

naipagsusurat acó ha imo (I was intending to write you)

When the absolute optative bears the particle ca, it expresses then proximate passivity, as

naicahorológ an bung̃a (the fruit is about to fall)

The permissive is distinguished in its conjugational root by the prefix pagpa or papag (absolute and relative) and it means leave or abandonment. As

diri hiya napaútang hin salapí (he does not lend any money; literally: he does not permit any money to be lent)

When the original root of this form is a substantive referring to a place, then the idea of “going” or “coming” is represented. As

mapa Manila camí (we shall go to Manila)

napahorón hi Juan (John went to the farm)

The imperative, which means order or command, is determined by the prefix papag and the interfix in. As

pinacacadto ca (you are ordered to go there)

pinapagtoón camo (you are commanded to study)

The impremeditative is determined by the repetition of the first syllable of the original root, and expresses a sudden and inconsiderate action. As

náyayácan ca lá (you talk inconsiderately)

nagtatanomtanom cami hin camote (we are cultivating a little camote)

The repetitive has the same formation as the diminutive.

The repetitive has the same formation as the diminutive, except in that the accent is always on the last syllable of the repetitive. It follows the formation of the figurative nouns,94 when the root has more than two syllable, or when the last syllable is preceded by more than one consonant or is pronounced separately from the preceding consonant. The repetitive expresses a repeated action. As

magtatanomtanóm acó hin abacá (I shall cultivate hemp again)

macarocánhi acó buás (I shall come again to-morrow)

The reciprocate is formed exactly as the diminutive, except in that the reciprocate uses the prefix pa. It means a mutual action. As

nagpapasuratsurat camí (we are writing to each other)

It is also formed by the prefixes pag and ig, and the affix an. As “pagquítáan (to meet), iguinquiquita iguinhihisugat”. It has a passive character.

The imitative is formed by the prefix paca, the same as the absolute potential, but here the root is always a noun, the object of the imitation. As

hiyá napacamaáram (he pretends to be learned)

hiyá napacacatsilà (he affects to be a Spaniard)

The gradual is determined by the prefix pagtica, and means an action by degrees. As

nagtiticapasò inin adlao (the day is becoming hotter)

nagtiticalamrag an bulan (the moon is becoming brighter)

The figurative verb has the same form as its original, except in the accent which is always on the last syllable. As

nagsasayáo hiyá tung̃ud han caol-ol (he jumps as if he was dancing, on account of the pain he feels)

DIRECT PASSIVE

CONTINUATIVE VERB

Conjugational root: sinúrat

Infinitive: present and gerund: pagsinurata s; pagpinanuráta p.

Indicative: Present: guinsisinúrat s; guinpipinanúrat p.

Past: guinsinúrat s; guinpinanurat p.

Future: pagsisinuraton s; pagpipinanuraton p.

Imperative: pagsinuráta s; pagpinanuráta p.

Subjunctive: pagsinuraton s; pagpinanuraton p.

ABSOLUTE POTENTIAL

Conjugational root: hisurát

Infinitive: paghisurát s; panhisurát p.

Indicative: Present: nahasusurát

Past: nahasurát

Future: mahasusurát

Imperative: (no imperative)

Subjunctive: mahasurát.

RELATIVE POTENTIAL

Conjugational root: hisurát

Infinitive: paghisurát s; panhisurát p.

Indicative: Present: nahapapagsurát s; nanhihisurát p.

Past: nahapagsurát s; nanhisurát p.

Future: mahapapagsurát s; manhihisurát p.

Imperative: (no imperative)

Subjunctive: mahapagsurát s; manhisurát p.

ABSOLUTE OPTATIVE

Conjugational root: isusurat

Infinitive: pag-isusurata s; pag-ipanunurata p.

Indicative: Present: guin-iisusurat

Past: guin-isusurat.

Future: pag-iisusuraton.

Imperative: pagisusurata

Subjunctive: pag-isusuráton.

RELATIVE OPTATIVE

Conjugational root: isusúrat

Infinitive: pag-ipagsusurata s; pag-ipanunuráta p.

Indicative: Present: guin-iipagsusurat, s; guin-iipanunurat.

Past: guin-ipagsusurat s; guin-ipanunurat.

Future: pag-iipagsusuráton s; pag-iipanunuraton.

Imperative: pag-ipagsusurata

Subjunctive: pag-ipagsusuraton.

(The permissive verbs have no passive)

ABSOLUTE IMPERATIVE

Infinitive: papagsuratán s; papanuratán p.

Indicative: Present: ipinasusurat.

Past: ipinasurat.

Future: ipasusurat.

Imperative: ipasurát.

Subjunctive: ipasurát.

RELATIVE IMPERATIVE

Conjugational root: pasurát

Infinitive: papagsuratán, s; papanuratán, p.

Indicative: Present: ipinápagsurát, s; ipinápanurát, p.

Past: ipinapagsurát, s; ipinapanurát, p.

Future: ipápagsurát, s; ipápanurát, p.

Imperative: ipapagsurát, s; ipapanurát, p.

Subjunctive: ipapagsurát, s; ipapanurát, p.

IMPREMEDITATIVE

Conjugational root: susuráta

Infinitive: pagsusuráta, s; panunuráta, p.

Indicative: Present: sinususurat.

Past: sinusurát.

Future: sususuráton.

Imperative: susuráta.

Subjunctive: susuráton.

ABSOLUTE DIMINUTIVE

Conjugational root: sinuratsúrat

Infinitive: pagsuratsuráta, s; panuratsuráta, p.

Indicative: Present: sinusuratsúrat,

Past: sinuratsúrat.

Future: susuratsuraton.

Imperative: suratsurata.

Subjunctive: suratsuráton.

RELATIVE DIMINUTIVE

Conjugational root: guinsuratsúrat

Infinitive: pagsuratsuratá, s; panuratsúrata, p.

Indicative: Present: guinsusuratsurat, s; pinanunuratsurat, p.

Past: guinsuratsurat, s; pinanuratsurat, p.

Future: pagsusuratsuraton, s; panunuratsuratón, p.

Imperative: pagsuratsuráta, s; panuratsuráta, p.

Subjunctive: pasuratsuraton, s; panusatsuráton, p

* * *

(The repetitive have the same form as the diminutive)

* * *

(The reciprocate have no passive)

* * *

(The imitative, gradual and figurative have no passive)

INDIRECT PASSIVE

The indirect passive is similar to the ordinary progressive indirect passive (see page 76), except in that in the continuative form the interfix in is used.

The potential have no indirect passive.

The optative have their indirect passive as that of the ordinary form (see page 73 et seq.), as to the affixes.

The imperative have no indirect passive.

The impremeditative has its indirect passive the same as that of the primitive indirect passive (see page 74) as to the affixes.

The indirect passive of the diminutive is the same as that of the ordinary, primitive (See page 78 et seq) as to the affixes.

INSTRUMENTAL PASSIVE.

The instrumental passive of the continuative impremeditative and diminutive verbs is similiar to that of the progressive (page 79 and 80) as to the prefixes.

The other verbs above mentioned have not instrumental passive.

NOTE. There are other classes of verbs formed by other particles and combinations; but their conjugation will be of no difficulty if the different forms hereinbefore given are thoroughly mastered.

DEPRECATIVE VERBS

There are verbs used in a depreciative tone. Examples.

for cáon (to eat) ásoc, lámon, etc.

for,, lacát (to walk) laág

for,, yacán (to talk) yaquimbot, etc.

These verbs are conjugated as ordinarily.

ADVERBS

The adverbs are of the following classes:

ADVERBS OF PLACE

DIIN (where),—BISAN DIIN (wherever, anywhere),—DIDI (here, nearer to the speaker then to the listener),—DINHI (here),—DIDÂ (there, nearer to the listener than to the speaker),—DIDTO (there),—HARANI (near),—HARAYÒ (far).

ADVERBS OF TIME

CACAN-O (when, past),—SAN-O (when, future),—BISAN CACAN-O (whenever, past),—BISANSAN-O (whenever, future),—NIYÁN (now),—CANINA (before, short time ago, in the same day),—CAGAB’I (last night),—CACOLÓP (yesterday),—CASANGAB’I (the night before last),—CASANGCOLOP (the day before yesterday),—CASANGYADTO (the day previous to the day before yesterday),—ANAY (before, anciently),—UNINA (after, in the same day),—BUAS (to-morrow),—ISANGBUÁS (the day after to-morrow),—ISANGYÁDTO (the day following the day after to-morrow),—CANONAY (always),—DAYÓ-DAY (persistently),—LAYON (soon),—DÁYON (immediately),—HADTO (then, before),—NG̃ANÌ, CUN (when, whenever),—NAMAN (again),—LIUAT (again),—PA (yet),—NA (already),—AGSOB (frequently),—DANAY (sometimes),—NGÁHAO (then).

ADVERBS OF DEGREE

CAPIN, LABIS, LAPÁS (more),—ORÓG (most),—URAÚRA (excessively),—TUMAN (a little scarcely).

ABVERBS OF MANNER

AMO, ASYA (so, thus),—ONAN-O (how),—MAN (also),—COLAÓNG, COLASÓT, COLANTOY (for example, for instance).

ADVERBS OF DOUBT

ADÂ, MAHAMOC, MASAGNI, MAHARANI, CADUÁS TING̃ALI, BANG̃IN, SABALI (probably, perhaps),—BAGÁ (as).

ADVERBS OF AFFIRMATION

OO (yes),—MANGUD (indeed),—CAIYA, UGA, CAY UGÂ, GUI-HÁPON (of course).

ADVERBS OF NEGATION

DIRI (no),—UARAY (no, past),—AYAO (no, future).

ADVERBS OF CAUSE

CAY (because),—TUNG̃ÚD (because).

OBSERVATIONS 1. Many adjectives and phrases are employed as adverbs, as

igbao (above)

niyán ng̃a adlao (to-day)

damò (much)

etc.

2. Some of the adverbs are frequently contracted, as those composed of “bisan” which is contracted into “bis.” Examples:

bisan diín contracted bis diín

guihapon contracted,, guiháp.

3. The adverbs have diminutive, comparative and superlative. As

from harani, haraníay, haroharaní, guihaharanií; etc.

PREPOSITIONS

HA (to, from, over, under),—TIPA (against, towards),—TUNG̃UD (for),—PATI, UPOD (with),—GAUÁS (without),—CAN (of, to),—TICANG, GUICAN (from, since),—TUBTUB (up to, till, until),—TALIUAN (after),—LÁBUT (except).

CONJUNCTIONS

The conjunctions are of the following classes:

COPULATIVE

UG, NG̃AN (and),—MAN (also),—NG̃A (that).

DISJUNCTIVE

ADVERSATIVE

CUNDÌ (but),—SABALI, UGARING (but, though), CUN, NGANÌ (if),—BISAN (even, though),—BACAY (as),—CUNTÀ (which bears the idea of past or future desire: it may frequently be translated in English with the phrase: “if possible”).

CONDITIONAL

CAUSAL

CAY, TUNGUD, BACAY, SANGLIT, CAY (inasmuch, because).

FINAL

BASI (in order to),—BANGIN (lest).

CONTINUATIVE

TACAY (then),—BUSA (therefore),—TARA (then).

INTERJECTIONS

Admiration: ¡a!, ¡ay!, ¡báá!, ¡abaá!, ¡baadao!, ¡abaadao! ¡pastilan!, ¡pauican!, ¡pauísac!, ¡palipac!, ipalísac!, ¡pauiday!, ¡aguimpauican!, ¡aguimpastilan!, ¡aguimpauisac!, ¡aguimpali, pac!, ¡aguimpalisac!, ¡aguimpauiday!, ¡pascalan!, ¡bongansiso!, !odoy!, ¡alágad!, ¡alagad dao!, ¡an ac pa!, ¡ito ngahao!, etc.

Pain and sorrow: ¡ay!, ¡ayhay!, ¡aguí!, ¡aroy!, ¡óhoy!, ¡pastilan!, etc.

Attention: ¡óho!, ¡ohondá!, ¡tabí!, ¡oy!, ¡acay! ¡hacay!, ¡solibangco!, etc.

Insistence: ¡gad!, ¡daó!, ¡uga!, ¡lugá!, ¡ugaring!, ¡lugaring!, ¡caiyá!, ¡pudó!, ¡haromámay!, etc.

Reprobation: ¡diri!, ¡uaráy!, ¡ayao!, ¡hulát!, ¡bodó!, ¡buró!, etc.

Pity: ¡cairó!, ¡in tauo!, ¡pastilán!, ¡odóg!, ¡baadao!, ¡aguí!, etc.

Desire: ¡cunta!, ¡upayda!, ¡unta!, ¡mangad pa!, ¡ihinaotpa!, ¡tubangan pa la!, etc.

Joy: ¡ay!, ¡ahay!, ¡upayda!, ¡salamat!, ¡ta!, etc.

Aversion: ¡á!, ¡aguí!, ¡ambot!, ¡sabá!, etc.

Invitation: ¡cadí!, ¡taná!, ¡halá!, etc.

Self-correction: ¡au!, ¡ay!, ¡sapayán!

Suspension: cuan.… inín.… ¡hulat!, ¡niyan!, etc.

Despair: ¡sahó!, etc.

Gratitude: ¡salamat!, ¡Dyos mag báyad!, ¡Dyos mag sugá!, etc.