PART II. ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. (continued 2)

Reciprocal pronouns. 199. Phrases such as one another are expressed by 大家 tá‘ ká and 家家 ká ká, mutually; or by 相 siáng, together, in combination.

總要家家相帮 ’tsóng yau‘ ká ká siáng pong, you ought to help one another.

我忒儂相遇 ’ngú t’eh nóng‘ siáng nü‘, you and I meet.

大家吃茶 tá‘ ká k’iuh dzó, take tea together.

Indefinite pronouns. 200. The word some in some one, something, is expressed either by 某 ’meu, or by the verb 有 ’yeu, have. Anything is expressed by sá‘, usually with 有 ’yeu preceding; in the negative, 唔 m takes the place of ’yeu.

某處某人 ’meu t’sû ’meu niun, a certain man of certain place.

某書某人做個 ’meu sû ’meu niun tsú‘ kú‘, such a book written by such a person.

有人來話 ’yeu niun lé wó‘, some one came and said.

有是有個 ’yeu ’zz ’yeu kú‘, there is some.

唔啥事體 m sá‘ zz‘ ’t’í, it is nothing.

有啥信息否 ’yeu sá‘ sing‘ sih ’vá, is there any news.

201. Several is expressed by ’kí kú‘, 好幾個 hau‘ ’kí kú‘, 大 tá, and the borrowed form 多許 tú hau‘; 幾許 ’kí hó‘[1] is also used.

來之幾個人 lé tsz ’kí kú‘ niun, several men have some.

好幾囘數 hau‘ ’kí wé‘ sú‘, several times.

大日勿來 tá nyih veh lé, it is long since you come.

唔啥幾許 m sá ’kí hô‘, not many.

Obs. The Greek tis is either interrogative who? (Lat. quis?) or indifinite some one, (Lat. aliquis.) In the same way, 幾 ’kí is sometimes how many? and at other times several. In the latter sense however, 好 is usually prefixed. So also sá‘ means either what? or any thing.

Correlatives or adjective pronouns. 202. The pronouns used as signs of the plural, as already illustrated in the section on substantives are 禿 全 t’óh, dzén, all or both, and 總 ’tsóng, all. None and neither are also expressed by t’óh, and dzén with a negative.

兩個人禿去者 ’liáng kú‘ niun t’óh k’í‘ ’tsé, the two men are both gone.

全勿是 dzén veh ’zz, it is neither of them.

全是笨個 dzén ’zz bun‘ kú‘, they are all stupid.

對否禿對個 té‘ ’vá, t’óh té‘ kú‘, are they right? they are all right.

Any one you please, whoever, whatever, are expressed by several borrowed phrases.

a. 大凡 tá‘ van, generally speaking, whoever.

大凡人做好個就有好報 tá‘ van niun tsú‘ ’hau kú‘, dzieu‘ ’yeu ’hau pau‘, whoever does well, will be at once rewarded.

Obs. 凡 van and sá‘ are the only true pronouns among these forms.

b. 勿拘 veh kü, does not matter what.

勿拘多少 veh kü tú ’sau, however many.

勿拘早晚 veh kü ’tsau an‘, however early or late.

行事勿拘那能總勿局 háng zz‘ veh kü ’ná nung ’tsóng veh gióh, whatever he does it is never right.

c. 隨便 dzûe bíen, as you please, whatever.

隨便啥辰光 dzûe bíen‘ sá‘ zun kwong, at whatever time.

隨便啥人肯个 dzûe bíen‘ sá‘ niun ’k’ung kú‘, any one would be willing to do it.

d. 勿論 veh lun‘, whatever.

勿論啥日脚 veh lun‘ sá‘ nyih kiáh, on whatever day.

勿論幾時儂要就有 veh lun‘ ’kí zz, nóng‘ yau‘ dzieu‘ ’yeu, at whatever time, when you want it, you have it at once.

e. sá‘ whatever.

想啥話啥, ’siáng sá‘ wó‘ sá‘, whatever he thinks, he says.

Obs. i. Buttman, Greek Grammar, section 78, says “Correlatives are words in connection with each other, of which one contains a certain question, and the corresponding one expresses the simplest relation which answers that question.” Thus, the question 啥人 sá‘ niun, who? may be answered by 第個人 tí‘ kú‘ niun, this man; 隨便啥人, dzûe bíen‘ sa‘ niun, any one whatever; 唔啥人 m sá‘ niun, no one; 多 許人 tú hau‘ niun, many men. So also, 那裏隻船 ’á lí tsáh zén, which boat? may be answered by 第隻 tí‘ tsáh, this one; 勿論那裏隻 veh lun‘ ’á lí tsáh, any one whatever; 禿勿是 t’óh veh ’zz, it is neither; 不過第搭幾隻船裏 peh kú‘ tí‘ dah ’kí tsáh zén ’lí, it must be one of those that are here; 是別隻船 ’zz bih tsáh zén, it it another; 忒前頭一樣個船 t’eh zíen deu ih yáng‘ kú‘ zén, the same boat as before. Several of these questions are answered by particles already presented under other denominations. The remainder not finding a place readily under any one class, are collected under the name of correlatives.

Obs. ii. The corresponding forms in Latin. Omnis, neuter, nullus, alter, alius, are classed with adjectives; Zempt calls them pronominalia. Buttman says, that the line between the corresponding words in Greek, as adjectives and as pronouns, cannot be clearly drawn. Marshman says, the Sanscrit grammarians call all these words pronouns. If they can stand without a substantive, they should be called pronouns, otherwise they are adjectives.

Obs. iii. 總 ’tsóng, all, is found only in the compounded forms, 共總 kóng‘ ’tsóng, 攏總 ’lóng ’tsóng in all; 攏總个百性 ’lóng ’tsóng kú‘ pák sing‘, all the people. The substantive must accompany 衆 ’tsóng‘, as in 衆弟兄 tsóng‘ ’ti h’iúng, all the brothers, and therefore, it must be considered an adjective. 衆 is not found compounded.

Obs. iv. All is also expressed by repetition of the substantive, 處處有個 t’sû‘ t’sû‘ ’yeu ku‘, every-where they are to be had. v. Art, 129. Another mode is by phrases, such as 一共 ih góng‘, 一切 ih t’sih, the whole.

Obs. v. Another translation of all is by 大凡 ta‘ van. Van is used in the sense of all in books, but in the dialect of Shánghái is only met with in this form.

203. Other different, are expressed by pih 別 or by 勿同 veh dóng, or by 兩樣 ’liáng yáng‘, not the same, or by the particle 又 proceeding the substantive verb or by 另 ling‘. The same is ih yáng‘ 一樣, or 相同 siáng dóng.

要呌別人 yau‘ kau‘ bih niun, call another man.

總是別樣 ’tsóng ’zz bih yáng‘, is certainly different.

到別塲化去 tau‘ bih dzáng hau‘ k’í, go elsewhere.

別個國度 bih kú‘ kóh dú, another nation.

道理勿同個 ’tau ’lí veh dóng kú‘, different in principle.

話頭兩樣個 wó‘ deu ’liáng yáng‘ kú, what he says is different.

勿一樣個 veh ih yáng‘ kú‘, not the same.

又是一個 í‘ ’zz ih kú‘, that is another.

另呌一個 ling‘ kiau‘ ih kú‘, call another.

一樣個否 ih yáng‘ kú‘ ’vá, is it the same?

相同個 siáng dóng kú‘, the same.

Words used as pronouns. 204. The use of some other words in combinations, where they occur instead of the pronouns will now be illustrated.

a. 本 ’pun; belonging to this place, as demonstrative pronoun.

本地人 ’pun dí‘ niun, people of this place.

本地話 ’pun dí‘ wó‘, dialect of this place.

本廟是和尙管個 ’pun miau‘ ’zz ú zong‘ kwén kú‘, this temple to which I belong, is superintended by Buddhist priests.

本國個規矩 ’pun kóh kú‘ kwé ’kü, custom of this country.

b. 今 kiun, now, the present. As demonstrative pronoun, this in reference to time.

今朝今日 kiun tsau, kiun nyih, to-day.

今月今年 kiun niöh, kiun níen, this month, this year.

c. 親 t’sing, one’s own, as reflexive pronoun self; 親身 t’sing sun, himself; 親口 t’sing ’k’eu, his own mouth.

d. 多少 tú ’sau, how many? as an interrogative pronoun.

多少年総 tú ’sau níen ’kí, how many years old.

205. The adjectives that follow, are used to avoid the personal pronouns. Those that describe the speaker are depreciatory in their meaning, while if others are addressed, the adjectives employed are respectful.

尊 tsun, honoured, 貴 kwé‘, ib. 高 kau, high, combine with 姓 sing, family name, 國 kóh, kingdom, etc.

尊姓 tsun sing‘, 貴姓 kwé‘ sing‘, 高姓 kau sing‘, your name?

尊庚 tsun káng, 貴庚 kwé‘ káng, 高壽 kau zeu‘, your age?

尊處 tsun t’sû‘, 貴處 kwé‘ t’su‘, where do you live?

尊府 tsun ’fu, 貴府 kwé‘ ’fu, where is your residence?

Obs. i. 府 ’fú, also forms part of the combination 府上 ’fú long‘, residence; e.g. 府上那裏 ’fú long‘ ’a ’lí, where do you reside?

Obs. ii. 貴國 kwé‘ kóh ask of what honoured country are you? 貴地 kwé‘ dí‘, what is your place of residence? 高徒 kau dú is translated your scholar; 尊駕 tsun ká‘ and 相公 siáng‘ kóng, are used in place of you, among those who are not in an inferior social position.

206. 令 ling, honoured, good, applied to persons, enters into many combinations, where it represents the possessive your.

令尊 ling tsun, your father. 令堂 ling dong, your mother.

令兄 ling h’iung, yr. eld. bro. 令姪 ling dzeh, your nephew.

令弟 ling dí‘ yr. younger bro. 令郎 ling long, your son.

令夫人 ling fú zun, your wife.

令高徒 ling kau dú, your scholars.

207. 老 ’lau and 大 tá‘ are found in similar combinations.

老(大）爺 ’lau (tú‘) yá, sir.

大人 tá‘ zun, ib.

老(大）兄 ’lau (tá‘) h’iúng, elder brother.

老(大）哥 ’lau (tá‘) kú, ib.

Obs. i.老 ’lau is also prefixed to 先生 síen sáng and 夫子 fú ’tsz, addressed to teachers, and to 相公 síang‘ kong, addressed by servants to masters. The form of address to priests, is 老師太 ’lau sz t’á‘, and to instructors 老師 ’lau sz.

Obs. ii. Some other terms are employed in a similar way, instead of the pronouns of the second person; 台 t’é, honoured with 甫 ’fú or 篆 dzén‘, what it your honoured name? In the plural are found 衆位 tsóng‘ wé‘ or 列位 lih wé‘, all you gentlemen!

208. Self depreciatory phrases employed instead of pronouns of the first person are equally numerous. 寒 hön, cold; 敝 pí, spoilt, inferior; 賤 dzíen, poor, cheap, form such groups, as—

寒門(家) hön mun (ka), my house.

寒荆 hön kiung, my wife, (kiung is thorn.)

敝處(地)(鄕) pí t’sû‘ (dí‘) (h’iáng), my abode.

敝(賤)姓 pí (dzíen) sing‘, my family name.

賤名 dzíen ming, my proper name.

賤内 dzíen né‘ my wife.

Obs. One’s wife is also denominated 拙荆 tseh kiung, stupid thorn.

209. The antithesis of 令 ling, is usually 舍 só‘, a cottage. Among the groups into which it enters, are—

舍弟 só‘ dí‘, my brother. 舍姪 só‘ dzeh, my nephew.

舍下 só‘ ’au, my house. 舍親 só‘ t’sing, my relations.

210. Many groups take 小 ’siau, small, 家 ká, family, both being regarded as sufficiently depreciatory to represent the pronoun my.

小兒 ’siau rh, my boy or my son. 小犬 ’siau k’iön, small dog.

小徒 ’siau dú, your mother. 小孫 ’siau sun, grandchild.

小弟 ’siau dí‘, I. 小女 ’siau ’nü, my daughter.

家兄 ká h’iúng, my brother. 家母 ká ’mú, my mother.

家父 ká ’vú, my father. 家叔 ká sóh, my uncle.

Obs. i. These words form a principal part of the complimentary style of speech, or 客氣個說話 k’áh k’í‘ kú‘ seh wó‘. In the every day colloquial of the lower class, i.e. the majority of the people, they are little used. Thou and I, thine and mine are prefixed.

Obs. ii. While these words are given as substitutes for the pronouns, it should be remembered that the tendencies of the language are against the introduction of the pronouns, whether there be a substitute or not. Thus instead of asking, “Is your eye better?” The Chinese say 眼睛好點否 ’ngan tsing ’hau ’tíen ’vá, eye better, eh? So, for “what is your name?” 姓啥 sing‘ sá‘, name, what? While the pronoun is thus entirely omitted, room is left for the speaker to introduce whatever terms of adulation or humility he may think fit. Those of the former kind are for convenience taken to mean you and your, while their opposites are I and mine.

Obs. iii. Many other phrases of the same kind are used in letters, but as they do not occur in conversation they are here omitted. Many of them are collected in Gutzlaff’s “Notices of Chinese Grammar.”

Section 7. On the verb, 活虛字.

211. Pih Hwa-tsun says, “One use of verbs is to connect the parts of proposition” 活虛字之用, 一以聯綴上下, “Thus if it be said, books instruct mankind,” 如云文傳世 (lit. writings delivered down to mankind); “the word books is the subject, mankind the predicate, and instruct the copula.” 文爲主字, 世爲賓字, 而以傳字, 聯綴上下也. “Another use is to express actions.” 一以寫出人事. “Thus if it be said, write a book, or correct an essay,” 如云作文評文之類. “write and correct are both actions;” 作字,評字,皆人事也. “for both these uses, verbs are indispensable.” “Verbs are very numerous; of those in constant use, there are about two thousand.” “There are also verbs of two inseparable characters; e.g. 婆娑 pú sú, move confusedly, and 盤桓 pén wén, to linger.”

Where our author speaks of 2,000 verbs, he means from among the single characters commonly used in writing. Many of these are, in colloquial dialects, expressed only in a dissyllabic form; thus, 慕 mú‘, to desire, is only used in common conversation in such compounded forms, as 愛慕 é‘ mú‘, to love. The number of inseparable compounds is thus rendered greater in the colloquial than in the written style. With regard to monosyllabic verbs, there are many in the books which are not in the colloquial, and vice versâ. For examples of verbs found in written colloquial mandarin, v. page 63.

Verbs will be treated (1.) according to their modes of grouping; (2.) according to their most general nature, as transitive, intransitive, or substantive (voice); (3.) according to the particular modes in which their sense may be conveyed (moods); (4.) according to time (tenses).

(1.) Grouping of verbs.

Simple and compound verbs. 212. Examples of verbs of one word have been already given. A few more will be sufficient here.

放 fong‘, let go. 鑽 tsûn, to bore.

切 t’sih, cut in pieces. 修 sieu, to prune.

刋 t’síen, cut away. 鑤 pau‘, to plane.

剸 tsan, chop small. 搭 tah, pitch tents.

砟 tsoh, to reap. 拆 t’sáh, pull down.

挖 wah, scoop out. 撞 dzong‘, meet.

213. Many combinations of two words consist of verbs similar in meaning, but with no reason except custom for the order in which they are employed.

埋葬 má tsong‘, to bury. 哀憐 é líen, to pity.

遮瞞 tsó mén, conceal. 禱告 ’tau kau‘, to pray.

咒罵 tseu‘ mó‘, revile. 保庇 ’pau pí‘, protect.

調換 tiau wén, exchange. 指點 ’tsz tíen, point to.

加添 ká t’íen, add. 煩勞 van lau, importune.

話壞 wó‘ wá‘, calumniate. 稱讚 t’sung tsan‘, to praise.

Obs. i. The tautology existing in examples of this sort is no objection whatever to their use. Thus, 埋 má and 葬 tsong‘, may be used separately or together, as the speaker pleases. There is an advantage to the foreigner in using the compounded forms, because a mispronunciation of the tone of a single word is nearly compensated by the repetition of the idea. So also for natives speaking different dialects.

Obs. ii. The principle of antithesis may be noticed in some of these dissyllabic combinations; e.g. 往來 ’wong lé, go and come; 買賣 ’má má‘, buy and sell.

214. In many instances the first verb governs the second, as a verb does a substantive.

惹笑 ’zá siau‘, cause to laugh.

怕打 p’ó ’táng, fear being beaten.

怕死 p’ó ’sí, fear dying.

開講 k’é ’kong, begin speaking.

Obs. In these examples, were the language one that admitted grammatical forms, the second verb in each case would become either a substantive, or an infinitive, (i.e. they would be always substantives, infinitives as destitute of time, person and number, being not true verbs). In reality 笑, 打 siau‘, ’táng, etc. are according to the principles of classical grammar, neither verbs nor substantives, not being able to take the necessary changes of form. They are bare roots, and their grammatical sense is determined by position. Verb however, is the most convenient denomination for them, because when taken alone, they are necessarily translated as verbs.

215. In some of these dissyllabic forms, the first verb qualifies the second; as in other languages, participles and adverbs qualify verbs.

歸去 kü k’í‘, return home (lit. return go).

跑來 pau lé, come running, (lit. run come).

殺來 sah lé, come fighting.

抄寫 t’sau ’siá, to copy in writing (lit. copy write).

Obs. i. The verb of more general meaning 去 k’í‘, go, is limited by that which precedes, 歸 kü, to the sense of returning home. If the idiom be compared with the English phrase go back, 歸 kü is the adverb placed before instead of after its verb. In 轉來 ’tsén lé, come back; the verb ’tsén is also best translated in English, as an adverb back.

Obs. ii. Substantives sometimes by ellipsis stand for verbs, as qualifying the following verb. 馬來呢轎子來 ’mó (horse) lé ní, giau‘ ’tsz (sedan) lé, did you ride or come in a chair?

216. The order of the words in many of these phrases, may also properly be referred to priority and sequence in time. That is, two actions are successively expressed.

打敗 t’áng bá‘, fight and be defeated.

敲開 k’au (to beat) k’é (to open), to knock open.

咬破 ’ngau p’u‘, break by biting.

請坐 ’t’sing ’zú, please sit down.

寫完 ’siá wén finish writing.

做停 tsú‘ ding, finish making.

吊死 tiau‘ ’sí, die by strangling.

Obs. The English verb open, which is an adjective, verb, or adverb, like the Chinese, has evidently nothing to indicate to which part of speech it belongs, but position. It is on the principle of position, that in such phrases as an open door, knock open a door, and to open a door, the word is referred to its proper place in the parts of speech. There is this difference; (1) that in k’au k’é 敲開, the latter word is still a verb, while in the corresponding English example, it becomes a true adverb; (2) the Chinese word cannot be used as an adjective. The qualifying notion contained in the adjective, is expressed as a separate proposition; e.g. for an open door, 門開拉 mun k’é ’lá, the door is open.

217. In verbs of two syllables, many auxiliary words occur, which have nearly or quite lost their primary meaning as independent verbs. In the following examples, it will be observed, that these enclitics or proclitics, as they may be termed, often add nothing to the meaning of the principal verb. They are 得 tuh, 脫 t’eh, 打 ’táng, 見 kíen‘, 着 záh, 住 dzû‘.

a. 得 tuh, get, may.

聽得 t’ing tuh, hear. 曉得 ’hiau tuh, know.

記得 kí‘ tuh, remember. 認得 niung‘ tuh, be acquainted.

Obs. This term, though here it has no meaning, will be seen to be a very important word among the mood particles, as giving a permissive sense to the principal verb. Such is its most common signification is such phrases as 做得 tsú‘ tuh, it may be done.

b. 脫 t’eh, let go, escape, remove out of the way.

去脫 k’í‘ t’eh, remove. 除脫 dzû t’eh, to remove.

滅脫 mih t’eh, destroy. 放脫 fong‘ t’eh, let go.

漏脫 leu t’eh, to leak. 走脫 ’tseu t’eh, escape.

踢脫 t’ih (or tiuh) t’eh, kick away. 卸脫 siá t’eh, flow away.

斷脫 dön‘ t’eh, sweep away. 奪脫 töh t’eh, rob of.

Obs. This word may be regarded as forming a derivative verb. Its primary meaning is seen in 脱衣裳 t’öh í zong, take off one’s clothes, where the book sound t’öh is employed.

c. 打 ’táng, to beat, apply one’s-self to.

打掃 ’táng ’sau, to sweep. 打聽 ’táng t’ing, to inquire.

打發 ’táng fah, to send. 打扇 ’táng sén‘, to fan.

打算 ’táng sön‘, consider. 打結 ’táng kih, tie a knot.

Obs. The primary meaning of 打 ’táng, is seen in such phrases as 打樁 ’táng tsong, drive piles; 打火 ’táng ’hú, strike a light.

d. 見 kíen‘, indicates a single act of perception.

看見 k’ön‘ kíen‘, see.

望見 mong‘ kíen‘, see.

聽見 t’ing kíen‘, to hear.

e. 着 dzáh. This word expresses that the object implied in the verb is effected.

碰着 páng‘ záh, to meet.

遇着 nü záh, ib.

捉着 tsoh záh, catch, or succeed in catching.

擒着 kiun záh, ib.

摸着 móh záh, rub, or can be rubbed.

奪着 döh záh, succeed in robbing.

得着 tuh záh, succeed in getting.

買着 ’má záh, succeed in buying.

Obs. i. In these examples, this meaning of the auxiliary is preserved, and must be regarded as additional to the sense of the principal verb, except in the first two instances.

Obs. ii. In 想着 ’siáng záh, think of, the word 着 záh limits 想 think to the sense of think of some particular thing. In 覺着 koh záh, become aware of, the verb 覺 koh, cannot in our dialect be used separately. It is however found in 勿知勿覺 veh tsz veh koh, not be aware of.

f. 殺 sah, to kill.

勿話殺 veh wó‘ sah, he did not say decisively.

g. 住 dzû‘, resist, take firm hold. This word always preserves its meaning, but it occurs so frequently in union with verbs of resistance and interruption, that it deserves a place with the preceding enclitics.

阻住 ’tsú dzû‘, resist.

鎖住 ’sú dzû‘, prevent motion by locking up.

縛住 vóh dzû‘ ib. by tying up.

咬住 ’ngau dzû‘, hold with the teeth.

揑住 niah dzû‘, hold in the hand.

揪住 t’sieu dzû‘, hold with the hand.

h. 到 tau‘, arrived.

用到 yúng‘ tau‘, employ to the utmost.

做到 tsú‘ tau‘, do to perfection.

走到 ’tseu tau‘, complete a journey on foot.

昨日跑到 dzoh nyih pau‘ tau‘, he arrived yesterday.

218. In many cases a substantive follows the verb, when it is unnecessary in English.

走路 ’tseu lú‘, to walk. 織布 tsuh pú‘, to weave.

射箭 zok tsien‘, to shoot. 紡紗 ’fong só, to spin.

搖船 yau zén, to scull. 活命 weh ming‘, to live.

Obs. i. So also 話說話 wó‘ seh wó‘, to speak. The words seh wó‘, words, are as to sense superfluous. Yet many of these examples may be closely translated; e.g. 領路 ’ling lú‘, lead the way; 燒飯 sau van‘, to boil rice, to cook.

Obs. ii. When the substantive comes under the government of another verb its usual companion is frequently appended; e.g. 尋飯吃 dzing van‘ k’iuh, seek for food, where 吃 is superfluous.

Obs. iii. When the sense does not require a substantive, the reason of its introduction must be sought in the rhythmical construction of sentences, peculiar and essential to the Chinese language.

219. Compound verbs are formed by the apposition of a transitive verb and adjective.

加長 ká, (add) dzáng (long), to lengthen.

親近 t’sing (to make near) ’giun, (near), become near, to approach closely.

掘深 kiöh, (dig) sun (deep), to deepen.

減輕 ’kan (subtract) k’iung (light), subtract from.

填高 tíen (place layers) kau (high), raise by layers.

話大 wó‘ (speak) dú‘ (great), speak highly of.

佈滿 ’pú (to cover) ’mén (full), fill up.

教差 kau‘ (instruct) t’só (wrong), teach wrong.

改正 ’ké (change) tsung‘ (correct), to correct.

捉牢 tsoh (catch) lau (firm), catch and retain.

Obs. i. The word 好 ’hau, good, is found appended to many verbs, giving to them the sense of completeness, 做好 tsú‘ ’hau, complete the making of.

Obs. ii. These examples shew how in Chinese, compensation is made for that class of words called derivatives in languages possessing a system of terminations. Instead of a formation like prolongare, to lengthen, from longus or long in Latin, or lengthen from length in English, we have a separate word prefixed to the adjective dzáng, long. Many English phrases are compounded in the same manner; e.g. rub smooth, rub dry, which are equivalent in sense and grammatical construction to the Chinese forms, 磨光 mú kwong, 揩乾 k’á kûn.

Obs. iii. 差 t’só, wrong, is found after many other verbs; e.g. 懂 ’tóng, understand; 聽 t’ing, to hear; 待 té‘ treat any one. In every case, it is predicated of the action, that it is wrong.

220. In some dissyllabic verbs used transitively, one of the constituent words is a substantive.

囘頭 wé (turn) deu (head), to answer, to tell.

弄神 lóng‘ (trick) zun (spirits), to deceive.

到手 tau‘ (reach to) ’seu (hand), have in possession.

算計 sön‘ (calculate) kí‘ (a plan), to plan.

Obs. These may be seen to be transitive, in such sentences as 勿好弄 神朋友 veh ’hau lóng‘ zun báng ’yeu, you should not deceive friends; 就來囘頭我 dzieu lé wé deu ’ngú, come at once and tell me.

221. Some colloquial verbs, with examples of the manner in which they combine with other words, are here inserted.

踛上去 lóh ’zong k’í, go up (m. 升 shíng, 足 p‘a).

跑出來 pau‘ t’seh lé, walk out (m. 走 ’tseu).

搿住拉 geh dzû‘ ’lá, held by the arm (m. 挾 hieh).

碰着 páng‘ záh, meet (m. 遇 ü‘ and p‘eng choh).

挬輔 peh ’tsén, turn around (m. 囘 hwei).

担到此地 tan tau‘ ’t’sz dí‘, bring here (m. 拿 ná 端 twan).

甩脱 hwah t’eh, throw away (m. 扔下 jeng‘ hia‘).

孛相 peh siáng‘, to ramble (m. 遊桄 yeu kwang‘).

坍銃 t’an t’sóng, to be ashamed.

撥拉我 peh ’lá ’ngú, give it me (m. 給 ki‘, ’kei).

做唆 tsu‘ sú‘, to deceive.

Obs. At Súng-kiáng ’pun, is used for peh, in the sense of give. 跑 has two pronunciations, ’pau run, and pau‘ walk.

222. Some adverbs enter into combination with verbs.

預備 ü‘ (before) bé‘ (prepare), to prepare.

相打 siáng (mutually) ’táng (beat), to fight.

相罵 siáng (mutually) mó‘ (rail) rail at one another.

Groups of three. 223. Propositions and words equivalent to them combine with 來 lé, come, and 去 k’i‘, go, to express the direction of the action of verbs.

敲進去 k’au tsing‘ k’í, knock in.

担上來 tan ’zong lé, bring forward.

走下來 ’tseu ’au lé, walk down.

殺前去 sah zíen k’í‘, fight on before.

踛起來 lók ’k’í lé, stand up.

坐下來 ’zú ’au lé, sit down.

做進去 ’zú tsing‘ k’í, sit farther up.

飛出來 fí t’seh lé, fly out.

走過來 ’tseu kú‘ lé, come through.

拉過去 ’lá kú‘ k’í‘, drag past.

掇起來 töh ’k’í lé, lift up.

縮轉來 sók ’tsén lé, turn back.

丟下來 kwan‘ ’au lé, throw down.

走開來 ’tseu k’é lé, walk away.

Obs. i. Thus we have an idiom similar to the English, except that the verbs of motion are added. The common prepositions annexed to verbs (and therefore sometimes called adverbs), follow the verbs in both instances. Of the Chinese five are verbs, which are all used as prepositions, 出 t’seh, to go out, outward; 進 tsing‘, to go in, inward; 起 ’k’í, to raise up, upward; 過 kú‘, to pass, through, across; 轉 ’tsén, to return, back; 開 k’é, to open, away. Of the prepositions 上 ’zong, forward, 下 ’au backward, downward, 前 zíen, before, the two former are also frequently employed as verbs in the dialect as well as in books; e.g. 上蘇州 ’zong Sú-tseu, go to Sú-cheú; 下船 ’au zén, to enter a boat.

Obs. ii. In the classical languages, the prepositions were put before the verbs instead of after them, as in the derived words ascend, descend; and another numerous class of terms belonging to our western tongues, is thus seen to have its equivalent compound form in the Chinese language.

224. The beginning and completion of an action are expressed by appending, 起來 ’k’í lé, begin and 成功 zung kóng, complete to the verb 起 ’k’í is also used alone, and the words 完, 停, wén, ding, finish, and 好 ’hau, well, stand for completion.

寫起來 ’siá ’k’í lé, begin writing.

做成工 tsú‘ zung kóng, to finish making.

畫成工 wó zung kóng, finish painting.

今朝做起 kiun tsau tsú ’k’í, begin to-day.

幾時做完 ’kí zz tsú‘ wén, when will you finish?

勿曾話停 veh zung wó ding, has not done speaking.

造好者 ’zau ’hau ’tsé, finished building.

Obs. i. In examples with 起, ’k’í, we have an equivalent to that class of Lat. derivative verbs called Inchoative or Inceptive; e.g. calesco, I grow warm, from calco.

Obs. ii. 起 ’k’í is sometimes omitted e.g. 做來勿好 tsú‘ lé veh ’hau, do a thing badly. But then the sense of beginning is lost also.

Obs. iii. This form is also assumed by adjectives, as 熱起來 nyih ’k’í lé, becomes hot; 熱來話勿得 nyih lé wó veh tuh, it is excessively hot. In the dialects west of Shánghái 熱得來 nyih tuh lé, is used for it is hot.

Obs. iv. The substantive governed is place between 起 ’k’í and 來 lé; e.g. 動起手來 ’tóng ’k’í ’seu lé, to move ones hand. The same thing occurs with some of the other groups. 挬輔身體來 peh ’tsén sun ’t’í lé, turn one’s body round: 担出洋錢來 tan t’seh yáng díen lé, bring out dollars.

225. Collective and separating verbs are formed by 攏 ’lóng, collect, and 開 k’é, open.

聚攏來 dzü ’lóng lé, collect together.

幷攏來 ’ping ’lóng lé, add together.

散開來 san k’é lé, scatter.

拆開來 t’sáh k’é lé, undo.

分開來 fun k’é lé, divide.

解開來 ’ká k’é lé, untie.

226. Reflexive action is expressed by placing 自 zz‘ before and after the verb.

自嚇自 zz‘ háh zz‘, frighten one’s-self.

自騙自 zz‘ p’ien‘ zz‘, deceive one’s-self.

Obs. In examples of this sort, the constituent words are pronounced closely together and might be written with hyphens. They correspond in their sense, to the Hithpahel conjugation of Hebrew verbs, and the middle voice of Greek and Sanscrit. In a monosyllabic agglutinating language, no nearer approach, could well be made to an equivalent of those forms, than is exhibited in such groups as these.

Groups. Affirmative and negative. 227. The groups formed by help of the affirmative and negative particles are very numerous, so much so, that they constitute of themselves a feature of the language. The Chinese colloquial idiom is very much indebted to them, for the force and precision which it is acknowledged to possess.

In these groups 得 tuh and 勿 veh (不 púh m.), take the centre, and certain auxiliary words, with some adjectives and verbs stand last. The sense of the principal verb is thus limited and modified in various ways. 得 tuh and 勿 veh being opposite in sense, the modifications they produce in the sense of the verb must be opposed also. They may be reduced to the following pairs of terms.

1st. It is predicted of the agent, that he is able or knows how to effect the action of the verb and the contrary; e.g. 做得來 tsú‘ tuh lé, able to do or make; 做勿来 tsú‘ veh lé, unable to do or make.

2nd. It is predicated of the agent, that circumstances allow him to effect the action and the contrary. Thus, 當得起 tong tuh ’k’í, in circumstances to bear; 讀勿起 tóh veh ’k’í, cannot afford to learn to read; 拖勿起 t’ú veh ’k’í, not strength to drag.

3rd. It is predicated of the action, that it can, or does succeed, and the opposite; e.g. 尋得着 zing tuh záh, can find (尋 zing seek); 打勿着 ’táng veh záh, it did not, or cannot hit.

4th. It is predicated of the action, that it can, or cannot be performed in a particular direction; e.g. 走勿進 ’tseu veh tsing‘, cannot go inside.

5th. Of verbs of motion, resistance and destruction, it is predicated, with the help of auxiliary verbs cognate in meaning, that the act they represent, can or cannot take place. 走得動 ’tseu tuh ’dóng can walk; 阻勿住 ’tsú veh dzû‘, unable to resist; 解勿脫 ’ká veh t’eh, cannot get rid of.

6th. It is predicated of a verb followed by an adjective, that the act is or can be performed, to the extent indicated the adjective or the contrary; e.g. 醫得好 í (cure) tuh ’hau (good) can be cured; 填勿滿 tíen veh ’mén cannot be filled by layers.

228. Of the auxiliary words, used in affirmative and negative groups, verbs are the most numerous.

a. 來 lé, come, 出 t’seh, go out, express able to.

寫勿來 ’siá veh lé, do not know how to write.

聽勿來 t’ing veh lé, have not the power to hear.

呌勿出 kiau‘ veh t’seh, know not what to call it.

講得出 ’kong tuk t’seh, can discourse on it.

Obs. A group of four is sometimes made by introducing an adverb. 聽大勿出 t’ing dá‘ veh t’seh, I do not hear very well.

b. 起 ’k’í, rise, expresses in circumstances to.

板勿起 ’pan veh ’k’í, it is not for me to look angry.

睏勿起 k’wun‘ veh ’k’í, afraid to sleep.

染勿起 ’níen veh ’k’í, will not bear to be dyed.

印勿起 yun‘ veh ’k’í, will not bear impressions.

見勿起 kíen‘ veh ’k’í, do not dare meet him.

c. 着, 出, 見, záh, t’seh, kíen‘, express success in any single action; verbs of striking and seeking take záh; while verbs of thinking and perception take t’seh and kíen‘.

呌得着 kiau‘ tuh záh, succeed in calling him.

殺勿着 sah veh záh, not succeed in killing.

懂勿出 ’tóng veh t’seh, cannot understand.

看勿出 k’ön‘ veh t’seh, I do not (or cannot) see it.

看勿見 k’ön‘ veh kíen‘, ib.

d. 進, 出, 落, 過, 轉, 開, express direction as in the examples.

進得進 tsing‘ tuh tsing‘, able to enter.

行勿出 háng veh t’seh, cannot pass out.

吃勿落 k’iuh veh loh, cannot swallow or eat.

跑勿過 pau‘ veh kú‘, cannot pass by.

縮勿轉 sóh veh ’tsén, cannot return.

打得開 ’táng tuh k’é, can beat open.

睏勿落 k’wun‘ veh loh, cannot lie down (either through pain or want of room).

e. 脱, 動, 住, t’eh, ’tóng, dzû‘, express destruction, motion, and resistance. e.g.

滅勿脱 mih veh t’eh, cannot destroy.

做勿動 tsú‘ veh ’dóng, disabled from work.

跑勿動 pau veh ’dóng, unable to walk.

免勿脱 ’mien veh t’eh, unable to avoid.

立勿住 lih veh dzû‘, not able to stand.

當得住 tong tuh dzû‘, able to resist.

f. 得 tuh, expresses permission and prohibition.

動勿得 tóng veh tuh, may not do it.

去得 k’i‘ tuh, may go.

逃走勿得 tau ’tseu veh tuh, may not flee.

g. 停, 完, express the cessation of an act.

呌勿停 kiau‘ veh ding, not cease to call .

哭勿停 k’óh veh ding, not cease to weep.

用勿完 yúng‘ veh wén, cannot exhaust by using.

痛勿停 t’ong‘ veh ding, not cease to pain.

h. 成功, 盡, 到, express perfection of an act.

做勿成功 tsú‘ veh dzung kóng, cannot complete.

走得到 ’tseu tuk tau‘, can walk to.

想勿到 ’siáng veh tau‘, cannot reach in thought.

及勿到 kih veh tau‘, cannot come up to or equal.

報答勿盡 pau‘ tah veh dzing‘, unable to shew sufficient gratitude.

i. 及 kih or kí, expresses there is time for.

抄勿及 t’sau veh gí, not time to copy.

追得及 tsûe tuh gí, time to overtake.

來勿及 lé veh gí, not time for it.

j. 落 loh, expresses room for.

擱得落 koh tuh loh, room to pack.

安勿落 ön veh loh, not room to place.

坐勿落 ’zú veh loh, not room to sit.

k. 過 kú‘, indicates that the verb it qualifies will give superiority.

打也打伊勿過, 話也話伊勿過, ’táng ’á ’táng í veh kú‘, wó‘ ’á wó‘ í veh kú‘, cannot conquer him by beating, nor by using the tongue.

敵得過 tih tuh kú‘, can oppose him successfully.

l. 理 ’lí, to control, ’long, bring together, 殺 sah, kill and 應 yung‘, answer, add their own sense to the verb.

話勿理 wo‘ veh ’lí, not attend to what is said.

喊得理 han‘ tuh ’lí, will come when called.

合勿攏 heh veh ’lóng, cannot agree together.

呌勿應 kiau‘ veh yung‘, not answer a call.

Obs. i. In some instances, the sense of the auxiliaries varies from that assigned to them here; e.g. 看勿起 kön‘ veh ’k’i, to despise; 買勿動 ’má veh ’dóng, not succeed in buying; 相信勿過 siáng sing‘ veh kú‘, incredible; 意勿過 í‘ veh kú‘, cannot but pity; 罷勿得 pá‘ veh tuh, indispensable.

Obs. ii. 有 ’yeu, have and 嘸 m, not to have, form with tuh a few groups; e.g. 有得吃 ’yeu tuh k’iuh, have something to eat; 嘸得着 m tuh tsáh, have nothing to wear.

Obs. iii. Examples are rare in the case of 見, 脱, 動, 應 and 理, The rest are all extensively used.

229. Prepositions similarly employed in these negative and affirmative groups are rare. Those that are used may also be construed as verbs.

a. 前 zíen before.

殺勿前 sah veh zíen, does not go forward fighting.

b. 上 ’zong, forward.

踛勿上 lóh veh ’zong, cannot be climbed.

鎖勿上 ’sú veh ’zong, (key) cannot be turned (cannot lock.)

門關勿上 mun kwan veh ’zong, door will not shut.

c. 下 ’au, down.

踛勿下 lóh veh ’au, cannot climb down.

吃勿下 k’iuh veh ’au, cannot swallow.

230. Several adjectives are found in these combinations; e.g. 全, 直, 多, 好, 滿, 完, 全, 通, 明 白, etc.

讀勿全 tóh veh dzíen, cannot be read through.

伸勿直 sun veh dzuh, cannot stretch out straight.

差勿多 t’só veh tú, differs little.

話得好 wó‘ tuh ’hau, well spoken.

補得滿 ’pú tuh ’mén, can be filled up.

走勿通 ’tseu veh t’óng, no thoroughfare.

話勿明白 wó‘ veh ming báh, cannot be made to understand.

Obs. In the third and fourth examples, and others like them such as 跑得快 pau‘ tuk k’wá‘, the proposition is not one of possibility, he can walk fast, but of fact, he walks fast.

Repetition and Antithesis. 231. These occur extensively among the verbs. The meaning of the word repeated remains unaffected.

а. Many single intransitive verbs, or verbs used intransitively are repeated.

坐坐 ’zú zú‘, sit down. 看看 k’ön‘ k’ön‘, look.

b. Transitive verbs are repeated before the word they govern.

寫寫字 ’siá ’sia zz‘, write.

種種田 tsóng‘ tsóng‘ díen, work in the fields.

候候儂 heu‘ heu‘ nóng‘, I come to see you.

c. k’ön‘, see, occurs after a repeated verb, in a metaphorical sense.

睃睃看 sú sú k’ön‘, see what it is.

聽聽看 t’ing t’ing k’ön‘, listen to it and see.

試試看 sz‘ sz‘ k’ön‘, try it and see.

做做看 tsú‘ tsú‘ k’ön‘, make it as a trial.

Obs. K’ön‘ also follows other groups, as 念起來看 nian‘ ’k’í lé k’ön‘, read and let me hear.

d. The components of dissyllabic verbs are often repeated.

談談說說 tan dan söh söh, conversing.

啼啼哭哭 tí dí k’óh k’óh, weeping.

來來去去 lé lé k’í‘ k’í‘, coming and going.

e. Some dissyllabic verbs repeat themselves, not their component parts.

攀談攀談 p’an dan p’an dan, talking.

恭喜恭喜 kúng ’h’í, kúng ’h’í, I congratulate you.

f. When a dissyllabic from consists of a verb and its subject, a group of four is formed by repeating the former, and supplying the place of the latter by a synonymous or contrasted word.

嘸邊嘸岸 m píen m ngön‘, not having a shore.

動手動脚 ’tóng ’seu ’dóng kiáh, move hands and feet.

有憑有據 ’yeu bing yeu kü‘, there is evidence.

g. Sometimes both the verb and its object are varied by synonymous or contrasted words.

求天拜地 kieu t’íen pá‘ dí‘, pray to heaven and worship earth.

幷心竭力 ping‘ sing gih lih (or liuh), employ one’s whole mind and strength.

h. Some verbs are repeated with a pair of antithetical verbs in alteration.

跑来跑去 ’pau lé ’pau k’í‘, walking about.

搖進搖出 yau tsing‘ yau t’seh, row in and out.

232. The verb is repeated with the intervention of 個 kú‘, or of 一 ih to represent a little of the act in question.

走一走 ’tseu ih ’tseu, walk a little.

等一等 ’tung ih ’tung, wait a little.

待個待 té‘ kú‘ dé‘, wait.

做個做 ’zú kú‘ ’zú, sit down.

Obs. Sometimes auxiliary substantives supply the place of the repeated verb; e.g. 加一倍 ká ih bé‘, make it as large again. Other auxiliaries are 次, 燙, 囘, t’sz‘, t’ong‘, we‘, applied to any verb in the sense of times. For going round in a circle 轉 ’tsén with the numeral expresses the number of times. For beating 記 kí‘ expresses the number of blows. See Art. 163.

(2.) Different kinds of verbs.

Substantive verb. 233. The verb to be used as a copula is often omitted.

我你讀書個 ’ngú ’ní tók sû kú‘, we are persons of education.

第個人長 tí kú‘ niun dzáng, this man is tall.

今朝最冷 kiun tsau tsûe‘ ’láng, to-day it is very cold.

234. The words 是[1] ’zz and 做 tsú‘ are employed as substantive verbs, and 在 ’dzé, 勒拉 leh ’lá, 勒裏 leh ’lí when existence in place is spoken of. They are put in the negative by prefixing 勿 yeh.

是儂個否 ’zz nóng‘ kú‘ ’vá, is it yours?

是個勿是個 ’zz ku‘, veh ’zz ku‘, it is; it is not.

我做裁縫 ’ngú tsú‘ dzé vóng, I am a tailor.

做兒子要孝 tsú‘ ní ’tsz yau‘ h’iau‘, he who is a son should be filial.

勿勒拉此地 veh leh ’la ’t’sz di‘, he is not here.

Obs. i. The verb 呌 kiau‘, to call is sometimes so used that is may be translated as a substantive verb; e.g. í yáng‘ ’tau ’lí veh kiau‘ ’hau, 伊樣道理勿呌好 that mode of action is not good, or is not what may be called good.

Obs. ii. The words 當, 爲, and 作 are used in fixed phrases, from which they cannot be disengaged. 自家作主 zz‘ ká tsok ’tsû, be your own master; 改惡爲善 ’ké oh wé ’zén, repent and be virtuous; 强盜作反 kiáng dau‘ tsok ’fan, the robbers are rebelling; 當兵 tong ping, to be a soldier.

Obs. iii. 做 is also used as a transitive verb make or do, which is its primary meaning.

Obs. iv. 有 to have when no object follows affirms existence and is to be translated by the impersonal substantive verb in English; e.g. 魚有否 ng ’yeu ’vá, are there any fish? 豈有此理 ’k’í ’yeu ’t’sz ’lí, how can this be? (It snows now, is 落雪者 lok sih ’tsé.) Its negative is 嘸 m or 嘸沒 m meh.

235. Transitive verbs take the object after them, while the nominative precedes.

官府刻薄百姓 kwén ’fú k’uh bóh pák sing‘, the mandarins exact from the people.

兵搶物事 ping ’t’siáng meh zz‘, the soldiers commit robberies.

236. When there are two objects as in verbs of giving, the nearer comes next to the verb, and the more remote stands last, usually with 拉 ’lá.

送禮物拉儂 sóng‘ ’lí veh ’lá nóng‘, present you with gifts.

撥飯拉儂吃 peh van‘ ’lá nóng‘ k’iuh, give you rice.

Obs. This is the same as Remusat’s rule, “Dans les verbes à double rapport’ le complément direct se place après le verbe, et est suivi du complément indirect” 天子能薦人於天 t’íen ’tsz nung tsíen‘ zun ü t’íen, the emperor can propose a person to Heaven; the order is not however confined to this one form; e.g. 送拉儂個物事 sóng‘ ’lá nóng‘ kú‘ meh zz‘, I bring you a present, is the same as, sóng‘ meh zz‘ ’lá nóng‘; 送儂兩個物事 sóng‘ nóng‘ ’liáng kú‘ meh zz‘ I bring you a few things, is just as proper as sóng‘ ’liáng kú‘ meh zz‘ ’lá nóng.

237. The object is made to precede the transitive verb, by the use of the auxiliary 担 tan, which is also the sign of the instrument.

担蠟燭火吹隱 tan lah tsóh ’hú t’sz ’yun, blow out the candle.

担竹爿來打 tan tsók pan lé ’táng, strike with a bamboo.

担門關子 tan mun kwan tsz, shut the door.

238. Intransitive verbs when not followed by a preposition or another verb, prefer the last place.

此地坐 ’t’sz dí‘ ’zú, sit here.

第頭跑 tí‘ deu pau‘, walk here.

幾時來 ’kí zz lé, when did you come.

我船上來 ’ngú zén long‘ lé, I come from the boat.

Obs. When a preposition is employed to connect an intransitive verb with a substantive, the verb may precede or follow; e.g. 到此地來 tau‘ ’t’sz dí‘ lé, come here is equivalent to lé tau‘ ’t’sz dí‘. So also 坐拉第搭, ’zú ’lá tí‘ tah, sit here, is the same as ’lá tí‘ tah ’zú.

239. The passive is formed by prefixing the auxiliary verb 撥 peh, give, with the substantive that represents the agent, to the transitive verb.

撥別人打 peh bih niun ’táng, was beaten by others.

撥伊做唆我 peh í tsú sú ’ngú, I was deceived by him.

Obs. i. This auxiliary particle 撥 peh, give, has in all four uses:— Active, 撥三兩個銅錢拉伊 peh san ’liang kú‘ tóng dien ’lá í, give him two or three cash. Passive, 撥拉父母責備 peh ’lá ’vú ’mú tsah bé‘, he was rebuked by his parents. 我個帽子撥拉人偷之去者 ’ngú kú‘ mau‘ ’tsz peh ’lá niun t’eu tsz k’í‘ ’tsé, my hat has been stolen by some one. Causative, 撥拉伊死 peh ’lá í ’sí, cause him to die; 伊撥拉我喫虧者 í peh ’lá ’ngú k’iuh k’ü (k’wé) ’tsé, he has caused me to suffer. (m. 使 shï‘ 呌 kiau‘, chiau‘.) Permissive, 啥人肯撥拉別人欺負呢 sá‘ niun ’k’ung peh ’lá bih niun c‘hi vú‘ ni? who is willing to allow others to insult him? 勿要撥拉別人哄騙儂 veh yau‘ peh ’lá bih niun hóng‘ p‘ien‘ nóng‘, do not allow others to deceive you.

Obs. ii. In mandarin it is not the common word to give, that is chosen for the passive auxiliary, but a word set apart for this purpose 被 pei‘.

Obs. iii. ’Zeu 受 to receive, is often used as a passive, e.g. 勿肯受 別人罵 veh ’k’ung ’zeu bih niun mó‘, unwilling to be spoken ill of by others. K’iuh 吃 is found in combination as in the next examples. When separated from the groups where it is the sign of the passive, it recovers its transitive sense to eat.

240. Verbs are made causative By prefixing kau‘, to call, or peh, to give.

呌我吃虧 kau‘ ’ngú k’iuh k’ü, causing me to suffer loss.

勿要呌吾白送脫 veh yau‘ kaú ngú báh sóng‘ t’eh, do not cause me to give it away (or say it) in vain.

呌水勿要滾 kiau‘ ’sz veh yau‘ ’kwun, prevent the water from boiling.

撥拉我吃官司 peh ’lá ’ngú k’iuh kwén sz, causing me to be the subject of a lawsuit.

Obs. i The English auxiliary verb must is expressed by ’tsóng, as in 總要牢實’tsóng yau‘ lau zeh, you must be upright.

Obs. ii. The derivative verbs which have been already illustrated are the following:— Inchoative, 提起筆來 ti ’k’í pih lé, take up the pen; Reflexive, 自怨自 zz‘ yön‘ zz‘, be one’s own enemy; Collective, 合攏來 heh ’lóng lé, combine together; Separative, 折開 來 t’sák k’é lé, pull open; Completing, 造完 ’zau wén, finish building; Resisting, 擋住 tong dzû‘, stand against; Destroying, 丢脫 tieu t’eh, throw away. There are also forms for the various directions indicated by prepositions, v. Art. 223.

(3.) Modes of verbs.

241. In very many cases the mood is determined entirely from the sense, and has no particular sign.

我去買 ’ngú k’í‘ ’má, I will go and buy. (Indicative.)

是儂去還便當 ’zz nóng‘ k’í‘ wan bíen‘ tong‘, if you should go, it would be more convenient. (Subjunctive.)

儂去買 nóng‘ k’í‘ má, do you go and buy. (Imperative.)

買是容易 ’má ’zz yúng í‘, to buy is easy. (Infinitive).

Obs. Here the four principal moods of Latin grammar are exemplified without any distinctive sign.

242. The particle 者 ’tsé and 末 meh, at the end of the clause often mark indicative and conditional prepositions respectively.

現在落雨末年世好者 híen‘ ’dzé loh ’ü meh, níen sz‘ ’hau ’tsé, should it now rain, it will be a good year.

年紀大末勿要者 níen ’kí dú‘ meh veh yau‘ ’tsé, if old, they are not wanted.

Obs. i. The conditional clause always precedes.

Obs. ii. These particles may in many cases be omitted without affecting the sense. 勿落雨百姓要苦惱 veh loh ’u pák sing‘ yau‘ ’k’ú ’nau, if it does not rain, the people must suffer.

Obs. iii. In any two connected clauses, whether the former be conditional or not, these particles are frequently used; e.g. k’ön‘ kíen‘ tsz ’t’au van‘ kú‘ meh, dzieu‘ ’táng ’k’í lé ’tsé. 看見之討飯 個末就打起來者 when he saw the beggars, he began beating them. Both these clauses are in the past time.

Obs. iv. An indicative clause standing alone often takes 者 ’tsé. Thus 來者 lé ’tsé, I am come, or I come; 去者 k’i‘ ’tsé, I go.

243. Another particle found in conditional sentences, is 之 tsz, appended to the verb. This marks the past participle of the verb.

吾吃之飯就來者 ngú k’iuh tsz van‘ dzieu‘ lé ’tsé, having dined I came at once.

244. A potential mood is formed by many of the groups already illustrated. Both kinds of ability, absolute or natural, and limited or moral, are found in them. For examples of the former kind:—

寫勿來 ’siá veh lé, I cannot write.

講究得來 ’kong kieu‘ tuh lé, I can discuss it.

彎勿轉 wan veh ’tsén, cannot turn round.

Obs. 會 wé‘, prefixed to verbs makes them potential 念勿來 nian‘ veh lé, I cannot read, is equivalent to veh wé‘ nian‘.

245. The limited potential mood is formed by 起’k’í, e.g.

當勿起 tong veh ’k’í, I do not deserve to receive it.

牽勿起 k’íen veh ’k’í, not able to pull.

磨勿起 mú veh ’k’í, will not bear rubbing.

吃勿起 k’iuh veh ’k’í, cannot afford to eat it.

打勿起 ’táng veh ’k’í, cannot bear beating.

手硬勿起 ’seu ngáng‘ veh ’k’í, could not use my hand roughly.

246. A permissive and prohibitive mood is formed by,—

a. 得 tuh.

看得 k’ön‘ tuh, you may look at.

看勿得 k’ön‘ veh tuh, you may not look.

b. 好 ’hau, and 可以 ’k’ó ’í, also give a permissive sense.

好進去杏 ’hau tsing‘ k’i‘ ’vá, may I enter?

勿好出去 veh ’hau t’seh k’i‘, you must not go out.

可以吃得 ’k’ó ’í k’iuk tuh, you may eat it.

247. An optative mode of the verb is formed by pó veh tuh, and hng‘ veh tuh. (恨 hng‘, west of Shánghái hung‘).

我巴勿得快點到 ’ngú pó veh tuh k’wa‘ ’tíen tau‘, would that I could arrive quickly.

恨勿得做好 hng‘ veh tuh tsú‘ ’hau, I wish I could do it.

248. The imperative (1) in its negative form takes 要 yau‘, want, with the common negative particle 勿 veh.

勿要閙 veh yau‘ nau‘, do not be noisy.

(2.) The affirmative form of the imperative is expressed by the verb alone, or by 末者 meh ’tsé, or 罷 pá‘ appended sometimes to a few verbs.

走末者 ’tseu meh ’tsé, go. 去罷 k’í bá‘, go.

Obs. All the verbs single and grouped, except those with the affirmative and negative, may be used as imperatives without a particle. 走過來 ’tseu kú‘ lé, means either I am passing you or pass over to me.

249. the Infinitive it may be remarked, (1.) that it stands first in many negative groups not potential. v. Art. 228. g.

念勿停 nian‘ veh ding, does not cease io recite.

吵閙勿停 t’sau nau‘ veh ding, does not cease to be noisy.

(2) That when a verb is made the subject of a proposition, while the predicate follows with a copula, the verb is translated in the infinitive, e.g.

去是容易 k’í‘ ’zz yóng í‘, it is easy to go.

250. When a verb takes a case particle, it is construed as a present participle or gerund.

物事勒拉來 meh zz‘ leh ’lá lé, the things are coming.

吃飯個辰光 k’iuh van‘ kú‘ zun kwong, time for dining.

我拉寫字 ’ngú ’lá ’siá zz‘, I am writing.

吃個物事 k’iuh kú‘ meh zz‘, things to eat

Obs. The supine in order to has no sign, 買點啥去者, ’má ’tíen sá‘ k’í‘ ’tsé, he is gone (in order) to buy something; 我來望望㑚 ’ngú lé mong‘ mong‘ ná‘, I come to see you. v. 252. f.

251. The forms of interrogation are of two kinds.

1. By the interrogative particles man‘ and ’vá.

飯好曼 van‘ ’hau man‘, is dinner ready?

去否 k’í‘ ’vá, will you go?

2. By putting the question in the form of an affirmative and negative, side by side. The particle ní is often placed between.

肯去勿肯去 ’k’ung k’í‘ veh ’k’ung k’í‘, will you or not?

曉得勿曉得 ’h’iau tuh veh ’h’iau tuh, do you know?

買呢勿買 ’má ní veh ’má, will you buy?

Obs. After ní, the second clause is sometimes supplied by sa‘; e.g.

要打呢啥 yau ’táng ní sá, do you want to fight, or what is it you want to do?

(4) Particles of time, forming tenses of verbs.

252. For the expression of present time, no auxiliary word is necessary.

我勿做啥 ’ngú veh tsú‘ sá‘, I am doing nothing.

來呢勿來 lé ní veh lé, is he coming or not?

懂勿懂 ’tóng veh ’tóng, do you understand or not?

怕冷否 p’ó‘ ’láng ’vá, do you fear cold?

勿能勿怕冷 veh nung veh p’o‘ ’lang; I cannot but fear cold.

Obs. Instead of considering the rest of the tenses in their order, it will be better to take the particles in succession, and show what tenses they may be used for.

a. 歇 h’ih, a moment; this particle gives a past sense to the phrases in which it occurs, and is perhaps most accurately designated an aorist.

看歇戲否 k’ön‘ h’ih h’í‘ ’vá, have you seen the play?

去歇兩囘 k’í‘ h’ih ’liáng wé‘, I have gone twice.

b. 者 ’tsé, 哩 ’lí; these particles express that the action is completed, or determined on. m. 了 ’liaú. Their English grammatical equivalent is usually the passive participle joined with the auxiliary verb to be.

買好拉者 ’má ’hau ’lá ’tsé, they are bought.

賣脱者 má‘ t’eh ’tsé, it is sold.

我去者 ’ngú k’í‘ ’tsé, I am going.

c. 過 kú‘, past; this particle has the sense of the preterite tense.

到過兩囘 tau‘ kú‘ ’liáng wé‘, I have gone twice.

花種過多少 hwó tsóng‘ kú‘ tú ’sau, how many flowers have you planted?

路跑過幾化里 lú‘ pau‘ kú‘ ’ki hó‘ ’li, how many miles of road have we walked?

Obs. 有 ’yeu and 可 ’k’ó, employed in some dialects as signs of the past, are never so used in this.

d. 歇者 h’ih ’tsé or h’ih ’lá ’tsé, express perfect time.

認得過歇者 niung‘ tuh kú‘ h’ih ’tsé, have known him.

忒伊話歇者 t’eh í wó‘ h’ih ’tsé, have told him.

鐘敲歇拉者 tsóng k’au h’ih ’lá ’tsé, bell has rung.

托撥歇者 t’ok peh h’ih ’tsé, have entrusted to him.

e. 過歇 kú‘ h’ih, form a perfect farther in the past than the above.

來過歇者 lé kú‘ h’ih ’tsé, I have come formerly.

勿曾去過歇 veh zung k’i‘ kú‘ h’ih, I have yet gone.

學過歇拉者 hok kú‘ h’ih ’lá ’tsé, I have learnt it before.

f. 要 yau‘ expresses future time; sometimes tsiáng precedes. 要 may often be translated in order to (supine)

要落雨者 yau‘ loh ’ü ’tsé, it will rain.

明朝要去 ming tsau yau‘ k’í‘, I will go to-morrow.

g. 將 tsiáng, is frequently used for the future.

將有閙事 tsiáng ’yeu nau‘ zz‘, there will be a disturbance.

Obs. These particles give the affirmative future. The form for the negative is different as is shown below.

h. 之 tsz; this particle appended to a verb, gives it the time of a past participle. English auxiliary participle having.

看之書末曉得者 k’ön‘ tsz sû meh, ’h’iau tuh ’tsé, when you have read it, you will know.

懂之末好講 ’tóng tsz meh ’hau ’kong, when you understand it, you can explain it.

做之兵咾打帳去者 tsu‘ tsz ping lau ’táng tsáng‘ k’í‘ ’tsé, having become a soldier, he has gone to fight.

Obs. As a relative tense particle, this word may be used in past or future time. In the former case, it is the sign of the narrative participle; e.g. 看見之山高咾走上去者 k’ön‘ kíen‘ tsz san kau lau, ’tseu ’zong k’í‘ ’tsé, seeing the hill was high, he went up. In the latter case it forms a future perfect, such as is introduced in English with “when,” 寫好之撥拉我看 ’sia ’hau tsz peh ’lá ’ngú k’ön‘, when you have written it, let me see it. The conditional particle 末 meh, is frequently introduced at the end of the first clause.

i. 曾 zung; as 之 tsz expresses the past in affirmative sentences, so zung in those that are negative.

勿曾看歇 veh zung k’ön‘ h’ih, I have not seen it.

勿曾來 veh zung lé, he has not come.

Obs. In a negative reply to a question, this particle is introduced, when in English the present tense is employed; 勿曾去 veh zung k’í‘, he is not gone.

253. Adverbs of time often render these particles unnecessary.

昨日去個 zoh (g) nyih k’í‘ kú‘, he went yesterday.

我後日去 ’ngú ’heu nyih k’í‘, I shall go on the day after to-morrow.

254. The particles for future time are not used in the negative form.

我勿去, ’ngú veh k’í‘, I shall not go.

Obs. i. If yau‘ 要 is employed in a negative sentence whose time is future, it is in the sense of wish or must; e.g. 我勿要去 ’ngú veh yau‘ k’í‘, I do not wish to go. 將 tsiáng, when it occurs, must stand first, so that when 勿 veh introduces the sentence, it cannot form a part of it.

Obs. ii. 勿見得 veh kíen‘ tuh, it is not likely, is very commonly employed as a negative future; e.g. 勿見得落雨 veh kíen‘ tuh loh ’u, it is not likely to rain, or it will not rain.

255. Examples of some verbs that require illustration are here appended.

а. 當 tong in combination ought, receive: tong‘ regard as, to pawn. N. B. The tone differs in the last two senses.

當之年撥草伊吃 tong‘ tsz nieu peh ’t’sau í k’iuh, regard him as a buffalo, and feed him on grass.

輕個當之重個 k’iung kú‘ tong‘ tsz ’dzóng kú‘, what is light regard as heavy.

該當個 ké tong kú‘, ought.

勿敢當 veh ’kén tong, not dare receive it.

當衣裳去 tong‘ í zong k’í’, am going to pawn clothes.

b. 打 ’táng, beat, set in operation.

打官司 ’táng kwén sz, go to law.

打官話 ’táng kwén wó‘, speak mandarin.

打秋風 ’táng t’sieu fóng, make presents in hope of gain.

c. 待 té‘, to treat, wait.

待慢 té‘ man‘, treat contemptuously.

待人接物 té‘ niun tsih veh, treat persons respectfully.

待我來 té‘ ’ngú lé, wait till I come.

d. 銷 siau, consume, melt.

開銷 k’é siau, to expend.

銷烊 siau yáng, to melt.

e. 對 té‘ (d) correspond, opposite.

總勿對境 ’tsóng veh té‘ ’kiung, nothing pleases him.

更加勿對 kung‘ ká veh té‘, still more wrong.

對面看起來 té‘ míen‘ k’ön‘ ’k’í lé, on the other hand you see.

f. 弄 lóng‘, meddle with, play with.

弄壞 lóng‘ wá‘, spoil.

作弄 tsoh lóng‘, deceive.

弄假成眞 lóng‘ ’ká zung tsun, make-believe becomes truth at last.

弄孛相 lóng‘ beh siáng‘, amuse one’s-self with.

g. 費 fí‘, to expend.

費用 fí‘ yúng‘, expenses.

費神 fí‘ zun, 費心 fí‘ sing, may I trouble you.

h. 是 ’zz, it is, it is right, right.

是非 ’zz fí, right and wrong.

是得極 ’zz tuh giuh, very right.

嘸啥勿是 m sá veh ’zz, not at all untrue.

i. 話 wó‘, say (m. ’kiáng, or shwóh), in combination, words.

話勿轉 wó‘ veh ’tsen, will not listen to words, or he keeps his words.

話定當 wó‘ ding‘ tong‘, said decisively.

啥話頭 sá‘ wó‘ deu, why use such words?

k. 可 ’k’ó, can, may.

可恨 ’k’ó hng‘, a thing to be hated, hateful.

實在可愛 seh zé‘ ’k’ó é‘, truly to be loved, (truly loveable.)

Obs. These forms with ’k’ó, might also, if construed as dissyllables, be placed among the adjectives, as derivatives from verbs.

l. 倒 ’tau, to overturn.

推倒 t’é ’tau, to turn over.

推倒傅來 tíen ’tau tsén lé, place upside down.

倒勿是 ’tau veh ’zz, and yet it is not.

m. 生 sáng, produce, be by nature, be born.

耳𦖋生得好 ’ní ’tú sáng tuh ’hau, has handsome ears.

生來好看 sáng lé ’hau k’ön‘, naturally handsome.

未生之前 ví‘ sung tsz zíen, before birth.

生出果子來 sáng t’seh ’ku ’tsz lé, bear fruit.

Section 8. Prepositions and Postpositions.

256. The words that express the relations (cases) of nouns to one another are placed, some of them before and some after the governed substantive. The case particles that are used for the dative and ablative are prepositions, as also those that express motion towards and substitution.

打 ’tang, from, by. 對 té‘, to, towards.

從 zóng, from. 到 tau‘, to arrive at.

拉 ’lá (m. 於), to. 替 t’i‘, to, with, instead of.

搭 tah, with. 忒 t’eh, to, for, with.

同 tóng, with. 代 te‘, instead of.

聯 líen, ib. 由 yeu, by.

Obs. i. 勒拉 leh lá, a locative particle also precedes its noun. 在 zé‘, its m. equivalent is in our dialect only used in fixed collocations, as 實在 zeh zé‘, certain.

Obs. ii. 自 zz‘ is an inseparable preposition used in combination with zóng, from. 當 a locative preposition, preceding its noun, is also only found in fixed groups; e.g. 當初 tong t’sú, formerly.

Obs. iii. Several of these words are also used as verbs with a cognate sense, viz. 徒, 到, 對, 而, to follow, to arrive at, to correspond, to take origin from.

Obs. iv. 爲 wé‘, on account of, is found with the particles 之 tsz, or 着 záh; 搭 tah also very frequently takes 之 tsz.

Obs. v. 連 líen, together with, is also used as a verb to connect. It frequently takes 搭 tah, after it; e.g. 連搭一家屋裏人 líen tah ih ká óh ’lí niun, together with all his family.

257. The particles that are used for the locative case are postpositions.

裏 ’lí, inside. 前 zíen, before.

外 ngá‘, outside. 後 ’heu, behind.

上 long‘, above, r. ’zong. 下 ’hau, below.

Obs. i. 裏 ’lí, forms the compound 裏向 ’lí h’iáng, m. 中 chóng; 以 ’í, combines with 外 ngá‘, 前 zíen and 後 ’heu, in the sense of beside, before and after, or since; e.g. 今朝以後 kiun tsau ’í ’heu‘, after to-day. Numerous compounds of these words, which will be found among the adverbs, are also often used as prepositions. See Section 9.

Obs. ii. The mandarin 中 chóng, inside, is found in some compounds; e.g. 空中 k’óng tsóng, in the air.

258. Forms borrowed from other parts of speech, compensate for the absence of several prepositions.

1. Of, the particle of the genitive case is compensated for either by juxtaposition, or by the particle 個 kú‘.

中國規矩 Tsúng kóh kwé ’kü, custom of China.

別人個事體 pih niun kú‘ zz‘ ’t’í, what concerns others.

2. With, (instrumental) by, are expressed by 担 tan, and peh ’la or peh.

担篙子撐 tan kau ’tsz t’sáng, pole the boat with the bamboo.

3. Except is expressed by the verb 除脫 dzû t’eh, usually with 以外 ’í ngá‘, or 外頭 ngá‘ deu, ending the clause.

除脫之儂個外頭就是我 dzû t’eh tsz nóng‘ kú‘ ngá‘ deu, dzieu‘ ’zz ’ngú, excepting you, there is only myself.

4. Beside is expressed by, 勿算 veh sön‘, at the end of the clause.

小末勿算共總有一百 ’siau meh veh sön‘, kóng‘ ’tsóng ’yeu ih páh, without counting the small, there are 100 in all.

5. Beyond takes 過去 kú‘ k’í‘, or 外頭 ngá deu.

廣東過去 ’Kwong tóng kú‘ k’i‘, beyond Canton.

6. Through or pass by is expressed by kiung kú‘ or kú‘ alone.

路上經過去杭州 lú‘ long‘ kiung kú‘ Hong-tseu, go through Háng-cheú on the way.

7. Towards is expressed by the verbs 朝, 望, 對 zau, mong‘, té‘.

朝西轉灣朝南 zau sí ’tsén wan zau nén, go to the west, and turn to the south.

朝第邊走 zau dí‘ píen ’tseu, go this way.

望之第邊走 mong‘ tsz dí‘ píen ’tseu, ib.

對故塊走 té‘ kú‘ k’wé‘ ’tseu, go that way.

Obs. Some of these prepositions in English, are easily reduced to verbs and substantives. The author of the Diversion of purley would readily find an etymology for them all. In common English grammars, such words as regarding and respecting, are set down among the prepositions, without a word to tell the juvenile student, how it is that prepositions come to be formed by the termination ing.

Section 9. On Adverbs.

Quality. 259. Adverbs of manner are formed by affixing zén, hú, nung and ’lí, to repeated adjectives.

隱隱然 ’yung ’yung zén, not clearly.

興興然 h’iung h’iung zén, prosperously.

約約乎 yáh yáh hú, indistinctly.

幾幾乎 ’kí ’kí hú, very near.

稀稀能 h’í h’í nung, seldom met with.

險險能 ’h’ien ’h’ien nung, dangerously.

快快裏 k’wá‘ k’wá‘ ’lí, quickly.

Obs. i. Zén and hú, are found in book phrases transferred to the dialect. Expressions formed with nung and ’lí, are pure colloquial, and are very numerous.

Obs. ii. Kiau‘ is used in one instance 慢慢敎 man‘ man‘ kiau‘, slowly.

Obs. iii. Long adjective groups are more frequently used as adverbs than as adjectives. They do not take the formative particles zén, nung etc. 走路一門心思 ’tseu lú‘ ih mun sing sz, he walks eagerly.

260. The numerals 一 ih, 兩 ’liáng, combine with certain words, principally adjectives, to form adverbs.

一直 ih dzuh, straight. 一連 ih líen, joined together.

一氣 ih k’í‘, together. 兩氣 ’liáng k’í‘, separate.

一樣 ih yáng‘, the same. 兩樣 ’liáng yáng‘, different.

一向 ih h’iáng‘, hitherto. 一齊 ih dzí, together.

一切 ih t’sih, the whole. 一淘 ih dau, ib.

一般 ih pén, the same.

Obs. These may be shown by examples to be adverbs. 放拉兩起個 fong‘ ’lá ’liáng k’í‘ kú‘, place them apart; 當伊父母一般 tong‘ í ’vú ’mú ih pén, treats him in the same way that he does his parents.

261. Repeated adjectives standing before verbs, are used as adverbs.

早早來 ’tsau ’tsau lé, come early.

慢慢走 man‘ man‘ ’tseu, walk slowly.

Obs. Sometimes the adjective is not repeated, as in 慢去 man‘ k’í‘, be slow to go, good bye, In 走好 ’tseu ’hau, walk carefully, the adverb follows the verb as in English.

262. Repeated forms imitative of natural sounds are in frequent use.

丁冬了冬 ting tóng ting tóng, sound of drum (’kú).

鎟鋃鎟鋃 song long song long, ib. horse bells (ling).

帖塌帖塌 t’ih t’ah t’ih t’ah, sound of shoes.

結怪結怪 kih kwá kih kwá, calling of crows.

刮臘刮臘 kwah lah kwah lah, wind blowing on reeds.

兵兵浜浜 ping ping páng páng, noise of beating ice.

以列以列 ’í lih ’í lih, braying of asses.

以挨以挨 ’í á ’í á, creaking of doors.

胡盧胡盧 ú lú ú lú, sound of piping.

㷸爆㷸爆 pih póh pih póh, sound of splitting bamboo as by fire.

Obs. Words of this sort occur so frequently in conversation, that at the risk of their being thought too amusing for a serious book they are here noticed. The second and third tones scarcely occur in these onomatopœia. The forms used in other dialects differ from these.

263. Adverbs of manner applied to qualify actions, and not reducible to the heads already given are such as,—

白白裏 páh báh ’lí, in vain; or, páh alone, e.g. páh sóng‘ t’éh.

特特裏 tuh duh ’lí, on purpose.

特意 tuh í‘, intentionally.

偷伴子 t’eu bén ’tsz, secretly.

假佯頭 ’ká yáng deu, falsely.

倖喜 yung‘ ’h’í, luckily.

造化 ’zau hó‘, 恰好 hah ’hau, fortunately.

264. There is a large number of primitive adverbs, applied to qualify adjectives.

а. 更 kung‘, 還 wan, 又 i‘, 再 tse‘, signify more. They precede their word, and form the comparative degree, v. Art. 177.

b. 頂 ’ting, 最 tsûe‘, 極 kiuh, 蠻 man, 怪 kwá‘, 好 ’hau, 狠 ’hun, very. These words precede their word and form the superlative. v. Art. 178.

c. 些 ’sí, 煞 sah, 極 kiuh, 野 ’yá, come after their word and form a superlative.

d. 忒 t’uh, gives to adjectives the sense of too; e.g. 忒大 t’uh dú‘, too large.

Obs. i. These words which in English qualify only adjectives, sometimes qualify verbs whether construed as participles or not. 頂愛拉 個 ’ting é‘ ’lá kú‘, the most beloved; 蠻會做 man wé‘ tsú‘, extremely well able to do it; 話煞 wó‘ sah, say decisively; 極有文 理 kiuh ’yeu vun ’lí, has very (great) literary beauty; or it has extreme beauty.

Obs. ii. The mandarin intensitive particle 好 ’hau is found only in the phrase 好幾 ’hau ’kí, very many.

Obs. iii. It has been seen in illustrating the comparison of adjectives, that some verbs, single and grouped with the auxiliaries tuh and lé, (得, 來,) are applied to adjectives. In addition to the examples there given, may be noticed 熱勿過 nyih veh kú‘, unbearably hot.

Correlative Adverbs. 265. The questions how? how much? how many? why? when? and where? are formed by interrogative pronouns with the most general words for manner, place and time, and a mere particle for the rest.

那能 ná‘ nung, how? 幾時 ’kí zz, when?

幾許 ’kí hó‘, how much? 那裏 ’á ’lí, where?

„ how many? 啥所 sá‘ sü, „

啥咾 sá‘ lau, why? Also 為啥 wé‘ sá‘, 有啥 ’yeu sá‘.

Obs. i. How may parts in ten? is 十分裏幾分 seh vun‘ ’lí ’kí vun‘. The answer might be 十分裏有三分 seh vun‘ ’lí ’yeu san vun‘, three tenths. Questions and replies may be framed in the same way with any numerals.

Obs. ii. For other examples, see section on pronouns, to which etymologically these words belong.

Obs. iii. How much more used as a logical particle, is expressed by 何况於 hú hwong‘ ü.

266. The adverbs corresponding to these, thus, however, whenever, wherever are expressed in various ways.

什蓋能 seh ké‘ nung, thus, seh ké‘, ib.

隨便那能 zûe bíen‘ ná‘ nung, which ever way you please.

勿論幾許 veh lun‘ ’kí hó‘, however much.

勿拘那裏 veh kü á ’lí, wherever you please.

要那能就那能 yau‘ ná‘ nung dzieu‘ ná‘ nung, however you want it, it shall be so.

我那能做勿要問 ’ngú ná‘ nung tsú‘ veh yau‘ mun‘, do not ask how I do it.

Obs. i. Other examples may be seen in the section on pronouns. The answers to when? where? how many? will be found among the adverbs of time, place and number. Why? is answered by any direct statement, with or without the conjunction 因爲 yung wé‘.

Obs. ii. Dzûe bíen‘, veh lun‘, veh kü, are properly verb combinations. They mean following your convenience, without regarding, not constraining.

Quantity. 267. The forms for about, enough, much, little, together, etc. are such as follow:—

a. About, is expressed by pó, kwong ’kiung, after their word, and yáh, teu, before.

約歸一百 yáh kwé ih páh, about a hundred.

約畧, 約摸 yáh liáh, yáh máh, both signify about.

約數幾許 yáh sú‘ ’kí ’hau, about how many?

里巴 ’lí pó, about a le.

尺巴 t’sák pó, about a foot.

步巴 pú pó, about a step.

寸巴 t’sun‘ pó, about an inch.

桶巴 ’tóng pó, a bucket-ful.

本巴 ’pun pó, about a volume.

半夜巴 pén‘ yá pó, about midnight.

半托巴 pén‘ t’ok pó, two arms length (t’ok, stretch out both arms).

頭二百 teu ní‘ páh, about two hundred.

約百錢 yák páh díen, about 100 cash.

約有二十 yáh yeu ní‘ seh, there are about 20.

一千光景 ih t’síen kwong ’kiung, about 1000.

Obs. A very common form is 差勿多 t’só veh tú, not far wrong, which is used in the same sense as the above words.

b. Enough and not enough are expressed by keu‘, veh tsóh, veh kûn zz‘, k’iöh ’sau and some verbs with the negative.

彀哩, 干事者 keu‘ ’lí, kûn zz‘ ’tsé, enough.

勿彀, 勿干事 veh keu‘, veh kûn zz‘, not enough.

有哩 ’yeu ’lí, it is enough.

勿足 veh tsóh, not enough.

勿到三十 veh tau‘ san seh, not so many as 30.

勿滿三十 veh ’mén san seh, ib.

勿缺少個 veh k’iöh ’sau kú‘, not insufficient.

第個裏少一錢 ti‘ kú‘ ’lí ’sau ih dien, this is deficient one cash.

第籃桶子裡缺十隻 ti‘ lan kiöh ’tsz ’lí k’iöh seh tsáh, this basket of oranges in ten short.

Obs. These words might be divided between adjectives and verbs, and no place reserved for them here, were it not that their equivalents in English and other languages are adverbs.

c. Much, more, many are all expressed by the adjective 多 tú. If tú precedes it is more (adv.): if it follows its word, it is much or many (adj.) Other words for more are 還 wan, 越 yöh, and the verbs ká, t’íen, ’tíen, etc.

多撥點 tú peh ’tíen, give more.

第袋米多二斤 ti‘ dé‘ ’mi tú ni‘ kiun, this bag of rice is two catties more (or over).

人多個 niun tú kú‘, the men are many.

越加勿好 yöh ká veh ’hau, much worse.

加點, 添點 ká ’tíen, t’íen ’tíen, give more.

一錢勿加 ih díen veh ká, I will not give one more cash.

勿罷一百 veh bá‘ ih páh, there are more than a hundred.

也勿罷 ’á veh bá‘, and more too.

銅錢還要 tóng díen wan yau‘, I want more cash.

Obs. For examples of such forms as 好幾 ’hau ’kí, 多許 tú hau‘, many. See section on pronouns. The only words here adduced that can claim to be adverbs are 越 still more, 也 too, and wan 還. Too is an adverb in English, but its equivalent 也 becomes by its position a conjunction, and wan when it is not an adverb of time still, may often fairly be considered a conjunction.

d. Less, few are represented by 少 ’sau, standing before its word, and by such borrowed phrases as veh siau, not necessary, less: ’yeu hien‘ k’ú‘, few, not much.

兩日勿消 ’liáng nyih veh siau, in less than 2 days.

少吃點 ’sau k’iuh ’tíen, eat less.

減脱點 ’kan t’eh ’tíen, take less, subtract a little.

勿能減少 veh nung ’kan ’sau, cannot take less.

人有限個 niun ’yeu híen‘ kú‘, of men there are few.

e. A little, any, are used sometimes adverbially in English. Their representatives in our dialect are liák sü, ’sau wé, sü ’sau with the auxiliary substantive forms ih ’ngan, ’tíen, etc.

畧須曉得 liák sü ’h’iau tuh, know it a little.

須為明白 sü wé ming báh, understand it a little.

須稍懂得 sü ’sau ’tóng tuh, ib.

些須加點 ’sí sü ká ’tíen, add a little.

稍為要個 ’sau wé yau‘ kú‘, I want it a little.

稍為便宜點 ’sau wé bien‘ ni ’tíen, a little cheaper.

脚有一眼酸 kiáh ’yeu ih ’ngan sûn, my feet are a little tired.

有點怕個 ’yeu ’tíen p’ó‘ kú‘, he is a little afraid.

一點點 ih ’tíen ’tíen, a very little.

有點𨅓跎 ’yeu ’tíen sá dú, I am a little tired.

有點會飛 ’yeu ’tíen wé‘ fí‘, can fly a little.

Obs. ’Tíen, ih ’ngan, when they follow an adjective, while placing it in the comparative degree, preserve their own sense a little; e.g. 好一眼多謝 ’hau ih ’ngan tú zia‘, a little better thank you; 快點走 k’wá‘ ’tíen ’tseu, walk a little faster.

f. Not very, very much, too much are expressed by the derivative adverb, veh da‘ ’lí, and the forms seh fun, seh ní‘ fun, kú‘ vun‘, t’uh kú‘ vun‘.

勿大哩要 veh dá‘ ’lí yau‘, he does not much want it.

勿大哩多 veh dá‘ ’lí tú, not very many.

十分要 seh fun yau‘, wants it very much.

十二分好 seh ní‘ fun ’hau, very good.

g. Not at all, not in the least, are translated in several ways.

一無用頭 ih vú yúng‘ deu, of no use.

萬無好處 van‘ vú ’hau t’sû‘, of no use at all.

絲毫勿對 sz hau veh té‘, not in the least agreeing.

嘸啥蹉跎 m sá‘ sá dú, not at all tired.

一眼勿差 ih ’ngan veh t’só, just so, not at all wrong.

h. To altogether correspond ’lóng ’tsóng, kóng ’tsóng, tseu sun, ’lóng ’t’óng.

共總二百 kóng‘ ’tsóng ni‘ páh, in all two hundred.

週身幾許 tseu sun ’kí hau‘, in all how many?

盡行勿好 dzing‘ yung veh ’hau, altogether wrong.

一氣賣完 ih k’í‘ má‘ wén, altogether sold off.

攏統三萬 ’lóng ’t’óng san man‘, altogether 30,000.

i. Mostly, chiefly, are expressed by pronominal forms, which have been already partially illustrated.

大一半, tú‘ ih pén‘, the greater part.

大凡人勿懂 tá‘ van niun veh ’tóng, men mostly do not understand.

大槩百姓 tá ké pák sing‘, most people.

大凡人什蓋寫個多, ta‘ van niun seh ké ’sia kú‘ tú, most persons write it thus.

第能貸色是好個多 ti‘ nung hú‘ suh ’zz ’hau kú‘ tú, articles of this kind are mostly good.

吃鴉片烟個人勿牢寔個多 k’iuh á p’ien yen kú‘ niun veh lau zeh kú‘ tú, opium smokers are for the most part dishonest.

j. Half is sometimes used in English as an adverb; so also it is in Chinese, as in the following phrases.

半死半活 pén‘ ’sí pén‘ weh, half dead half alive.

半假半眞 pén‘ ’ká pén‘ tsun, half false half true.

半推半愛 pén‘ t’é pén‘ é‘, refuse and yet wish for.

半呑半吐 pén‘ t’un pén‘ t’ú‘, cease from saying a thing when half through it.

Obs. The other proportional parts, such as 四分裏一分 si‘ vun‘ ’lí ih vun‘, a quarter; 十分裏一分 seh vun‘ ’lí ih vun‘, one tenth, are much too long to enter into such groups.

k. only, alone are represented by tseh, tók, tan, tan‘ and forms into which they enter.

只得一眼 tseh tuh ih ’ngan, only a little.

獨一干 tók ih kûn, only one.

獨干子 tók kûn ’tsz, alone.

勿但一個 veh dan‘ ih kú‘, not only one.

惟獨兩個人 ví‘ dóh ’liáng kú‘ niun, only two men.

勿獨之一個 veh dók tsz ih kú‘, not only one.

一干子 ih kûn ’tsz, alone.

單單一個 tan tan ih kú‘, a single one.

不過一個 pih (should be peh) kú‘ ih kú‘, only one.

獨獨哩我會做 tóh dóh ’lí ’ngú wé‘ tsú‘, only I can do it.

Obs. i. Tan, is also an adjective, as in the question, 花單個呢雙個 hwó tan kú‘ ní song kú‘, is the flower single or double? Tóh and tan‘ are both conjunctions, when joined to ’zz, as 但是, 獨是 tan‘ ’zz, tóh ’zz, but.

Obs. ii. The numeral adverbs once, twice, etc. translated by 一次 ih t’sz‘, etc. may be seen in section 4. on auxiliary substantives, Art. 163.

Negative and Affirmative. 268. One of the most common negative particles is 嘸 m, to which 沒 meh, the same in meaning is frequently appended. 嘸 m is properly a verb not to have.

嘸啥事體 m sá‘ zz‘ t’í, it is nothing.

嘸形嘸踪 m yung tsóng, there is no trace of him.

嘸沒啥話頭 m meh sá‘ wó‘ deu, there is nothing to say.

嘸憂嘸慮 m yeu m lü‘, having no grief or care.

269. The literary word that corresponds to this particle is 無 vú, which is also in common use in colloquial phrases derived from the books or formed on book models.

無財無勢 vú dzé vú sz‘, having no riches or influence.

無親無戚 vú t’sing vú t’sih, having no relations.

無冬無夏 vú tóng vú ’yá, having neither winter nor summer.

270 The negative particle in most general use is 勿 veh. It is not prohibitive as in the books, but simply denies like 不 peh in mandarin.

勿會度日 veh wé‘ dú‘ nyih, I cannot live on.

勿三勿四 veh san veh sz‘, neither this nor that.

勿聲勿嚮 veh sung veh ’h’iáng, he said nothing.

勿薦拉儂 veh tsíen‘ ’lá nóng‘, I shall not recommend him to you.

勿是, 勿個 veh ’zz, veh kú‘, it is not so (or veh alone).

271. The particles 惟 ví, 不 peh and 非 fí, are used in a few combinations.

惟獨 ví dóh, only.

惟我一人 ví ’ngú ih zun, only I.

不止一人 peh ’tsz ih zun, not one man only.

不知下落 peh tsz ’yá loh, do not know where he is.

眼不能見 ’ngan peh nung kíen‘, not to be seen.

非獨之我 fí dók tsz ’ngú, not only I.

272. The simplest affirmative is 是 ’zz; certain auxiliary particles are often appended or prefixed.

是個, 是拉個 ’zz kú‘, ’zz ’lá kú‘, it is so.

就是, 是者 dzieu‘ ’zz, ’zz ’tsé, ib.

273. When some quality is affirmed, an adjective of opposite meaning, with the negative particle prefixed, is often employed.

勿孬 veh k’ieu, that is good.

倒勿對 ’tau veh té‘, but that is wrong.

勿差 veh t’só, you are right.

274. The emphasis of positive certainty is conveyed by phrases such as tsun tsung‘, seh zé‘, etc., and the double negation 無非 prefixed to the proposition affirmed.

眞正嘸沒 tsun tsung‘ m meh, certainly there is none.

畢竟勿曾到 pih kiung‘ veh zung tau‘, certainly he has not come.

實在有個 seh zé ’yeu kú‘, there certainly is.

斷斷乎是個 tön‘ tön‘ ú ’zz kú‘, it certainly is so.

果然勿差 ’kú zen veh t’só, it is certainly right.

Obs. The interrogative final mó, is often used to express the same sense with these words, 小囝蠻麽 ’siau nön man mó, the boys are wild indeed.

275. Some phrases imply a moral certainty or necessity (must), and with the negative, the absence of that necessity (need not).

柴總有個 zá ’tsóng ’yeu kú‘, there must be fire wood.

銀子一定有 niung ’tsz ih ding‘ ’yeu, there must be silver.

總要解說個 ’tsóng yau‘ ’ká seh kú‘, you must explain it.

必定要去 pih ding‘ yau‘ k’i‘, you must go.

板定要來者 ’pan ding‘ yau‘ lé ’tsé, he must necessarily come.

板要做個 ’pan yau‘ tsu‘ kú‘, you must do it.

善终有善報 ’zén tsóng ’yeu ’zén pau‘, virtue will surely have a good reward.

做生意總要用心 tsú‘ sang i‘ ’tsóng yau‘ yúng‘ sing, in transacting business you must apply the mind.

276. There are several phrases to express that the thing affirmed is naturally so, and that nothing else ought to be expected.

本來什蓋能 ’pun lé seh ké‘ nung, it is originally so.

本者來自家要來 ’pun ’tsé lé zz‘ ka yau‘ lé, he originally wished to come himself.

自然者 zz‘ zén ’tsé, as might be expected.

自然而然 zz‘ zén rh zén, spontaneously.

原來嘸啥 niön lé m sá‘, it is really nothing.

本者乎勿肯 ’pun ’tsé ú veh ’k’ung, by nature unwilling.

良心本底子有個 liáng sing ’pun ’tí ’tsz ’yeu ku‘, conscience belongs to us by nature.

277. Different words are usually appropriated to the affirmative and negative forms of assertions. Thus (1) absolute certainty in the negative is expressed by,—

並勿是 ping‘ veh ’zz, certainly it is not.

决勿好做 kiöh veh ’hau tsu‘, it ought surely not to be done.

切勿可以 t’sih veh ’k’ó ’í, you certainly may not.

(2). The denial of necessity (need not) is conveyed in such expressions as the following.

勿必得去 veh pih tuh ’k’í, you need not go.

勿必多 veh pih tú, do not need many.

Obs. The Imperative also, as in 勿要去 veh yau‘ k’í‘, do not go; 去 末者 k’í‘ meh ’tsé, go has distinct auxiliary words for the affirmative and negative forms.

278. There are some adverbs appropriated to express affirmative and negative propositions in the interrogative form.

豈勿是頂好 ’k’i veh ’zz ’ting ’hau, how is it not admirable.

難道儂勿曉得我 nan dau‘ nóng‘ veh ’h’iau tuh ’ngú, it can hardly be that you do not know me.

有啥勿識字 ’yeu sá‘ veh suh zz‘, why should I not know how to read.

Obs. i. The final interrogative 麽 mau, or 呢 ní, is appended frequently to any sentences of this sort.

Obs. ii. Affirmative questions implying a strong denial are also occasionally asked by these particles; e.g. 豈有此理 k’í ’yeu ’t’sz ’lí, how can this be? 難道我哄騙儂否 nan dau‘ ’ngú hóng‘ p’ien‘ nóng‘ ’vá, could I deceive you?

Adverbs of place. 279. Demonstrative adverbs are derived from pronouns, as adverbs of manner from adjectives. Thus here and there, are translated by compounds formed from the three pronouns tí‘, kú‘, í.

第塊, 第搭, 第頭, tí‘ k’wé‘, tí‘ tah, tí‘ deu, here.

故塊, 故搭, 故頭, kú‘ k’wé‘, kú‘ tah, kú‘ deu, there.

伊塊, 伊搭, 伊頭, í k’wé‘, í tah, í deu, there.

Obs. From 此 ’t’sz is formed 此地 ’t’sz dí‘, here; 堂 tong, also forms tí‘ dong, here, etc.

280. On this, and on that side are formed in a similar manner with the auxiliaries míen‘, face, and píen, side.

第面, 第邊, tí‘ míen‘, tí‘ píen, on this side.

第半爿, tí‘ pén‘ ban, ib.

故面, 故邊, kú‘ míen‘, kú‘ píen, on that side.

故半爿, 伊半爿, kú‘ pén‘ ban, í pén‘ ban, ib.

伊面, 伊邊, í míen‘, í píen, ib.

281. The postpositions or case particles corresponding to our locative prepositions enter into similar forms.

上面, 上頭 ’zong míen‘, ’zong deu, above.

上邊, 上半爿 ’zong píen, ’zong pén‘ ban, on the upper side.

上首, 上肩, 上底頭 ’zong ’seu, ’zong kíen, ’zong ’tí deu, on the upper side.

前面, 前頭, 前底 zíen míen‘, zíen deu, zíen ’tí, before.

後面, 後頭, 後首 ’heu míen‘, ’heu deu, ’heu ’seu, behind.

後底, 後底頭 ’heu ’tí, ’heu ’tí deu, behind.

裏頭, 裏厮, 裏面 ’lí deu, ’lí sz, ’lí míen‘, inside.

裏向, 裏邊 ’lí h’iáng‘, ’lí píen, ib.

裏半爿 ’lí pén‘ ban, ib.

Obs. i. 下 ’au forms the same compounds as 上 ’zong, with one other 下底 ’au ’tí, all of them with the sense below. 外 ngá‘, forms the same compounds as 裏 ’lí (excepting that with 向 h’iáng‘), in the sense of outside.

Obs. ii. For similar groups of nouns, with the points of the compass, see Art. 152.

282. The adjectives ’tsú yeu‘, right and left, form some groups.

右邊, 右半爿, yeu‘ píen, yeu‘ pén‘ ban, on the right-hand.

左邊, 左半爿, tsí‘ (ú) píen, tsí‘ pén‘ ban, on the left-hand.

283. The adverbs of place and direction that remain are few.

週圍, 四週圍, tseu wé, sz‘ tseu wé, all round.

當中 tong tsóng, in the middle.

空中 k’óng tsóng, in the air.

橫肚裏 wáng ’tú ’lí, obliquely.

射角 dzák kok, obliquely.

對直 té‘ dzuh, straight before.

那裏那裏堂 ’á ’lí, ’á ’lí dong, where?

各處, 處處, 到處, kok t’sû‘, t’sû‘ t’sû‘, tau‘ t’sû‘, everywhere.

各道落處 kok tau‘ lok t’sû‘, everywhere.

284. Wáng and ’zû form with verbs many groups of four characters, in which the action is said to be done in various ways, literally across and perpendicularly.

橫做𥪡做 wáng tsú‘ ’zû tsú‘, do this and that.

橫勿是𥪡勿是 wáng veh ’zz, ’zû veh ’zz, wrong in this and in that.

Obs. In weaving, the cross thread is 芉紗 ü‘ só, the other 經紗 kiung só; here ü‘ is used for wei 緯.

285. The adverbs in and out, up and down, here and there, etc. are translated in Chinese by repeated verbs.

飛進飛出 fí tsing‘ fí t’seh, fly in and out.

跳上跳下 t’iau‘ ’zong t’iau‘ ’au, jump up and down.

搖來搖去 yau lé yau k’í‘, row about.

Adverbs of time. 286. The following are the primitive adverbs of time employed in the dialect.

曾 zung, already; 勿曾 veh zung, not yet.

向 h’iáng‘, 一向 ih h’iáng‘, hitherto; (it embraces the whole of the past time), 向來 h’iáng‘ lé, 向係 h’iáng‘ í‘, ib.

已 ’í, already; e.g. 已經 ’í kiung, already.

昨 zoh (zóh, zog), in 昨日 zoh nyih, yesterday.

先 síen, first; 第個先要做 tí‘ kú‘ síen yau‘ tsú‘, this must be done first.

暴 pau‘, at first; e.g. 暴時 pau‘ zz, at first; 暴時間 pau‘ zz kan, ib.

預 ü‘, beforehand; 預先防備 ü‘ síen bong bé‘, guard against beforehand. (防 guard against; m. fang; s.r. vong).

初 t’sú, at first, is only found as an adverb in the phrase 當初 tong t’sú, formerly.

今 kiun, now; e.g. 目今 mók kiun, 刻今 k’uk kiun, 現今 híen‘ kiun, now; 今朝 kiun tsau, to-day; 今曰 kiun nyih, ib.; 今月 kiun niöh, this month; 今年 kiun níen, this year.

難 nan, now; 難故歇 nan kú‘ h’ih, at the present moment; 難朝後 nan dzau ’eu, from this time forward; 難下來 nan ’au lé, ib.; 難末 nan meh, then.

正 tsung‘, (or 淮 ’tsung) just; 正勒拉 tsung‘ leh ’lá, just while; 貼正 t’ih (or t’eh) tsung‘, just at the moment.

現 híen‘ now; 現在 híen‘ dzé‘, now; 現時 híen‘ zz, ib.

暫 dzan‘, temporarily; e.g. 暫時 dzan‘ zz, for a short time; 暫為 dzan‘ we‘, ib.

將 tsiáng, about to be; 將來 tsiáng lé, it will happen that.

卽 tsiuk (tsih) just; 隨卽 zûe tsiuk, just; 卽刻 tsih k’uh, ib. 卽鉛 tsih k’an, ib.

再 tsé‘, again; 再會 tsé‘ wé‘, we shall meet again.

鉛 k’an just; 鉛鉛 k’an k’an ib.; 鉛起始 k’an ’k‘í ’sz, at the beginning.

又 í‘, 又來者 í‘ lé ’tsé, come again.

還 wan, still; 還要來 wan yau‘ lé, come again.

就 dzieu‘, immediately; 就轉來 dzieu‘ ’tsén lé, return directly 就此 dzieu‘ ’t’sz, immediately.

一 ih followed by 就 dzieu‘ the moment that; 一睏就覺 ih k’wun‘ dzieu‘ kau‘, the moment he went to sleep he awoke.

Obs. i. Of these words, only 難, 將, 再, 又, 還, 就, nan, tsiáng, tsé‘, í‘, wan, dzieu‘, are separable from the groups in which they are found. 未 as in 未哩 mí‘ ’lí, not yet, is a negative adverb of time.

Obs. ii. All these adverbs are book words, except pau‘, nan, and k’an.

287. The demonstrative pronouns 第, 伊, 故, tí‘, í, kú‘, and some other words combine with the substantives 歇, 刻, 時, h’ih, k’uh, zz, a short time, to form adverbs of time.

第歇故歇 tí‘ h’ih, kú‘ h’ih, at this moment.

故歇頭上 kú‘ h’ih deu long‘, at that time.

伊歇頭上 í h’ih deu long‘, ib.

一時頭上 ih zz deu long‘, all at once.

立刻 lih k’uh, immediately.

立時立刻 lih zz lih k’uh, ib.

立時三刻 lih zz san k’uh, ib.

歇 h’ih, also helps to form 大歇 tá h’ih, 爽歇 zong h’ih, after a little time; 少歇 ’sau h’ih, ib.

288. Several adjectives and prepositions are borrowed to form compound adverbs of time.

a. 明 ming, bright. 明朝 ming tsau, to-morrow; 明日 ming nyih, ib.; 明天 ming t’íen, ib.; 明年 ming níen, next year.

b. 早 ’tsau, early; 早早 ’tsau ’tsau, early; 老早 ’lau ’tsau, early.

c. 古 ’kú ancient. 古時間 ’kú zz kan, in ancient times; 古時節 ’kú zz tsih, ib.; 古來 ’kú lé, from ancient times.

d. 新 sing, new. 新年 sing níen, new year; 從新 dzóng sing, afresh.

e. 近 ’kiun, near. 近年 ’kiun níen, of late years; 近時 ’kiun zz, lately; 近來 ’kiun lé, ib. 近今 ’kiun kiun, ib. 近世 ’kiun sz‘, in modern times.

f. 舊 ’kieu, old. 舊年 ’kieu níen, last year; 仍舊 zung ’gieu, as before; 照舊 tsau‘ ’gieu, ib. 依舊 í‘ ’gieu, ib.

g. 常 dzáng, constant. 常庄 dzáng tsong, 打常 ’táng dzáng, 常常 dzáng dzáng 不常 peh dzáng, always; 常時 dzáng zz, sometimes; 日常 nyih dzáng, daily.

h. 前 zíen, former. 前日子 zíen nyih ’tsz, day before yesterday; 目前 móh zíen, now. 前年 zíen níen, year before last. 從前 dzóng zíen, formerly. 以前 ’í zíen, before; 前代 zíen dé‘, the former dynasty. 前朝 zíen zau, ib.; 前世 zíen sz‘, in a former life.

i. 後 ’heu, after. 後來 ’heu lé, 以後 ’í heu‘, after; 後月 ’heu niöh, next month; 後年 ’heu níen, year after next; 後日 ’heu nyih, day after to-morrow.

j. 下 ’hau, 目下 móh ’hau, at present.

k. 多 tú, 日多 nyih tú, daily.

Obs. Zien deu, ’heu deu, before, after, and the cognate adverbs of place are used also for time.

289. Sometimes verbs take the place of what in English are adverbs. They are 來, 過, 歇, 隔 lé, kú‘, h’ih, káh.

自古以來 zz‘ ’kú ’í lé, from ancient times till now.

周朝以來 Tseu dzau ’í lé, from the Cheú dynasty till now.

歇之兩日 h’ih tsz ’liáng nyih, after two days.

隔之幾十年 kák tsz ’kí zeh níen, after several tens of years.

再過一月 tsé‘ kú‘ ih niöh, after another month.

290. There are some provincial adverbs of time, whose etymology is uncertain, or at least not referable to words of time.

做慣 tsok (kwan‘) kûn‘, constantly (in the habit of).

只管 tseh ’kwén, ib. or my only concern is, etc. (m.)

冷陌生頭 ’láng mák sáng deu, suddenly.

難板 nan ’pan, seldom (difficult to fix).

291. The adjective pronouns combine with substantives of time to form common phrases, which are often used as adverbs.

多 tá, several; 多歇 tá h’ih, after a little time; 多日 tá nyih, after some days; 多年 tá níen, after some years; 多時 tá zz, a considerable time (多 tú in this sense is generally pronounced tá.)

幾 ’kí, several; 連幾日 líen ’kí nyih, during several days.

多 tú, many; 介多 ká‘ tú, mutually.

逐 dzóh, each; 日逐 nyih dzóh, daily; 逐點逐點高 dzók ’tíen dzók ’tíen kau, gradually growing higher.

292. Substantives of time, when repeated, are adverbs.

日日 nyih nyih, daily.

年年 níen níen, yearly.

時時刻刻 zz zz k’uh k’uh, constantly.

歇歇 h’ih h’ih, ib.

出出變, 囘囘變 t’seh t’seh pien‘, wé wé pien‘, constantly changing.

Obs. Succession in time is frequently represented in English by repetition of a noun with an adverb inserted. Thus, day by day corresponds to 日日 nyih nyih. Such phrases as year after year, one after another are other examples, and have their Chinese equivalents in the next article.

Order and Succession. 293. Succession of periods of time is represented by repetition, and the intervention of the verb 過 kú‘, pass (English adverb after).

一世過一世 ih sz‘ kú‘ ih sz‘, age after age.

294. The particles and, after, by, in one by one, two and two, in rows, etc. are not represented, succession being expressed by mere repetition of the numeral and its particle.

一個一個出去者 ih kú‘ ih kú‘ t’seh k’i‘ ’tsé, one after another they went out.

要種個一行一行個 yau‘ tsóng‘ kú‘ ih hong ih hong kú‘, plant them in rows.

Obs. For the repetition of verbs, in phrases such as 站一站 dzan‘ ih dzan‘, stand waiting a little; 研一研 níen ih níen, rub a little ink; 冷個冷 ’láng kú‘ ’láng, cool it a little; 調個調 diau kú‘ diau, stir it a little; 淘個淘 dau kú‘ dau, wash it (of rice); 净個净 zing‘ kú‘ zing‘, wash it (of clothes); 我要辨個辨清爽 ’ngú yau‘ bíen‘ kú‘ bíen‘ t’sing ’song, I wish to distinguish clearly; see also Art. 232.

295. Gradual increase by little and little, is expressed by repeating the auxiliary phrases ih ’ngan, ih ’tíen, with the adjective in the centre. When the gradual change is in time, words of time form similar phrases.

一眼高一眼 ih ’ngan kau ih ’ngan, to become gradually higher.

一點大一點 ih ’tíen dú‘ ih ’tíen, grow gradually greater.

一歇大一歇 ih h’ih dú‘ ih h’ih, greater every moment.

一日小一日 ih nyih ’siau ih nyih, grow less every day.

296. Many adverbial phrases are formed by verbs and other words. Thus, the adverb when is often supplied by a noun of time following the verb with the connecting particle 個 kú‘.

覺個辰光 kau‘ kú‘ zun kwong, when you awake.

出門個時候 t’seh mun kú‘ zz heu‘, when on a journey.

297. Never, is expressed by 一向 ih h’iáng‘, with a negative phrase following it.

一向勿曾讀書 ih h’iáng‘ veh zung tók sû, I have never gone to school.

298. The questions why? and how? are often asked by verbs with the pronoun what? thus rendering an adverb unnecessary.

昨日想啥咾勿來 zóh nyih ’siáng sá‘ lau veh lé, why (thinking of what) did you not come yesterday?.

聽之啥咾曉得個 t’ing tsz sá‘ lau ’h’iau tuh kú‘, how (having heard what) do you know?

Adverbs of Similarity and Reciprocity. 299. The adverb 恰 hah, and adjective 像 siáng‘, like, assist in forming several compound phrases in the sense like.

恰像 hah ziáng‘, 恰替 hah t’í‘, like.

好像 hau ziáng‘, very like.

恰得小囝能個 hah tuh ’siau nön nung kú‘, like a child.

倒像 ’tau ziáng‘, or rather it is like.

Obs. 能 nung, is usually appended to the noun that follows these words, in the sense of like; 一樣 ih yáng‘, 一般 ih pén, are also employed in the sense in the same manner.

300.The adverbs of reciprocity are 大介 tá‘ ká‘, 介家 ká‘ ká, 介多 ká‘ tú, mutually, one to another, and 相 in combination with verbs and adjectives; e.g. siáng ziáng‘, 相像 like one another.

Obs. Together with, is expressed by means of certain adverbs 一淘, ih dau, 一氣 ih k’í‘, following the preposition and its noun. 忒我一氣進 城 t’eh ’ngú ih k’i‘ tsing‘ zung, go with me into the city. v. Art. 140.

301. The primitive adverbs are not repeated, except in one or two instances. It is different with those that are derived. Some examples in addition to these already given are here appended.

自自在在 zz‘ zz‘ ’zé ’zé, at ease.

活的活的 weh tih weh tih, constantly moving.

什蓋什蓋 seh ké‘ seh ké‘, thus.

適適意意 suh suh í‘ í‘, comfortably.

Obs. It has been shown that adjectives, and also substantives of time, become adverbs by repetition.

302. Some verbs combine intimately with adverbs, so as to form compound adverbs.

加 ká, add, forms yöh ká, 越加; í‘ ká, 又加; kung‘ ká, 更加 still more.

發 fah, produce, forms 越發 yöh fah; still more.

隨 zûe, follow, 隨時 zûe zz, always; 隨處 zûe t’sû‘, everywhere.

303. It will be seen in the next section, that some words marked as adverbs are also conjunctions. The converse is also true. For some words, such as 越, 且, 如 yöh, ’t’síe, zû regarded in this work as primitive conjunctions, form adverbial phrases.

並且勿是 ping‘ ’t’síe veh ’zz, it certainly is not so.

如同皇帝能 zû dóng wong tí‘ nung, like the emperor.

304. The foregoing analysis shows that adverbs qualifying verbs, and expressive of place and quantity are for the most part derived. On the other hand, those adverbs that qualify adjectives, and express time are usually primitive. In our own language, the adverbs that qualify affirmations, e.g. assuredly, certainly, etc. are derived, while here they are primitive. The old division of this part of speech by western grammarians into two parts, viz. primitive and derivative, thus appears to be properly applicable to a language, that has been often supposed to present no resemblance in etymological development to the speech of the rest of mankind. The Romans made their adverbs of place out of demonstrative pronouns, and prepositions, in a manner very similar to the Chinese, (e.g. hic here, supra above, etc.) Adjectives with particular terminations supplied them with adverbs of manner, (cito, bene, omnino.) Nunc, jam, are examples of primitive adverbs of time, while the root stá stand, in statim, exactly corresponds to 立 lih, stand, in 立刻 lih k’uh, immediately. It may be added that zén, hú, etc. in Art. 259 form appendages to the root, of the same value as the terminations -ly, -like, to which we are accustomed. What is new, is the extensive use of repetitions, the great number of fixed phrases, and the peculiarities in the laws of grouping.