PART II. ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH.

Section 1. Native divisions.

83. Common teachers of the language in distinguishing words, only use two pairs of terms, viz. 實, 虛 zeh, h’ü, and 死, 活 ’sz, weh. The former signifies words that have a meaning (full) and such as have not (empty). All substantives are 實字眼 seh zz‘ ’ngan. Auxiliary words or particles receive the name of 虛字眼 h’ü zz‘ ’ngan. Verbs and adjectives are placed by some writers in the first of these classes, and by others in the second. Remusat, says that verbs are 實字 zeh zz‘; a native author 畢華珍 Pih wó tsun treats, all words except substantives, as in the second class.

84. The other pair of terms views words as nouns, which are spoken of as 死字眼 ’si zz‘ ’ngan, or verbs which are 活字眼 weh zz‘ ’ngan. The usual sense of 活 is living, but by an extension of meaning, it is applied to anything not fixed to its place, or liable to change in its appearance or form. Hence, verbs as dependent on circumstances of time, will, etc. are termed moving or transferable words, while substantive are said to be fixed or dead.

85. The native writer just referred to, in a recent work, 衍緖草堂筆記 ’íen ’zü ’t’sau dong pih kí‘, on the parts of speech and construction of sentences, has extended these divisions, by forming the 虛字 h’ü zz‘, or words not substantives, into four classes:—

Adjectives 呆虛字 ngé h’ü zz‘:— Ex. 高 kau, high. 多 tú, many. 大 tá‘, great. 低 tí, low. 少 ’sau, few. 小 ’siau, small.

Verbs 活虛字 weh h’ü zz‘:— Ex. 作 tsok, to do. 傳 dzén, to deliver down.

口氣語助虛字 ’k’eu k’i‘ ’nü ’dzú h’ü zz‘. Under this head he gives as examples:— 焉 íen,? 乎 ú,? } Interrogative and other finals. 哉 tsé,? 也 ’yé,. 此 ’t’sz, this. 所 ’sú, which. } Pronouns and the sign of the possessive. 其 gí, he. 之 tsz, of. 甚 zun‘, very. 可, ’k’ó, can. } Adverbs & auxiliary verbs. 最 tsûe‘, „ 爲 wé, be.

空活虛字 k’óng weh h’ü zz‘.

Obs. The word weh is apparently employed, because conjunctions like verbs connect what goes before with what follows. Similarly, in English grammar the verb is the copula, while a large class of conjunctions consists of such as are termed copulative. The word 空 is prefixed to distinguish these particles from verbs. The examples he gives are—

雖 sûe, although. 如 zû, like. } Conjunctions.

但 tan‘, but. 若 zák, as.

而 rh, further. 乃 né, then.

非 fí it is not. 何 ú, what? } Negative and interrogative adverbs.

不 peh, not. 豈 ’k’í, how?

These examples are from the language of books. The corresponding words in the dialect will be found in their places.

86. The frequent interchange of the parts of speech, and the rhythmical construction of sentences, have almost kept in concealment among the natives, the classification of which words naturally admit. Much attention has been given to the successive forms of the characters; the changes that have occurred in them, and the principles of their original formation have been carefully chronicled; but etymological studies have been comparatively neglected.

The rules of the Wun-cháng, or exercises in fine writing, law indeed been laid down, but they do not constitute the grammar of the language. While grammar is a science still unknown to the Chinese, it is a mark of the intelligence of our author that he has approached so nearly, as the preceding article shews to a western classification, and that he has defined with precision, all the principal parts of speech.

The division into parts of speech, and simple and compound words, gains in distinctness as we leave the books and restrict our illustrations to the language of conversation, and much more when instead of embracing the universal mandarin medium, we aim to exhibit the dialect of a single district.

For example the words 過 kú‘, 能 nung, 生 sáng, are in the books verbs or nouns according to their position, their tones remaining unchanged. In the Shánghái dialect they are all verbs, viz. to pass, can, to produce, If they stand alone; but the combinations of which they form part are often substantives. Ex. 過失 kú‘ seh, a fault; 能力 nung lih, strength; 生活 sáng wéh work. Ming, 明 which in the books is an adjective or verb, must if used as a verb in the colloquial have 白 páh appended to it, otherwise it is an adjective. Thus instead of terminations invented to carry a root through two or more parts of speech, we have two roots in opposition for the same purpose. In the following pages accordingly, the terms noun; adjective, etc. will be predicated of the combined forms each as a whole, and not of its constituent words except when viewed independently.

Section 2. Relation of the dialect to the written language, and to other dialects.

87. In comparing the dialect with the language of books, it will be best to go at once to the oldest. The earliest portions of the Shú-king, Book of History, date from a period that must have been at least 3000 years ago if not previous to that of Moses. The occurrence of many of the commonest words now found in the colloquial media of China in records so ancient, is a sufficient illustration of the remarkable persistence of the language. It thus appears that many of the nouns and pronouns, adjectives and verbs, that formed the staple of conversation in the days of Yáu and Shun, are found not merely in the pages of an old world literature, but are still “familiar household words,” among the whole Chinese race. The selected examples which follow are all of constant use in the Shánghái dialect.

88. Examples of single words used in combination or singly.

Names of natural objects, animals, &c.

天 t’íen, heaven. 月 niöh, moon. 馬 ’mó, horse.

地 ti‘, earth. 星 sing, stars. 牛 nieu, ox.

人 niun, man. 山 san, mountain. 羊 yáng, sheep.

水 ’sz, water. 海 ’hé, sea.

火 ’hú, fire. 草 ’t’sau, grass.

Divisions of time.

春 t’sun, spring. 日 nyih, day.

夏 ’hau, summer. 月 niöh, month.

秋 t’sieu, autumn. 歲 sûe‘, solar year.

冬 tóng, winter. 夜 yá‘ night.

Meteorological terms.

風 fóng, wind. 雷 lé, thunder. 雨 ’ü, rain.

Numbers.

一 ih, one. 六 lóh, six.

二 ní‘, two. 七 t’sih, seven.

三 san, three. 八 pah, eight.

四 sz‘, four. 九 ’kieu, nine.

五 ’ng, five. 十 zeh, ten.

Cardinal points.

東 tóng, east. 南 nén, south.

西 si, west. 北 póh, north.

Verbs.

定 ting‘, to fix. 能 nung, can.

歸 kwé, return home. 有 ’yeu, have.

Adjectives.

大 tá‘, great. 希 hí, few.

遠 ’yön, distant. 直 dzuk, straight.

Nouns.

罪 zûe, sin. 禮 ’lí, ceremony.

門 mun; door. 詩 sz, poetry.

Pronoun.

我 ’ngú, I.

89. Examples of nouns composed of two characters, or as they may be termed, dissyllabic forms.

百姓 pák-sing‘, the people.

天下 t’íen-’au, the world.

正月 tsung‘-niöh, 1st month.

聰明 ts’óng-ming, intelligent.

上帝 záng‘-tí‘, God.

鳳凰 vóng wong‘ phœnix.

法度 fah-dú‘, mode of government.

90. Examples of words used in combinations in the dialect, but not singly.

鳥 as in 窵鳥 ’tiau-niau, birds.

帝 as in 皇帝 wong-tí‘, emperor.

神 as in 神明 zun-ming, the inferior divinities.

位 as in 地位 tí‘-wé‘, station.

事 as in 事體 zz‘-’t’í, matter.

可 as in 可以 ’k’ó-’í, may, can.

日 as in 日頭 nyih-deu, the sun.

聞 as in 新聞 sing-vun, intelligence.

說 as in 說書 söh-sû, relate stories.

91. These examples, which might if it were necessary, be extended to a much greater length, will be sufficient to exhibit how the most ancient forms of speech, the primitive words of the Chinese race, have maintained their position to the present time. In a similar way, the later classics contemporary with Hebrew literature, and the most flourishing part of the Greek, might be shewn to possess in a still greater abundance, the materials from which this and other dialects have grown into their existing form. But there are also many new words; the passage of time must witness changes, even in the language of a people so devoted to antiquity as that of China. It has been shewn that there has been variation in tones, by referring to the pronouncing Dictionaries made long since. The natives recognize great differences In modern and ancient sounds, as seen in the rhymes of the Book of Odes. Words also have changed; many expressions once common have become antiquated, and new ones have appeared. A reference ta colloquial mandarin will illustrate this statement, and bring before us another large portion of the materials of the dialect.

Relation to colloquial Mandarin. 92. The earliest examples of this form of Chinese, are found in works of the Sung dynasty and in the historical novels. Mencius so remarkable among the classic authors, for his picturesque imagery and the animation of his style, sometimes uses combinations, such as 朋友 páng yeu‘, friend; 自己 zz‘ ’kí, self; seldom found in ancient books, and which may be considered as conversational.

93. The following are examples selected from the San kwoh chi 三國志, and Lieh kwoh chi 烈國志, works now five hundred years old, of new words not found in the classics, and all in common use in our dialect.

樹 zû‘, tree. 會 wé‘, am able to.

脚 kiáh, roof. 吃 k’iuh, eat.

船 zén boat. 呌 kiau‘, call a person.

撇 p’ih, stroke to the left. 攏 ’lóng, bring together.

埃 á, take in order. 惹 ’zá, provoke.

敲 k’au, knock. 揪 t’sieu, restrain by holding.

撑 t’sáng, pole a boat. 瞧 dziau, to look.

抄 t’sau, to copy. 抖 ’teu, shiver.

喝 höh, call to. 拖 t’ú, to pull.

爬 pó, to scratch. 勦 tsiau‘, destroy

94. Of the following new pronouns, and interrogative adverbs first found in the historical novels, there is scarcely any use made in the Shánghái dialect.

甚麽 m. shen‘ ’mó? what? 那裡 m. ’ná ’li? where?

什麽 shih ’mó? what? 這箇 ché‘ kó‘, this.

怎麽 ’tsun ’mó? how? 他 t’á, he.

Obs. The Shánghái pronouns are all different from those, except the mutilated form 那裡 ’a ’lí? where? So for the most part those of Fúh-kien; which again differ entirely from those of the Canton dialect as contained in Bridgman’s Chrestomathy. Some pronouns are widely spread. Thus, ngó 我 I, exists in all these dialects. As a class however, they are among the words most liable to variation in colloquial Chinese.

95. The following examples of double words taken from the same works, will further illustrate the extent to which mandarin phraseology agrees with that of our dialect. They are all such combinations as are not found in the classics, and might be increased indefinitely.

人家 niun ká, a man.

低頭 tí deu, lower the head.

開船 k’é zén, unmoor a boat.

時辰 zz zun, an hour, i.e. twelfth of a day.

招架 tsau ká‘, shield one’s-self.

(c) 幫助 pong dzú‘, to assist.

容易 yúng í‘, easy.

船隻 (c) zen tsáh, boats; or a boat.

𢬵命 ’p’ing ming‘, throw away life.

看見 k’ön‘ kíen‘, to see.

踅手 zeh ’seu, maimed hand.

利害 lí é‘, dangerous, severe.

(c) 仔細 ’tsz sí‘, minutely.

解說 ’ká seh, explanation.

撞倒 dzong‘ ’tau, push down.

敬重 kiung‘ dzóng, revere.

最好 tsûe‘ ’hau, very good.

認得 niun‘ tuh, know a person.

唱喏 (c) t’song‘ ’zó, join one’s hands in respect.

倒竪 ’tau ’zû, set up on end.

The characters marked (c) are those that were invented, to represent colloquial words written for the first time. The rest are old classical characters, but they are not found in these combinations.

97. On comparing the old historical novels, with mandarin colloquial tales of the present dynasty, such as the well-known 紅樓夢 Dream of the Red Chamber, no closer analogy with our dialect appears. The style indeed is much more diffuse, being a faithful copy of what real conversation is, and so far it is more like provincial dialects. But as to words, the auxiliary particles (in which the chief changes occur), are peculiar to mandarin, and the verbs and nouns are the same as those of earlier works.

Thus, 的 occurs constantly instead of 之 ch, which is the most common sign of the possessive in the Three Kingdoms. As the third personal pronoun, 那 ’ná takes the place of 其 gí The word for said, 曰 yöh, a term not used in conversation, is replaced by 說道 shwóh táú, either together or apart.

98. Having thus briefly considered the historical division that the dialect admits of, into primitive and modern words, something should be added on local terms, constituting the remainder. On examination it will be found that the words, single and compound, not in mandarin, are few. They can scarcely be many more than a hundred. In a list drawn up for the purpose by a native, of about 100, a third part consisted of verbs, another third part of particles, the rest comprised substantives, adjectives, and words imitative of sounds.

Many of these belong also to the dialects of the neighbouring cities. In the histories of Sú-cheú and Súng-kiáng, the short chapter devoted to the subject of colloquialisms, enumerates several that belong equally to Shánghái. They appear to have been copied in great part from one work into another, and the whole number recorded in each does not reach fifty. Those contained in the history of Shánghái, will be found in the following pages under the parts of speech to which they belong. In Medhurst’s Dictionary of the Fúh-kien dialect, there are classified lists of about 250 phrases peculiar to that province. Some of these however are corrupted forms of expressions used in the other parts of China.

99. The neighbouring dialect of Sú-cheú may be expected to have much in common with that of Shánghái, The system of pronunciation is in general the same, the initial consonants forming a hard and soft series, corresponding to the upper and lower tones in the southern provinces. The following are examples of phrases, the same as those of Shánghái.

那哼 ’ná háng? how? 弗是 veh zz‘, it is not

自家 zz‘ ká, self. 多許 tú hau‘, very many.

弟个 veh kú‘, not so. 慢點 man‘ ’tíen, little slower.

做啥 tsú‘ sá‘? what do you? 個頭 kú‘ deu, there.

個歇 kú‘ h’ih, at preset. 個个 kú‘ kú‘, that.

哉 tsé (m. 了), sign of completion.

子 ’tsz (m. 了), sign of past participle.

个 kú‘ (m. 的), sign of possessive.

勿 veh (m. 不), simple negative.

全 dsíen (m. 都), all.

啥 sá‘ (m. 甚麽)? what?

好好能 ’hau ’hau nung, well, in a good manner.

想着之 ’siáng záh ’tsz, having thought of.

拉屋裡 ’la óh ’lí, at home.

是介 zz‘ ké‘ (s. seh ké nung), thus.

In some words very commonly occurring, that dialect differs from Shánghái and agrees with mandarin.

This, m. 道个 ché‘ kú‘. s. 第个 tí‘ kú‘.

He, m. 他 t’á. s. 伊 í.

How? m. 怎麽樣 ’tsun ’mó yáng‘?

Section 3. On the Substantive.

100. The native grammarian already introduced to the reader defines substantives, or rather substances, thus 天地名物, 象數事理 T’íen dí‘ ming veh‘ ziáng‘ sú‘ zz‘ ’li, “Heaven, earth, names and things, images, numbers, facts and principles;” 凡有形有質, 有氣有聲 van ’yeu yiung ’yeu tseh ’yeu k’i ’yeu sung, “all things that have form, material substances, breath and sound;” 一切有端可指者 ih t’sih ’yeu tön ’k’ó ’tsz ’tsé, “all things having any property that can be pointed out;” 皆謂之實字 kia wé‘ tsz seh zz‘, “are called substantives.”

“The names of substances,” he adds, “may consist of one or several characters, which must be arranged in classes, brought under the dominion of the rhythmus, and stored in the memory for use when required.” Such nouns as express the properties of substances he calls 子字 ’tsz zz‘, “son characters,” while the names of the substances themselves are termed 毋字 ’mú zz‘, “mother characters.” Attributes he further subdivides into “universal,” 公共子字 kóng góng‘ ’tsz zz‘, and “special,” 實在子字 seh zé ’tsz zz‘.

Combined and uncombined substantives. 101. One of the most striking peculiarities of Chinese words, whether nouns, verbs or particles, is the strictness with which the laws of combination and order are observed. Each dialect has many words that can be used with or without an adjunct, and may be regarded as purely monosyllabic; another large class embraces such as are never used by the natives, except in apposition with some other word, and constituting for that dialect, what may be considered dissyllables. Of the former or monosyllabic kind are the following examples (s. c).

飯 van‘, cooked rice. 貓 mau‘, cat. 狗 ’keu, dog.

雲 yün, clouds. 墨 muh, ink. 藥 yáh, medicine.

理 ’lí, moral law. 煤 mé, coal. 雪 sih, snow.

102. In construction, these and similar words may be observed to remain in an uncombined state. The first word in each, of the following sentences exemplifies this remark.

米糴好否 ’mi tih ’hau ’vá? have you brought rice?

人是一樣个 niun ’zz ih yáng‘ kú, I am a man as you.

袖要大 dzien‘ yau‘ dú‘, let the sleeve be large.

These words may all of them be used in combination, according to some of the laws described in the succeeding paragraphs. Thus they appear in dissyllabic forms such as—

米價 ’mí ká‘, price of rice. 大人 tú‘ niun, father.

103. The other class consists of those words that are never used without an adjunct. For example 衣 í dress, not used alone, is found among other combinations in the following.

衣裳 í zong, clothes. 布衣 pú‘ í, cotton clothes.

So also 猪 tsz, 日 zeh, 房 vong, 禮 ’lí, are found in combination only.

猪驢 tsz lú, a pig.

過房 ku‘ vong, adopted child.

江猪 kong tsz, the river pig (a fish).

禮物 ’lí veh, presents.

日食 nyih zuh, eclipse of the sun.

104. In construction, the adjuncts unless the rhythmus requires it, cannot be omitted.

着衣裳 tsáh í zong, put on clothes.

殺猜驢个 sah tsz lú kú‘, pork butcher.

日頭落山 nyih deu lok san, sun is setting.

租房子 tsú vong ’tsz, let a house.

送禮物 sóng‘ ’lí veh, offer presents.

Combination. 105. Substantives are formed of two or more substantives combined in various ways. If the collocation consists of species and genus, the former precedes.

柏樹 páh zû‘, cypress. 茶壺 dzó ú, teapot.

松樹 sóng zû‘, pine. 鐵蛋 t’ih dan‘, iron bullet.

酒壺 tsieu ú, wine chalice. 雞蛋 kí dan‘, hen’s egg.

牡丹花 mau‘-tan‘ hwó, moutan pœny.

孛相船 peh-siáng‘ zén pleasure boat.

堦沿石 ká-íen záh, first door-step.

磨刀石 mú tau záh, grind-stone.

紅緯帽子 hóng wé‘ mau‘-’tsz, red tasselled hat.

Obs. In the last five examples, the first two words constitute the species. The word 石 záh requires 頭 as its appendage, if there is no specific term prefixed. When compounds are formed, the auxiliary word is omitted. In the last case 子 tsz, the auxiliary is retained, or dropped at pleasure.

106. When the compound substantive formed by juxtaposition, consists of whole and part, or substance and accident or attribute, the former precedes.

手心 ’seu sing, palm of the hand.

手套 ’seu t’au‘, gloves.

樹根 zû‘ kun, root of a tree.

樹葉 zû‘ ih, leaves of a tree.

頭髮 teu fah, hair.

首飾 ’seu seh, head ornaments.

107. When two or more substantives, cognate in meaning, or in some logical relation, are in apposition, their order depends on native usage.

親眷 t’sing kiön‘, relations. 信息 sing‘ sih, letters and news.

街路 ká lu‘ the road. 貨色 hú‘ suh, goods.

榮光 yóng kwong, glory. 財帛 dzé báh, money and silk.

福祿壽 fóh loh zeu‘, happiness, affluence and age.

酒色財氣 ’tsieu suh dzé k’í‘ wine, lust, riches and anger.

Obs. i. The primary reason of the order in which these words are used, may have been a real or fanciful sequence of ideas, convenience of pronunciation, rhythm or caprice; but whatever it was, it is strictly preserved. Should another order be adopted, the meaning would not be conveyed. To these and other fixed combinations, found in all parts of speech, must in great part be attributed, the facility with which a language of monosyllables and tones such as the Chinese, is employed as a conversational medium.

Obs. ii. Many words found in compounds of this sort are inseparable. Thus 眷 kiön‘ has no other use in the dialect, than to form these combinations. As a verb to compassionate its use is limited to the books.

Obs. iii. Under this head may be included antithetical substantives (Literæ oppositæ, Premare), of which there are several in common use without a particle between them. 姊妹 tsí (elder sister) mé‘ (younger do.) sisters; 禽獸 kiun (birds), seu‘ (beasts), animals; 天地 t’íen dí‘, heaven and earth; 夫婦 fú vú‘, husband and wife; 山水人物 san ’sz niun veh, mountains, water, men and things: 銅錢銀子 tóng díen niung ’tsz, copper and silver money.

Obs. iv. Phrases of this sort are not coined ad libitum. They are old forms, and the modern Chinese do not allow themselves to make new ones. Each dialect has its own traditional arrangement of words, as well as its particular mode of enunciating the tones, and its alphabetical variations. But there is in all the dialects, so large a majority of phrases as well as words, common to the rest of China, even in that of Fúh-kien, that the identity of the language is in no district brought into question by these differences.

108. Some of these combined forms consist of a substantive and an enclitic. Of the auxiliary words thus used 子 ’tsz, 頭 teu, are the most common.

鴿子 keh ’tsz, a pigeon. 席子 sih ’tsz, matting.

刮法子 kwah fah ’tsz, machinery.

罐頭 kwén‘ deu, saucepan. 流頭 lieu deu, pulley.

甎頭 tsén deu, bricks. 話頭 wó‘ deu, words.

骨耳頭 kweh- ’rh deu, an axle.

These enclitics are never used in the classics; they form a leading characteristic of colloquial Chinese. ’Tsz and teu give individuality and definiteness to the term they qualify. Their proper meaning, son, head, is in these cases lost; they help also to fill the rhythm of the sentence, and to distinguish the words to which they are appended from other terms like them in sound. The enclitic 兒 rh, so common in the mandarin provinces, and also in the dialect of Háng-cheú, has its place supplied by 子 ’tsz. Nyih ’tsz 日子 day is distinguished from nyih deu 日頭 the sun by the enclitic.

109. To express a place where persons come and go, the words 頭 deu and 塲 dzáng are appended to substantives.

粒屑 lih sih, or sih alone, expresses small fragments of.

局頭 kióh deu, place of carrying on trade.

橋頭 kiau deu, landing place of a bridge.

碼頭 ’mó deu, „ „ of a ferry.

賭場 ’tu dzáng, place of gaming.

戲場 h’í dzáng, place of seeing plays.

牛場 nieu dzáng, place of tethering cattle.

柴粒屑 zá lih sih, small fragments of firewood.

110. Verbs and adjectives form compound substantives, by taking after them such auxiliaries as 頭 teu, 法 fah and 處 t’sû‘.

有辦頭 ’yeu pan‘ deu, there is a way of doing it.

唔坐處 m ’zú t’sû‘, no place to sit down.

有啥做法 ’yeu sá‘ t’sû‘ fah? is there a way of doing it?

唔啥好處 m sá‘ ’hau t’sû‘, no benefit in it.

那能好法 ’ná nung ’hau fah? how is it good?

長頭 dzáng deu, overplus.

剩頭, 餘頭 dzung‘ deu, û deu, remainder.

牢實頭 lau zeh deu, a simple, honest person.

苦惱子 ’k’u ’nau ’tsz, one very poor and wretched.

111. Many of the auxiliary substantives treated of in the next section, whose office it is to stand between numerals and their nouns, often follow their substantives without a numeral. A compound is thus formed, in which the sense of the classifying particle is often preserved, A piece of is expressed by k’wé. A bar of by tiau.

冰塊 ping k’wé‘, piece of ice. 鋼條 kong diau, steel spring.

船隻 zén tsáh, boats. 人頭 niun deu, a man.

書本 sû ’pun, books. 紙張 ’tsz tsáng, sheet of paper.

112. The words 夫 fú, 手 ’seu, 做 tsoh, 匠 ziáng‘, 司務 sz‘ vú‘, 家 ká, 人 niun, are appended to substantives to denote agents, trades and professions.

脚夫 kiák fú, a porter.

兇手 h’iúng ’seu, murderer.

本作, 木匠 mok tsoh, or móh ziáng‘, carpenter.

水作, 泥水匠 ’sz tsoh, or ní ’sz ziáng‘, bricklayer.

鞋匠司務 há ziáng‘ sz‘ vú‘, shoemaker.

裁縫司務 dzé vóng sz‘ vú‘, tailor.

店家 tién ká, shop-keeper.

船家 zén ká, boatman.

捉魚人 tsoh ng niun. fisherman.

拾柴人 sih zá niun, wood gatherer.

東家 tóng (east) ká, master (who places his guests on the right.)

禮生 ’lí sáng, director of rites.

先生 síen sáng, teacher.

Obs. In the longer examples, some verbs will be found which enter into composition, as those in Art. 113.

113. Verbs and adjectives are frequently compounded in the same way as substantives.

屏風 ping (to screen) fóng (the wind), a screen.

扶手 vú (to support) ’seu (the hand), hand-rail.

吃局 k’iuh (eat) gióh (food), food.

小姐 ’siau tsiá, young lady.

古董 ’kú (old) ’tóng, curiosities.

夥計 ’hú (combine) kí‘ (plans), partner in business.

辮子 píen‘ (to plait) ’tsz, the queue.

黃狼 wong (yellow) long (wolf), weasel.

抽㔸 t’seu (to draw out) t’í‘ (drawer), a drawer.

生梨 sáng (raw) lí (pears), pears.

花紅 hwó (flower) óng (red), small apples.

金箔 kíun boh, (thin) gold-leaf.

相好 siáng (mutual) hau (good) intimate friends.

114. The word 阿, merely euphonic, is joined to the names of persons, both relative and proper. Thus instead of 哥哥 kó kó, elder brother, we have in Shánghái 阿哥 ah (r. á.) kú also 阿爹 or 爹爹 tiá tiá, father. When applied to the names of children and others in humble life, either word in the proper name may annexed.

115. Some examples of foreign words used in the dialect, and of colloquial substantives, extracted from the history of Shánghái are here appended.

鴉片 á p’íen‘, opium.

袈裟 ká só, Buddhist priest’s robe. Sanscrit Kashaya.

記 (c) 翼 (c) kí‘ lih, wings. m. ’ch pang rh.

尾杷 (c) ní‘ pó, tail. (尾) r. ’vi) m. i pa.

小囝 (c) ’siau nön, little boy.

鱟 (c) heu‘, the king-crab, rainbow. m. kang‘, r. 虹 hung.

簷凙 (c) yien doh, icicles. m. ping chiu‘ ’tsz.

羊乳 (c) yáng ’ná, goat’s milk.

筷 (c) k’wan, chopsticks. m. k’wai tsz.

烟囪 (c) íen t’sóng, chimney. m. yen ’t’ung.

爺娘 yá niáng, father and mother. m. tie niang.

Obs. Characters followed by (c) are such as are borrowed, to represent purely colloquial words.

New and colloquial words are usually written on the phonetic principle, as may be noticed in the first three examples. Natives differ much in their way of writing purely colloquial words, and being never made use of in books, it matters little what character is adopted.

116. The last way of forming compound substantives to be exemplified, is by the particle 個 kú‘, which coming after a verb and noun expresses an agent.

吃糧箇 k’iuh liáng kú, (living on imperial rice), soldiers.

撐船箇 t’sáng zén kú‘, those who work boats.

管賬個 ’kwén tsáng‘-kú‘, account-keeper.

賣花個 má‘ hwó kú‘, flower-seller.

擺渡個 ’pá dú‘ kú‘, ferryman.

Obs. The common word 的 tih and in books 者 ’tsé is not used in this dialect its place being supplied by 個 kú‘ as in these examples.

Repetition. 117. Substantives are in some cases repeated. Forms indicative of diminutiveness are such as occur in the following examples.

嘵一星星 ’nau ih sing sing, look! there is a star.

要一點點 yau‘ ih ’tíen ’tíen, I want a very little.

118. A few repeated forms occur, with am adjective preceding in opposition.

暗洞洞 én‘ dóng dóng, a dark place.

亮晃晃 liáng ’kwong ’kwong, a glimmer of light.

Obs. Such forms of repetition are rare, except when they express plurality (v. Art. 129). In the adjective and verb, they are much more common. See also Part III. Repetition.

119. The formation of compound substantives, by the simple apposition of two or more roots, is also found in other languages. English and German contain many examples. Substantives, adjectives, and verbs all enter into these forms. E.g. hearsay (v. v.), sunset (s. v.), windfall (s. v.), footstool (s. s.), farewell (v. adv.), lebewohl (do. German), adieu (prep. s. Fr. Eng.), addio (do. Ital.), safeguard (a. s.), white-bait (a. s.), Rath-haus (s. s.), council-house (s. s.). Though many of these words are written without a break, the accent on the penultimate indicates, for those that are English, that they are compounds. In languages that have an extensive system of terminations such as Latin, Greek, and Sanscrit, when composition occurs, the constituent roots become one word, and the affix of declension, &c. in the word that precedes is usually omitted. Thus, in αὐτάδελφος and αὐτόχειρ the simple root aut precedes the word to which it is joined, in one case with no adjunct, and in the other with the connecting vowel o. In the Latin word respublica, reipublicæ we have two roots in apposition, without the process of declension being interrupted. Cases of simple juxtaposition such as this, are much rarer in the ancient languages than in the modern, where the root admits of few variations in its form.

120. In the development of a language consisting of monosyllabic roots, where nothing can be added or altered, some equivalent for terminations and compounds must be expected. This want is met in the Indian languages of America, by combining several independent roots into one word. If for these agglutinated syllables, separate characters were reserved, it would be a system resembling the Chinese. We have in the latter (1), simple apposition of roots, as exemplified in articles 105, 106, 107. Second, there is a change of certain substantives into mere particles which are appended, deprived of their primitive meaning, to large classes of words, as seen in articles 108, 109, 110. Forms of this second kind are usually expressive of simple ideas only; the others may be simple or compound. The terminations of tense and case in the classical languages came from the simple apposition of separate words. Those of the first, second, and third persons of a verb are derived for example, from the three corresponding personal pronouns. Obsolete forms preserved in the oldest writers countenance this theory. Whether the primitive speech of mankind was of this sort, may be matter of controversy, but there can be no doubt that the Chinese language has this peculiarity.

121. Variation in tone might be enumerated as a third mode of supplying the want of inflexions. Examples in the spoken language are however extremely few. In 種 tsóng‘, to sow, and 種子 ’tsóng ’tsz, seed, the tone differs. But even here the enclitic 子 is an inseparable appendage to the noun. Some other examples here follow:—

一囘 ih wé‘, one time. 囘來 wé lé, come back.

磨子 mú‘ ’tsz, a mill. 磨麥 mú máh, grind wheat.

牽繩 k’íen‘ zung, towing-rope, 牽船 k’íen zén, tow a boat.

鐵釘 t’ih ting, iron nail. 釘牢 ting‘ lau, nail fast.

應該 yung ké, ought. 應許 yung‘ ’hü, a promise.

想帮 siáng pong, to assist. 宰相 tsé‘ siáng‘, chief mandn.

Obs. The superior comma on the right shows where the words whose tone varies should receive the quick rising tone, or Shánghái k’u shing.

Gender. 122. Gender is expressed by auxiliary words set apart for the purpose. It being thus merely an instance of adjectives and substantives in apposition, the arrangement requires the words descriptive of sex (男 nén, 女 ’nü), or gender (雌 t’sz, 雄 yióng) to precede.

雄鷄雌鷄 yióng-kí t‘sz-kí, a cock and hen.

一隻雄獅子 ih tsáh yióng sz-tsz, a male lion.[1]

男人 nén niun, husband.

女囝 ’nü nön, a girl.

123. Among the words used in the Shánghái dialect to express family relationship are the following:—

爹爹 tiá tiá, father. 姊夫 tsí fú, brother-in-law.

阿媽 ah ’má, mother. 孫女 sun ’nü, grand daughter.

阿奶 ah ’ná, grandmother. 外甥 ngá‘ sáng, sister’s son.

伯伯 páh páh, eldest uncle. 女壻 ’nü sih, son-in-law.

爺叔 yá sóh, younger do. 姑媽 kú mó, husband’s sister.

娘舅 niáng gieu‘, mother’s brother. 姑娘 kú niáng, father’s sister.

丈人 dzáng‘ niun, father-in-law. 阿姨 ah í, wife’s sister.

丈姆 dzáng‘ m, mother-in-law. 阿嫂 ah sau, brother’s wife.

媳婦 sing vú, daughter-in-law. 阿姪 ah dzeh, brother’s son.

阿姊 ah tsí, elder sister. 外公 ngá‘ kóng, mother’s father.

妹妹 mé‘ mé‘,younger do. 外婆 ngá bú, mother’s mother.

Number. 124. The form of the substantives in the singular and plural is the same. The auxiliary adjectives and adverbs used to express plurality are placed some before and some after their words. Tsóng‘, tú hau‘ ’hau ’kí, and tá precede their noun. Dzén, t’óh, invariably follow their words.

125. 衆 tsóng‘ precedes its noun and expresses universality.

衆百姓 tsóng‘ pák sing‘, all the people.

衆位阿 tsóng‘ wé‘ á, all you persons.

126. 多許 tú hau‘ and ’hau ’ki 好幾 describe a great number or several. Being double inseparable particles, they form a complete member of a sentence alone, and therefore can be separated from their words, and placed afterwards with a copula and a terminating particle.

多許物事 tú hau‘ meh zz‘, a great many things.

物事有多許拉 meh zz‘ ’yeu tú hau‘ lá, there are very many things.

好幾个人 ’hau ’kí kú‘ niun, a good many men.

人有好幾个 niun ’yeu ’hau ’kí ku‘, there are several men.

127. 多 tú, several, like tsóng‘ cannot form a complete member of a sentence alone, and therefore precedes its word. It is used extensively with, the specific substantive particles already alluded to. The word tu, many, retains its old sound ta for this use.

買之大斤者 ’má tsz tá kiun ’tsé, have bought several catties.

多囘 tá wé‘, several times.

多個國度 tá kú‘ kóh dú‘, or tá kóh, several kingdoms.

多句說話 tá kü‘ seh wó‘, many sentences.

128. The words 全, 禿 dzén, t’óh foil following their substantives, usually from the first word in the concluding member of the proposition.

米咾肉禿有 ’mí lau niók t’óh yeu, there are both rice and meat.

人全拉看戲 niun dzén ’lá k’ön‘ hí‘, they are all looking at the play.

Obs. Pronunciation places these auxiliary particles in closer union with the following word, than with their own noun. Yet the rhythmus often attracts the two members into one sentence. E.g.

男女禿有 nén ’nü t’oh ’yeu, the men and women are all there.

官府全好 kwén ’fú dzén ’hau, the mandarins are all good.

129. The plural is also formed by repetition.

人人來者 niun niun lé ’tsé, the men are all come.

國國太平 kók kók t’á‘ bing, nations all at peace.

世世代代 sz‘ sz‘ dé‘ dé‘, age after age.

Case. 130. The genitive or possessive case is expressed by 個 kú‘. It corresponds to 的 tih, m. 个 gé, é, Fúhkien, 個 kó‘, Canton.

伊个聲氣 í kú‘ sáng k’í‘, his voice.

花个蘂頭 hwó kú‘ ’nü deu, the buds of flowers.

人个面孔 niun kú‘ míen‘ ’k’óng, the human voice.

Obs. When the possessive particle is omitted, a compound substantive is formed, as hwó ’nü deu, flower buds. Here no transposition is necessary, the predicated part standing last in both cases. English idiom placing the subject after the possessive particle, also requires the definite article to begin the sentence, “the buds of flowers.” When the constituent words are not adapted to form a compound substantive, as in the first of the examples above, the particle is always retained.

131. The objective case has no particle to mark it. It is known by position, coming after the verb. The nominative always precedes the verb.

我告訴㑚 ’ngú kau‘ sú‘ ná‘, I tell you.

送我一本 sóng ’ngú ih ’pun, give me a book.

勿要駡人 veh yau‘ mó‘ niun, do not rail at people.

告訴伊拉者 kau‘ sú‘ í ’lá ’tsé, I have told him.

132. Only the verb 話 wó‘, to say, requires a particle to precede the objective noun. The words 替, 對, 忒, t’í‘, té‘, t’eh, may either of them be employed.

吾替㑚話 ’ngú t’í‘ ná‘ wó‘, I tell you.

忒伊話末者 t’eh í wó‘ meh ’tsé, tell him.

對伊話拉者 té‘ í wó‘ ’lá ’tse, have told him.

Obs. This verb being intransitive, and standing last, leaves the substantive ungoverned, and renders a preposition necessary. So in English say requires to after it. In Latin, the noun is put in the dative without a preposition, as dico vobis.

133. The sign of the dative in da mihi, and give it to me is omitted. The euphonic particle ’lá 拉 is used to fill up the rhythmus.

撥我一箇 peh ’ngú ih kú‘, give me one.

撥飯拉我 peh van ’lá ’ngú, give me rice.

撥飯我吃 peh van‘ ’ngú k’iuh, ditto.

撥之我末者 peh tsz ’ngú meh ’tsé, give it to me.

撥拉伊拉者 peh ’lá í ’lá ’tsé, have given it him.

Obs. i. In English to is omitted or not at pleasure. Such datives as occur in Gloria Patri, dedicated to the interests of truth, my love to you cannot be expressed.

Obs. ii. In the example peh ’ngú ih kú‘, the dative comes next to the verb, while in the following sentence, the object precedes it. These differences of position are occasioned by the rhythmus.

134. To a place is expressed by 到 tau‘, usually with a verb of motion following the substantive.

到蘇州去者 tau‘ Sú-tseu k’i‘ ’tsé, gone to Sú-cheú.

幾時到上海 ’kí zz tau‘ Zóng‘ ’hé, when did you come to Shánghái?

到此地来做啥 tau‘ ’t’sz dí‘ lé tsú‘ sá? what do you come to do?

135. Motion from or by (ablative) is expressed by 自 zz‘, 從 zóng, 由 yeu or 打, ’táng. The last of these is most frequently employed.

打啥户堂來 ’táng sá‘ ú dong lé? whence do you come?

打故邊走 ’táng kú‘ píen ’tseu, go that way.

從第搭到屋裡 dzóng dí‘ dah tau‘ óh ’lí, from hence home.

136. The sense of for, instead of is given by several particles, 替, 代, 代替, 忒, 爲, t’í, dé, dé t’í, t’uh and wé‘, are all in use.

忒我去買 t’uh ’ngú k’í‘ ’má, go and buy for me.

爲之我咾 wé‘ tsz ’ngú lau— on my account—.

替儂做生活 t’í‘ nóng tsú‘ sáng weh, do work instead of you.

137. In and at (locative case) are expressed by 勒拉 leh ’lá and 拉 ’lá before, and 裏 ’lí or 裏向 ’lí h’iáng‘, after the substantives, (m. 在 tsai‘ prefixed, 裏, 内, 中, ’lí, núi‘, chóng suffixes).

勿拉屋裏 veh ’lá óh ’lí, not at home.

勿拉上海 veh ’lá Zóng‘ ’hé, not at Shánghái.

勒拉勿勒拉 leh ’lá veh leh ’lá, at home or not?

勿勒裏 veh leh ’lí, not at home.

嘴裏工夫 tsz‘ lí kúng fú, mere words.

心裏向 sing ’lí h’iáng, in the mind.

138. With, of (instrumental case) are expressed by the verb, tan (also nan west of Shánghái), or nó, to bring, preceding the noun and a verb following it. (m. 將 tsiáng, 把 pa; in books, 以 ’í and by the suffix 個 kú‘, which usually takes a verb between it and the noun.

担刀來割 tan tau lé kweh (köh), cut it with a knife.

錫做个 sih tsú‘ kú‘, made of tin.

139. In expressing by (instrumental case), the auxiliary verb peh 撥 precedes the instrumental noun, and the principal verb with or without its regimen follows (m. 彼 pei):—

撥拉爺娘責備 peh lá yá niáng tsah bé‘, he was reproved by his parents

140. Along with is expressed by t’eh 忒, 替 t’í and 同 tóng. The governed noun is followed by ih dau 一淘 together. This appendage is sometimes omitted, when 同 is used.

忒伊一淘去 t’eh í ih dau k’í‘, go with him.

同我你跑 tóng ’ngú ’ní pau‘, go with us.

替我一淘去 t’í‘ ’ngú ih dau k’í‘, go with me.

我忒儂做朋友 ’ngú t’eh nóng tsú‘ páng ’yeu, I will be your friend.

141. As a sign of the vocative, the suffix 呵 á is sometimes used. 老兄阿 lau h’iung á, brother (addressed to strangers as friendly salutation).

142. Case particles in other languages. Prepositions standing before the noun, and terminations making up one word with the root, are used together in the classical languages to express case; and very frequently the suffixes alone. In the modern European languages, suffixes are much less used, prepositions performing the office of case particles. In the Tartar languages, the particles called in other languages prepositions, come after their words, and are therefore called postpositions. In Manchu, the oblique cases, four in number, are formed by suffixes selected from this class of particles. When written they are joined to the noun or not at pleasure, and may all be used independently as particles. Thus it appears that the Chinese in using separate case particles, some before and some after, the nouns to which they belong, do not depart from the practice common to other races.

143. Premare’s method of illustrating one by one, the words most important in a grammatical view, by numerous examples, is here followed in regard to some commonly used nouns.

口 ’k’eu, mouth, an opening. It is only used in combination.

口音 ’k’eu yun, speech.

口才 ’k’eu dzé, fluency.

口是心非 ’k’eu ’zz sing fí, plausible but not sincere.

三叉路口 san t’só lú‘ ’k’eu, where three roads meet.

口頭言語 ’k’eu deu íen ’nü, colloquial particles.

一口土白 ih ’k’eu ’t’ú báh, all he says is in the dialect.

門口 mun ’k’eu, opening.

海口 ’hé ’k’eu, sea-port.

乍浦口嘴 Dzó‘ p’ú‘ ’k’eu tsz‘, Háng-cheú bay.

口說無憑 ’k’eu söh m bing, words without foundation.

有口無心 ’yeu k’eu m sing, speaking without thinking, mere words.

一口咬定 ih ’k’eu ngau ding‘, spoke decisively.

144. 氣 k’í‘.

1. Breath, vapour.

透氣 t’eu k’í‘, to breathe. 地氣 tí k’í‘, climate.

濕氣 sák k’í‘, moisture. 斷氣 dön‘ k’í‘, to die.

2. Anger.

惹氣儂 ’zá k’í‘ nóng‘, provoke you.

勿要動氣 veh yau‘ dóng‘ k’í‘ do not be angry.

氣殺我 k’í‘ sah ’ngú, provoke me greatly.

3. Manner, expression, meaning.

陽氣來咾 yáng k’í‘ lé lau, beautifully ornamented.

神氣宛然 zun k’í‘ wén zén, likeness to perfect.

勿要客氣 veh yau‘ k’ák k’í‘, do not stand on ceremony.

大有福氣 tú‘ ’yeu fóh k’í‘, has great happiness.

145. 心 sing, heart, mind.

心拉書上 sing ’lá sû long‘, attend to your book.

心裏明白個 sing ’lí ming bák kú‘, has an intelligent mind.

摳心挖胆 k’eu sing wah ’tan, mind set on schemes.

當心,留心,小心 tong sing, lieu sing, ’siau sing, pay attention.

盡心竭力 dzing‘ sing gih lih, do your utmost.

兩條心思 ’liáng diau sing sz, double-minded.

白費心思 pak fí‘ sing sz, planning in vain.

一心一念 ih sing ih nian‘, all intent upon.

直心直肚腸 dzuh sing dzuh tú dzáng, honest, sincere.

心心主念 sing sing ’tsû nian, resolutely intent on.

赤胆忠心 t’suk ’tan tsóng sing, faithful.

146. 手 ’seu, hand, an artisan.

上手下手 zong‘ ’seu ’au ’seu, superior and inferior workmen.

動手勿得 ’tóng ’seu veh tuh, may not put hand to it.

手忙脚亂, ’seu mong kiáh lön, confused and wrong.

親手 t’sing ’seu, with his own hand.

一手難遮天下目 ih ’seu nan tsó t’íen ’au móh, one hand cannot cover the eyes of all the world.

白手求財 pák ’seu gieu dzé, want money without earning it

幫手 pong ’seu, assistant.

傳手 dzén ’seu, from hand to hand.

147. 分 vun‘, duty, divisions.

十分裏一分 seh vun‘ ’lí ih vun‘, one tenth.

名分, 本分 ming vun‘, ’pun vun‘, duties.

職分꜄ tsuh vun‘, an office.

一生安分꜄ ih sáng ön vun‘, do my duty a whole lifetime.

分꜄所當然 vun‘ ’sú tong zén, as in duty bound.

148. 頭 teu, head.

唔頭唔腦 m deu m ’nau, without order.

頭二百里 teu ní‘ páh ’lí, about 200 Chinese miles.

幾許人頭 ’kí hau‘ niun deu? how many men?

起頭 ’k’í deu, at the beginning.

頭頭是道 teu deu ’zz dau‘, it is all reasonable.

149. 眼 ngan eye, a point, a small hole.

一眼勿差 ih ngan veh t’só, quite right.

眼睛勿好 ’ngan tsing veh ’hau, his eyes are bad.

只得—眼 tseh tuh ih ’ngan, only a very little.

眼底無人 ’ngan tí m niun, thinks none so good as he.

150. 目 moh, eye.

頭目 teu móh, chief. 賬目 t’sáng‘ móh, accounts.

眼目 ’ngan moh, eyes. 數目 sú‘ moh, numbers.

大關節目 tá‘ kwan tsih móh, important doctrine.

151. 底 ’tí, bottom.

月底 niöh ’tí, end of the month.

年底 níen ’tí, end of the year.

私底下 sz ’tí ’au, secretly.

底裡 ’tí ’li, at the bottom.

底下挽通 ’tí ’au ’wan t’óng, to inform secretly.

底面不和 ’tí míen‘ peh ú, heart and looks not agreeing.

直到底 dzuk tau‘ ’tí, to the end.

脚底下 kiák ’tí ’au, under the feet.

152. The following substantives combine with the cardinal points to form nouns of place. They are arranged in the order of their frequency. 沿, 半爿, 面, 邊, 首, 頭, 方, han‘, pén‘ ban, míen‘, píen, ’seu, teu, fong. One or two examples will suffice to explain this usage.

東半爿, 東面 tóng pén‘ ban, tóng míen‘, on the eastern side.

The combinations with 裏 ’lí, within, include two other words which here appended, 向, 勢, 面, 邊, 頭, h’iáng‘, sz‘, míen‘, píen, teu.

Thus, 裏向, 裏面, ’lí h’iáng‘, ’lí míen‘, inside.

Obs. Other words, such as the demonstrative pronouns, and some of the prepositions form similar combinations, as will be afterwards seen.

Section 4. On numeral particles and auxiliary substantives.

153. Under his head, are included the classifying particles, called by some writers numerals, with weights and measures, and any parts not being themselves full appellative nouns, into which substantives admit of being divided.

Obs. i The distinctive numeral particles applied to different substantives, belonging as they do themselves to that class of words, could not be placed with propriety among or after the adjectives; yet their Syntax is sufficiently unlike that of the substantive to require them to be placed apart.

Obs. ii. A comprehensive classification of substantives has been presented to philologists, by Dr. Legge in his “Letters on the rendering of the name God in Chinese,” Hongkong, 1850. Several useful terms are there introduced, partly from Nordheimer, but a place for the nouns now under discussion is not provided for except under class (4). The classes into which common or nouns not proper are there divided, are—

1. “Appellative or generic nouns, or names of species of individual existence, e.g. man, mountain, tree, house, garment.” Here shape and substance are both included, and the indefinite article can be prefixed in all cases.

2. “Material nouns, e.g. corn, gold, water.” Here matter only is embraced, while the limitation of form must be supplied by other words, as “a bushel of corn,” “a handful of gold,” “a cup of water,” “a sceptre of iron.” Nordheimer, Hebrew Grammar, vol. II. 796, invents no name for the former words in these cases, merely saying that the second limits the first in meaning. He considers them all concrete nouns.

3. “Collective nouns, or nouns which though singular in form, yet express a multitude.”

4. “Abstract nouns or names of qualities or modes of existence, abstracted from the object with which they are in combination.” Numeral particles and nouns of measure and shape must be placed here, although they are thereby associated with a multitude of mental and moral terms, with which they have little in common. Abstract nouns might form two classes distinguished as material and moral.

5. “Relative nouns, e.g. father, king.” Since the second class material nouns furnishes the matter of which the words ‘bushel,’ ‘handful’, ‘cup,’ etc. supply the form, perhaps these auxiliary words should be called formal nouns, and form a sixth class.

154. The classes (1), (2), (5) and part of (4), are embraced in the preceding section; The remainder form the subject of the present. With regard to their use, combined with the numeral, they cover the ground of the article a, an in the class, and of the auxiliary words in the second.

Thus, a mountain, 一座山 ih zú‘ san.

Call a man, 告一个人來 kau‘ ih kú‘ niun lé.

Two measures of rice, 二斗米 ní‘ ’teu ’mí.

A cup of cold water, 一碗冷水 ih ’wén ’láng ’sz.

Obs. In Hebrew no word like of is necessary, e.g. shébet (constr.) barzel, a sceptre of iron. Lat. virga ferrea.

155. The number and the auxiliary word are both necessary to the idiom, but the latter is sometimes used alone after the substantive, as noticed in Art. 111. Yet in this case, the same construction is admissible. Thus we have,

兩間房間 ’liáng kan vong kan, two rooms.

兩條鋼條 ’liáng diau kong diau, two steel springs.

三隻船隻 san tsáh zén tsáh, three boats.

156. The distinctive numeral particles, or those employed with the appellative or generic nouns, here follow.

箇 kú‘ (keu‘), of men, fish, cash, dials, collars, and all relative terms.

顆 ’k’ú, of pearls.

根 kun (root), of candles, hairs, trees, masts, bamboos.

管 kwén (pipe), of flutes, pencils.

口 ’k’eu (mouth), of coffins, men (as consumers).

科 k’ú, of plants, trees, roots, 三科樹 san k’ú zû‘, 3 trees.

塊 k’wé‘, of stones, bricks, dollars.

件 kíen‘, of garments, affairs, news, things.

頭 teu, of men, of cattle (when reckoned by heads).

頂 ’ting, of sedan chairs, hats, umbrellas, curtains.

朶 ’tú, of single flowers.

燈 tung, of candles, lights, 一燈火 ih tung ’hú, a light.

堵 ’tú, of walls, 一堵牆 ih ’tú dziáng, a wall.

條 tiau, of snakes, dragons, bridges, ropes, roads.

把 ’pó (hold in hand); of chairs, knives, fans, wine bowls.

本 ’pun (root), of books, account books, plays.

匹 p’ih, of horses (隻 is more common.)

面 míen, of mirrors, brass and skin gongs.

幅 fóh, of pictures, maps.

對 fóng, of letters, 一封信 ih fóng sing‘, a letter.

文 vun, of cash, (個 is more common).

隻 tsáh, of birds, quadrupeds, tables, temples, hands, feet, watches, shoes, clocks, eyes, ears, vessels.

盞 ’tsan, of lamps.

樁 tsong, of matters.

種 ’tsóng, of matters.

枝 tsz, of pencils, branches, stalks.

座 zú‘, of houses, mountains, pagodas.

乘 zung, of carriages.

圓 yön, of dollars.

樣 yáng‘, of affairs, matters.

項 háng‘, of things, matters. Also 星 sing, of things.

Obs. i. The office of these substantive particles is simply indicative. The reason of their application to particular words is custom only, but etymological connection is sometimes traceable as in 封 to close up, 頭 is applied to men only as a suffix.

Obs. ii. All generic and relative nouns are here included. They are distinguished in English from material nouns by taking the plural, and admitting a, an, before them.

Obs. iii. These words differ frequently, in their application to particular nouns, from the usage of other parts of the country. A native of Fúh-kien would laugh to hear 隻 tsáh, instead of 枝 tsz, applied to hands and feet. In mandarin 尾 vi‘, is the distinctive particle for fish instead of 箇 kú‘, which is employed in this dialect.

Obs. iv. Most of these particles are employed in mandarin. They are used sparingly in the historical novels, because the semi-colloquial, semi-literary style of those works only occasionally expands into full conversational idiom. When it does so, they are always found.

157. The next class of the auxiliary substantives are such as are significant, or retain their meaning when translated into English, giving to their substantives, which are either material nouns or are construed as such, limitations of form and quantity.

Obs. Weights and measures, names of vessels, divisions of books, etc., though belonging to the significant auxiliary particles, will be placed separately (see Art. 158–160).

間 kan, a room of a house, ih kan vong deu, a room.

口 ’k’eu, mouthful of breath, words, rice.

句 kü‘, a sentence of speech, ih kü seh wó‘.

竿 kûn, rod of bamboo for fishing, ih kûn diau‘ kûn.

科 k’ú, pluck up a heap of grass, pah ih k’ú ’t’sau.

塊 k’wé‘, a piece of land, meat, silver.

捆 ’k’wun (to roll), a faggot of wood.

局 kióh, play a game at chess, tsoh ih gióh gí.

眼 ’ngan (eye) holes in nets, of nails, cash, a little of any thing.

担 tan‘(to carry), a load of anything, ih tan‘ meh zz‘.

點 ’tíen drop of ink, little of anything.

湯 t’ong, how many kinds of food, ’kí t’ong van‘.

墩 tun, heap of earth, rubbish.

檯 té, a stage of plays, table of wine, food.

頭 teu, bring an end of rope, tan ih deu zung.

條 tiau, long piece of iron, wood, string of cash.

段 tön, piece cut off, of wood, string, etc.

板 ’pan, half sheet of paper.

包 pau (to wrap) a parcel, bundle of cotton, sugar.

把 ’pó, handful of rice, ih ’pó ’mí.

派 p’á‘, division of things, kind of men, customs.

篇 p’íen‘, a piece of elegant composition, ih p’íen vun tsáng.

片 p’íen, piece of gold, ih p’íen kiun ’tsz.

疋 p’ih, piece of cloth.

鋪 p’ú (to spread), covering of carpets, coverlids.

門 mun (touch-hole), piece of artillery.

紐 ’nieu, san ’nieu zung, three skeins of string.

方 fong (square), a piece of cloth, land, ih fong tí bí.

封 fóng, a packet of silver, ih fóng niung ’tsz.

手 ’seu, ih ’seu ni, handful of earth.

張 tsáng (to extend), sheet of paper.

節 tsih, knot of bamboo, joint of finger.

串 t’sén, string of flowers, cash, beads.

餐 t’sön, meal of rice.

軸 dzóh (rollers), map on rollers, ih gióh wó‘, a picture.

席 dzih (mat), party at dinner.

扇 sén‘, open one leaf of the door, ih sén‘ mun, k’é k’é.

重 zóng, layers of books, dress.

層 zung, story of pagodas, steps of ladders.

陣 dzun‘, gust of wind, shower of rain.

葉 ih, leaf of grass, flowers, ih ih ’t’sau, a blade of grass.

圓 yön, small cake of meat, medicine.

粒 lih, seed of corn.

Obs. i. Words expressing kind of, sort of such as 種樣星 tsóng yang‘ sing, have been placed with those particles that are simply indicative, because they are applied to nouns complete in their form and organization, e.g. 伊種人 í ’tsóng niun, that sort of man; 第星 事體 tí‘ sing zz‘ ’t’i, this sort of thing. Having a significance of their own, they should also be mentioned here.

Obs. ii. Material nouns often in English become generic, assuming the plural termination, and when singular the indefinite article, e.g. earth, stone, etc. In Chinese, if we wish to speak of a stone, the affix 頭 must be used, and 塊 prefixed. Some words need only the auxiliary prefix, e.g. 一塊煤 ih k’wé‘ mé, a piece of coal.

Obs. iii. Some auxiliaries as 塊 are found both in the significant and simply indicative class; a circumstance which suggests that all the particles in the former table had a meaning of their own originally, though now in some instances not to be traced.

Obs. iv. A few verbs are found among these words, viz. 把, 捆, 担, 包, 張, 鋪; they are here to be construed as substantives. In English, verbs construed as nouns are very numerous, e.g. hold, handle, touch, walk, roll.

Obs. v. The examples given in the table, are sufficient to shew that for this class of nouns English usage is similar, except that the particle of must be inserted. It is different with the words of the former table, for which there is no equivalent idiom in English. These two kinds of auxiliaries should therefore be keep distinct.

158. The definite subdivisions of material nouns will now be noticed. It is not only the numeral particles and the other auxiliaries, as registered in the two preceding articles, that intervene between numbers and their substantives. Many nouns are divisible into several parts, which have appropriate names and may be used as the words of the preceding table. The most useful names of divisions are here given, and first those of books and characters.

Divisions of books.

句 kü‘, sentence.

節 tsih, verse.

大 tá‘, column.

行 hong, column.

張 tsáng, leaf.

頁 yih, a leaf.

章 tsáng, section.

首 ’seu, ode.

篇 p’ien, chapter.

本 ’pun, volume.

都 pú‘, a whole work.

Strokes of characters.

點 ’tíen ㇔

劃 wáh ㇐

𥪡 ’zû ㇑

剔 t’iuh ㇂

撇 p’ih ㇒

捺 nah ㇏

挑 t’iau ㇀

拂 fah ㇓

圏 k’iön, small circle. 〇

Obs. These words do not take any numeral particle. Thus in giving directions to a scholar to write the character 受 ’zeu, a teacher would say 一撇, 三黯, 帽下又字 ih p’ih, san tíen, mau‘, ’au ’tí yeu‘, zz‘. The eight strokes given above are all contained in the character 永. Information on this subject is given in Dr. Bridgman’s Chinese Chrestomathy and other works.

159. The most common names of vessels of capacity are the following.

碗 wén, bowl. 盤 pén, tray.

盞 tsan, ib. 桶 ’tóng, bucket.

盆 pun, a plate. 匣 hah, casket.

缸 kong, large jar. 箱 siáng, chest.

㼦 páng‘, pitcher. 籃 lan, basket.

瓶 ping, bottle, jar. 簍 ’lieu, small hamper.

Obs. These words are used as the auxiliary particles of that which is contained in them. But if they are construed as independent substantives they all take 隻 as their distinctive particle. Thus we find, 一隻碗, 一碗茶, ih tsáh wén, a cup; ih wén dzó‘, a cup of tea.

160. Of definite measures, the following are in common use.

Land and Long Measure. Dry Measure.

畝 meu, 240 square pú‘. 石 sáh, 10 teu.

站 dzan‘, 90 ’lí. 斗 ’teu, 10 sung.

里 ’lí, 360 pú‘. 升 sung, a pint.

步 pú‘, five feet. 合 keh, tenth of a pint.

丈 záng‘, ten feet. 抄 t’sau, 100th of keh.

尺 t’sáh, foot (14 Eng. in. taylor’s ft., 10⅞in. carpenter’s ft.)

寸 t’sun‘, tenth of a foot.

分 fun, tenth of a t’sun‘.

Weights.

担 tan‘, pecul. 角 koh, 10 cents.

斤 kiun, catty. 分 fun, 1 cent.

兩 ’liáng, tael. 毫 háu, tenth of fun.

錢 dzíen, mace. 釐 lí, tenth of hau.

Measures of time.

代 dé‘, generation. 點 ’tíen, hour (with 鐘).

世 sz‘, ib. 刻 k’uh, ¼ hour.

年 níen, year. 分 fun, minute.

歲 sûe‘, ib. 杪 miau, second.

日 nyih, day. 歇 h’ih, instant.

Obs. 時 zz, hour, and 月 niöh, month, are here omitted, because they usually take 箇 before them. This must be to distinguish them from words similar in sound, or from their own other senses.

161. Collective auxiliary nouns varying through all the forms of plurality, from a pair to a multitude, here follow:—

句 kü‘, sentence of words.

聯 líen, pair of corresponding sentences of poetry.

雙 song, pair of shoes.

對 té‘, opposite pair of candles, geese, ih dé‘ kí, pair of fowls.

股 ’kú, 2 or 3 in trade; san ’ku k’é, divide between three.

排 pá, a pile or raft of timber, row of trees.

隊 té‘, a rank of soldiers, ih dé ping.

帖 t’ih, parcel of ten pencils, ih t’ih pih.

刀 tau, 100 sheets of paper, ih tau ’tsz.

炷 tsû, bundle of incense, ih tsû h’iáng.

套 t’au‘, coverful of books, ih t’au‘, sû.

串 t’sén chain of 1,000 cash.

羣 kiün, flock of birds, beasts, ih giün ’tiau.

副 fú‘, suit of clothes, ih fú‘ í zong.

行 hong, rows of birds flying, trees.

162. From the list here given, it appears that there are at least 130 of these imperfect substantives, almost all in common use. They admit of a fourfold division.

I. Of the first kind, whose office is simply indicative of appellative nouns, or distinctive to some extent of classes, there are upwards of 30. A few examples are appended.

一口棺材 ih ’k’eu kwén zé, a coffin.

造一條橋 ’zau ih diau giau, build a bridge.

殺一隻雞 sah ih tsáh kí, kill a fowl.

一枝大筆 ih tsz dú‘ pih, a large pencil.

Obs. i. At first sight, these words look like a capricious superfluity of articles, arising merely from a fondness for multiplying words. They appear appropriate in a language, where there is so much arbitrary classification, and so little exhibition of the power of generalizing by means of deep and comprehensive principles. Here are thirty words made use of, where one would be sufficient. It should however be remembered, that when used as adverbs there is great clearness given to the conception they express, and that they diminish the confusion that arises from similarities of sound.

Obs. ii. When an adjective is used, it comes between the particle and the noun, as in the last example. This is also true of the other particles that are the subject of this chapter.

II. Of the significant particles, or those that are applied to material nouns, and define quantity and form, apart from number, there are about 40. E.g.

一張紙頭 ih tsáng ’tsz deu, a sheet of paper.

二十担泥 ní‘ seh tan‘ ní, twenty loads of earth.

九層塔 ’kieu zung t’áh, pagoda of nine stories.

Obs. i. When they become parts of compound appellative nouns, one of the distinctive particles precedes.

一个面孔 ih ku‘ míen‘ ’k’óng, one face.

一隻節頭 ih tsáh tsih deu, one finger.

Obs. ii. 點, 眼, tíen, ngan, are applied to any material noun in the sense of a little of. Ih 一 precedes them.

III. The subdivisions or definite parts of material nouns, form the most numerous class of the auxiliary substantives. Upwards of 50 are here collected. They take no particle after the number preceding, and must therefore be classed as imperfect substantives. Thus the construction in the following examples is similar.

(III.) 一斤花 ih kiun hwó, pound of cotton.

(II.) 一包花 ih pau hwó, bundle of cotton.

(II.) 一粒米 ih lih ’mí, a grain of rice.

(III.) 一斗米 ih ’teu ’mí, a peck of rice.

IV. Collectives compose the remaining, and smallest class of qualifying particles applied to substantives. The use of words in the four classes of particles may be seen in the following examples.

一隻羊 ih tsáh yáng, a sheep.

一塊羊肉 ih k’wé yáng nióh, a piece of mutton.

一斤羊肉 ih kiun yáng nióh, catty of mutton.

一羣羊 ih giün yáng, flock of sheep.

163. Another small class of auxiliary substantives, consists of those that are used with verbs, expressing like our word times, the number of times the action has been performed. They are 次, 燙, 囘, 轉, 記; their use will be understood by examples.

來過兩次 lé kú‘ ’liáng t’sz‘, I have come twice.

去之一燙 k’í‘ tsz ih t’ong, having gone once.

要讀兩囘 yau‘ dóh ’liáng wé‘, you must read it twice.

走兩轉就定 ’tseu ’liáng ’tsén dzieu‘ ding‘, after going round twice he stops.

打三十記 ’táng san seh kí‘, received 30 blows.

Section 5. On the Adjective. 呆 虛 字.

164. The native writer before alluded to says, the office of adjectives is “to describe the attributes and appearance of things.” “In apposition with nouns, they express their qualities,” (與實字相加, 以形容實字如何樣.) “Some adjectives consist of two words which are inseparable. Thus, repetition of the initial, the rhyme, and the whole character, frequently occurs.” (有兩字折不開者, 如雙聲, 疊韻, 疊字等類.) “There are not more than a few tens of characters that are adjectives.”

Antithesis. 165. In substantives, the principle of combination came prominently to view, and it will be found to belong though not so extensively, to the other parts of speech. That of antithesis belongs especially to adjectives. Most of the single-worded adjectives in daily use will illustrate this.

輕重 k’iung, ’dzóng, light, heavy.

大小 tú‘, ’siau, great, little.

多少 tú ’sau, many, few.

長短 dzáng, ’tön, long, short.

厚薄 ’heu, póh, thick, thin.

闊狹 k’weh, hah, broad, narrow.

高低 kau, tí, high, low.

深淺 sun, ’t’síen, deep, shallow.

冷暖 ’láng, ’nön, cold, warm.

清濁 t’sing, dzóh, clear, muddy.

快慢 k’wá‘, man‘, quick, slow.

好孬 (c) ’hau, k’ieu, good, bad (k’ieu = 歹 ’té).

淡濃 tan‘, nióng, pale, deep.

早晚 ’tsau, an‘, early, late.

硬軟 ngáng‘, ’niön, hard, soft.

曲直 k’ióh, dzuh, crooked, straight.

正斜 tsung‘, siá, right, bent.

壯瘦 tsong‘, seu‘, fat, lean.

生熟 sáng, zóh, ripe, unripe.

鬆緊 sóng, kiun, loose, tight.

粗細 t’sú, sí‘, coarse, fine.

新舊 sing, ’kieu, new, old.

稀綳 (c) h’í, ’máng, few, crowded (máng = 密 mih).

貴强 (c) kü‘, giáng, dear, cheap (giáng = 賤 dzíen).

眞假 tsun, ’ká, true, false.

亮暗 liáng‘, en‘, light, dark.

Obs. i. Those words only that are marked (c) are not used in literary compositions. There is no class of words more extensively spread through all Chinese, spoken and written, than the majority of these adjectives.

Obs. ii. Antithetical substantives of one character each, are rare in the colloquial. See 107. Obs. iii.

Obs. iii. In Premare’s list of antithetical characters, more than fifty of 117 are adjectives. Many also of those that belong to other parts of speech, have the antithesis less strongly marked.

Obs. iv. Many abstract substantives are formed by the union of these antithetical adjectives, in the order in which they stand above; e.g. how long? ’kí hau‘ dzáng ’dön? to say nothing about speed, veh ’kong k’wá man‘ v. Syntax. Part III. §2.

166. Sometimes in the antithesis, one member is a single, and the other a double form.

佳 kiá, capable. 唔用 m yúng‘, useless.

亂 lön‘, disturbed. 太平 t’a‘ bing, peaceful.

167. Other words having no obvious antithesis form it by assuming the sign of the negative.

勿像我能 veh ziáng‘ ’ngú nung, not like me.

勿肯做 veh ’k’ung tsú‘, not willing to do it.

勿便當 veh bíen‘ tong‘, not convenient.

Obs. The negative here just corresponds to our English prefix un, e.g. unlike, unwilling.

Combination. 168. Many adjectives are formed by the apposition in a fixed order, of two adjectives, and in these compounds many book words occur.

淸爽 t’sing ’song, clear. 忠厚 tsóng ’eu, faithful.

懶惰 lan dú‘, lazy. 謙虛 k’íen h’ü, humble.

乾淨 kûn zing‘, clean. 煩難 van nan, difficult.

聰明 t’sóng ming, clever. 須少 sü ’sau, few.

毛草 mau ’t’sau, rough. 許多 ’hü tú, many.

冷靜 ’láng ’zing, solitary. 新鮮 sing síen, new.

粗疎 t’sú sú, coarse. 呆笨 ngé bun‘, stupid

窮苦 kióng ’kú, poor. 兇狠 h’iúng ’hun, fierce.

Obs. The antithesis that occurs in examples of this sort is sufficiently indicated by the sense.

169. In addition to compounds such as those already given, formed by two adjectives, substantives and verbs make part of many.

小器 ’siau (small) k’í‘, (vessel), parsimonious.

雪白 sih báh, snow-white.

厚道 ’heu (thick) dau‘ (doctrine), liberal.

大量 tû‘ (great) liáng‘, (capacity), generous.

刻薄 k’uh (to cut) bóh (thin), exacting.

認眞 niung‘ tsun, diligent.

拗强 au‘ (to bend) giáng, unyielding.

完全 wén (finish) zíen, complete (r. dzíen.)

氣悶 k’í‘(anger) mun‘ (sad), secretly sad.

高興 kau (wish) h’iung‘ (ready for), willing.

難過 nan (hard) ku‘ (to pass), painful, sad.

胆大 ’tan (liver) dú‘ (great), bold.

出客 t’seh (outside) k’áh, (visitor), handsome.

好笑 ’hau (good) siau‘ (laugh), ridiculous.

Obs. There are also triple forms, in which other parts of speech enter, e.g. 壁立直, pih lih dzuh, straight as a wall; 的溜圓 tih lieu‘ yön, very round. In these examples, the adjective which stands last is qualified by the preceding words.

170. Some adjectives of two words are exclusively local in their use, and present no etymology in their characters, being written phonetically. They are always inseparable.

𨅓跎 sá dú, tired. 豪燥 au sau‘, active, sharp.

齷齪 ok t’soh, dirty. 㾑𤺥 keh dah, blind to reason.

囫圇 weh lun, entire. 𨰵𨐃 h’iá tsá, skillful.

葛列 köh lih, clean. 玲瓏 ling lóng, intelligent. m.

171. Combinations of three are also numerous, in which the first word contains the principal meaning. The second is repeated, and as will be seen in the examples, sometimes conveys only sound. The phonetic formation of the characters will usually serve to indicate this.

瞎搭搭 p. hah tah tah, irregular.

硬𨅘𨅘 p. ngáng‘ báng báng, hard and stiff.

軟滋滋 ’niön tsz tsz, soft.

滑澾澾 p. wah t’ah t’ah, slippery.

閙嚷嚷 ’nau záng záng, noisy, humming.

毛萋萋 mau ts’í ts’í, rough.

暖筒筒 p. ’nön dóng dóng, warm.

直條條 dzuh diau diau, straight.

矮矬矬 ’á t’sú t’sú, dwarfish.

短悠悠 ’tön yeu yeu, „

白雪雪 pak sih sih, snow-white.

黑搨搨 p. huk t’ah t’ah, black.

Obs. i. In examples not marked p. the repeated word has an independent sense, in agreement with that of the leading word, and is so used in the books.

Obs. ii. These phonetic appendages, destitute of any significance of their own, are interesting to the comparative etymologist as corresponding to adjectival terminations in other languages.

172. Combined forms of four words, often consisting of adjectives and either substantives or verbs, and still more frequently of double adjectives repeated are, such as follow.

正大光明 tsung‘ dá‘ kwong ming, upright and wise.

寬弘大量 k’wén óng dú‘ liáng‘, generous.

井井有條 ’tsing ’tsing ’yeu diau, very regular.

希奇古怪 h’i gi ’kú kwá‘, extraordinary.

長長遠遠 dzáng dzáng ’yön ’yön long in time.

高高低低 kau kau tí tí, irregular in height.

忙忙碌碌 mong mong lóh lóh, busy.

胆胆大大 ’tan ’tan dú‘ dú‘, boldy.

Obs. The monosyllabic adjectives are not repeated. These double forms when repeated, are also correctly translated as adverbs in almost all cases. It will be seen in subsequent sections, that repetition is used most extensively among verbs and adverbs.

173. The place of the adjective is before its noun if they go into combination, but with the substantive verb as copula or an equivalent, it may become a supplementary member of the sentence.

好人 ’hau niun, good man.

人是好個 niun ’zz ’hau kú‘, the man is good.

白糖 páh dong, white sugar.

清水 t’sing ’sz, clear water.

快馬 k’wá‘ ’mó, swift horse.

冷飯 ’láng van‘, cold rice.

舊書 kieu‘ sû, old books.

馬倒勿快 ’mó ’tau veh k’wa‘, yet the horse goes slowly.

水淸是清個 ’sz t’sing ’zz t’sing ku‘, the water is clear.

174. Substantives become adjectives to other substantives, if placed before them in combination.

洋刀 yáng tau, foreign knife. 石路 zah lú‘, stone road.

牛奶 nieu ’ná, buffalo milk. 海船 ’hé zén, sea junk.

Obs. Compounds of this kind have come under notice before, Art. 106. Thus it appears that cases occur which prevent the accurate defining of the parts of speech. For the words standing first in these examples, while they may well be claimed as adjectives, according to the grammar of the classical languages, are unquestionably substantives when alone. As roots they are substantives. It is by position that they are changed into adjectives. For corresponding examples in English, see Art. 119.

175. Verbs with the particle 個 or 拉個, become adjectives to the following noun.

種拉个稻 tsóng‘ ’lá kú‘ ’dau, the sown rice.

死个人多 ’sí kú‘ niun tú, those that die are many.

愛拉个囝 é‘ ’lá kú‘ ’siau nön, a dear child.

活个物事 weh kú‘ meh zz‘ living thing.

Obs. i. In examples like the second of these, the sense is also complete without the noun as ’sí kú‘ tú. We have in English a darkened room, a beloved child. Participles are here construed as adjectives, a usage similar to the Chinese.

Obs. ii. Some verbs enter into combination as adjectives, without the intervention of any particle. 死人 ’sí niun, dead man; 孝子 h’iau‘ ’tsz, filial son; 孝女 h’iau‘ ’nü, filial daughter.

176. A few adjectives are also employed as transitive verbs. The second and fourth of the following sentences are examples. In the 1st and 3rd, the same words are adjectives.

喜歡得極 ’h’í hwén tuh giuh, exceedingly glad.

牛喜歡水 nieu ’h’í hwén ’sz, buffaloes are fond of water.

快快活活 k’a‘ k’a‘ weh weh, very glad.

伊總快活儂 í tsóng k’a‘ weh nóng‘, he will certainly be pleased with you.

Comparison of adjectives. 177. The comparative is expressed in several ways, as by—

a. 再 tsé‘, again, which precedes the adjective it qualifies.

勿能再少 veh nung tsé‘ ’sau, I cannot say less.

再大無沒 tsé‘ dú‘ m méh, there are none larger.

再强有否 tsé‘ giáng ’yeu ’vá? have you any cheaper?

b. 點 ’tíen, a little, follows the word that it qualifies.

第本書好點 tí‘ ’pun sû ’hau ’tíen, this book is better.

快點走 k’wá‘ ’tíen ’tseu, walk a little faster.

多點末者 tú ’tíen meh ’tsé, say a little more.

c. 一眼 ih ’ngan, a little, is similar in use to the last.

倒好一眼 ’tau ’hau ih ’ngan, this is however something better.

高大一眼 kau dú‘ ih ’ngan, let it be better and more.

d. 還 wan still, further; this word combined with 要 yau‘, to want, makes the adjective that follows comparative.

還要好 wan yau‘ ’hau, I want better yet.

工力還要細 kúng fú wan yau‘ sí‘, I want the work finer.

e. 比 ’pí, compare; this word makes the adjective that follows comparative. When 比 is in the negative form, the adjective may be omitted.

上海勿比蘇州 Zong‘ ’hé veh ’pí Sú tseu, Shanghai cannot be compared to Sú-cheú.

比我還好 ’pí ’ngú wan ’hau, he is better than I.

比我好 ’pí ’ngú ’hau, do.

勿算比我好 veh sûn ’pí ’ngú ’hau, he is not to be thought better than I.

f. 更 kung‘, better. Sometimes 加 ká, to add, follows it.

勿去更好 veh k’í‘ kung‘ hau, not to go would be better.

更加勿對 kung‘ ká veh té‘, still more wrong.

更加無用 kung‘ ká m yúng‘, much more useless.

g. 越 yöh repeated. The use of this particle repeated is to place the two members of a sentence in strong antithesis; sometimes 發 fah, to express follows it.

越多越好 yöh tú yöh ’hau, the more the better.

越發窮越發要生病 yöh fah gióng yöh fah yau‘ sáng bing‘, the poorer men are, the more liable they are to sickness.

越發明白末越發要喜歡 yöh fah ming báh meh, yöh fah yau‘ ’h’í hwén, the more you understand it, the better you will be pleased with it.

h. 又 í‘, again, is a very common form. 比 ’pí, often commences the sentence.

第个人又好 tí‘ kú‘ niun í‘ ’hau, this man is better.

落雨又多 loh ’ü í‘ tú, it rains still more.

i. 又加 í‘ ká, still more is often preceded by 比 ’pí.

比我又加明白 ’pí ’ngú í‘ ká ming báh, he is still more intelligent than I.

k. 加, 添, 放大 ká or tíen add or fong‘ dú‘, increase.

加伊個膽量 ká í kú‘ ’tan liáng‘, grew more courageous.

今朝風加大 kiun tsau fóng ká dú‘, the wind is higher to-day.

鞋子要放大 há ’tsz yau‘ fong‘ dú‘, make the shoes larger.

銅錢要添點 tóng díen yau‘ t’íen ’tíen, you must give more money.

l. The comparison is intensified by adding 得多 tuh tú after the adjective.

昨日好得多者 zoh nyih ’hau tuh tú ’tsé, yesterday he was much better.

第根竹頭比伊根長学得多 tí‘ kun tsóh-deu ’pí í kun dzang tuh tú, this bamboo is much larger than that.

第二隻鷄重得多 tí‘ ní‘ tsáh kí dzóng‘ tuh tú, the second fowl is much heavier.

m. Beside the formation of the comparative by particles, it is expressed by the positive standing first, when the difference of the compared objects is mentioned.

高六寸 kau lók t’sun‘, taller by six inches.

Obs. i. The verb 比 is however in examples of this last kind, understood as going before, and is often expressed, as in 第隻船此伊隻闊 二尺 ti‘ tsáh zén ’pí í tsáh k’weh ní‘ ts’ah, this boat is two feet wider than that. 我娘個病比前日子好得多者 ’ngú niáng kú‘ bing‘ ’pí zien nyih ’tsz ’hau tuh tú ’tsé, my mother is much better than the day before yesterday.

Obs. ii. Three kinds of auxiliary words appear in the examples given.

Substantive particles which follow the adjective they qualify, and imply a slight variation only. This variation may be increase or diminution, according to the sense of the adjective compared.

Verbs. Of these, the verb 比 compare is in constant use. It is found with other particles, or without any particle, and retains its syntax as a verb, unaffected by its use as an auxiliary in the comparison of adjectives. The other verbs employed express addition. Their opposites are used in a similar manner; e.g. 減少 ’kan ’sau, 減脫 ’kan t’eh, subtract.

Conjunctions and adverbs form the remainder of the particles employed in comparison. They imply a difference without specifying whether it be greater or less, so that they correspond more nearly to the English suffix er than to the particle more. The repeated form 越, 越 just answers to the particle the, in “the sooner the better.” Such English forms as this are usually regarded as elliptical, and in explaining them, words supposed to be omitted are supplied. In the corresponding Chinese phrases, there is no ground for the hypothesis of an ellipsis.

178. The subjoined auxiliary particles supply the place of a superlative. The first three are placed before the adjective they qualify. The rest follow their word.

a. 頂 ’ting, highest, top.

天狼心頂亮 t’íen long sing ’ting liáng‘, Sirius is a very bright star.

頂强者 ’ting giáng ’tsé, at the lowest price.

伊个人頂明白 í kú‘ niun ’ting ming báh, that man is very intelligent.

頂大頂多, ’ting dú‘, ’ting tú, very great, very many.

b. 最 tsûe‘, exceedingly, the most.

老虎最利害 ’lau ’hú ’tsûe‘ lí‘ é‘, the tiger is very fierce.

窵鳥當中鳳凰最好看 ’tiau ’niau tong tsóng, vóng wong‘ tsûe‘ ’hau k’ön‘, among birds, the phoenix is the most beautiful.

天地當中人最玲瓏 t’íen dí‘ tong tsóng, niun tsûe‘ ling lóng, of all things in heaven and earth, man is the most intelligent.

c. 極, kiuh, extremely; this particle is used before or after the adjective which it qualifies.

聰明得極 t’sóng ming tuh giuh, extremely intelligent.

極深奧 kiuh sun au‘, extremely profound.

有文理得極 ’yeu vun ’lí tuh giuh, very beautifully written.

斯文得極 sz vun tuh giuh, extremely polite and elegant.

d. 野 ’yá, wild, great; this word requires one of the auxiliary verbs 來 or 得 verbs before it.

黃浦裡險得野 Wong-p’ú‘ ’lí ’híen tuh ’ya, the Hwang-p’u is very dangerous.

天高來野拉 t’íen kau le ’yá ’lá, heaven is very high.

e. 死 ’sí, to die; this word takes the auxiliary verb 來 between it and its adjective.

米行情貴來死 ’mí hong zing kü‘ lé ’sí, the price of rice is very high.

年勢好來死 níen sz‘ ’hau lé ’sí, it is a very good year.

今朝風大來死 kiun tsau fóng dú‘ lé ’sí, to-day the wind is very high.

f. 嘸做 m tsú‘, there is nothing that can be done; this form of expression also requires 來 lé.

風大來嘸做 fóng dú‘ lé m tsú, the wind is very high.

日頭旺來嘸做 nyih deu yong‘ lé m tsú‘, the sun is very bright.

學問深來嘸做 hoh vun‘ sun lé m tsú‘, his learning is very profound.

g. 煞 sah, very. lit. a twinkling. (Premare has this particle, though it is certainly rare in mandarin. Many prefer 殺 [1] sah, kill).

强盜靈多煞 kiáng dau‘ tú sah, the robbers are very many.

勿輕煞 veh k’iung sah, not very light.

h. 頭一 teu ih, the first in importance.

頭一要緊 teu ih yau‘ ’kiun, the most important.

敬父母頭一 kiung‘ ’vú ’mú deu ih, filial piety is most important.

i. 了勿得 ’liau veh tuh, remarkably, exceedingly.

好來了勿得 ’hau lé ’liau veh tuh, exceedingly good.

j. 了反勿得 ’liau fan veh tuh, ib.

重來了反勿得 ’dzóng lé ’liau fan veh tuh, extremely heavy.

k. 話勿得 wó‘ veh tuh, or 話勿來 wó‘ veh lé, very, unspeakable. 勿了事 veh ’liau zz‘, endlessly.

大來話勿得 tú‘ lé wó‘ veh tuh. unspeakably great.

話勿來個苦惱 wó‘ veh lé kú‘ k’ú ’nau, unspeakably wretched.

l. 得利害 tuh lí‘ é‘, severe, dangerous.

重得利害 ’dzóng tuh lí‘ é‘, exceedingly heavy.

Obs. i. Among the words admitted here are many forms of expression equivalent to our qualifying adverbs very, extremely, etc. In actual usage no distinct line is kept between the adjectival and adverbial sense; e.g. 最好 tsûe‘ ’hau, may mean best, or very good. It seemed therefore preferable to give in one view, the more common forms for framing an absolute or modified superlative. Most of these particles are also used to qualify verbs, as will be shown. They are therefore true adverbs.

Obs. ii. Here may be distinguished four modes of forming the superlative. 1. By particles appropriated to this use 是, 頂, 極, tsûe‘, ’ting, kiuh. The two former stand before the adjective, the third is found both before and after its word. 2. The ordinal 頭一 teu ih, in mandarin 第一 tí ih, the first, also places the adjective it precedes in the superlative. 3. Auxiliary verbal particles 得, 來, tuh, lé, with the appendages 野, 極, 利害, ’yá, kiuh and lí‘ é, to the former, and 野, 死, 唔, 做, ’yá, ’sí, and m tsú‘, to the latter, form a third class. 4. The forms 了勿得, ’liau veh tuh or ’liau fan veh tuh, wonderful, very, 話勿得 wó‘ veh tuh (lé), unspeakable, and 勿了事 veh ’liau zz‘, endlessly, when appended to an adjective with 來 intervening, also convey a superlative sense.

Obs. iii. The verb 完 wén, finish is also applied to adjectives with the same force as the preceding intensitive particles. 畫來像完者 wó‘ lé ziáng‘ wén ’tsé, painted extremely like; 容貌黃完 yóng mau‘ wong wén, countenance very sallow.

Obs. iv. Extreme excellence is also predicated of an adjective by the phrases 十分 seh fun, ten parts and 十二分 seh ni‘ fun, twelve parts; 物事十分好 meh zz‘ zeh fun ’hau, the thing is thoroughly good.

179. Ordinal numbers are often expressed by the cardinal numbers, when on rhythmical grounds, there is no empty place in the sentence for a particle.

今朝念一 kiun tsau nian‘ ih, to-day is the 21st of the month.

咸豐二年 yan fóng ní‘ níen, the 2nd year of Hien-fúng.

Obs. In regard to the cardinal numbers (for which see page 61), a few examples only need to be added 五十三 ’ng zeh san, fifty three; 九 十二 ’kieu zeh ní‘, ninety two. From a hundred to a hundred and ten, 零 ling is inserted, 一百零四 ih páh ling sz‘, a hundred and four. Instead of saying 一百三十 ih páh san seh, it is more frequent to omit 十 seh. Thus, ih páh san, a hundred and thirty, and so for other numbers. The omission of 一 ih, one, sometimes occurs 百八 pák pah, a hundred and eighty; one thousand four hundred is 千四 t’sien sz‘; fourteen thousand is 萬四 man‘ sz‘.

180. Days of the month take 初 t’sú before them as a numeral particle, but it is omitted when the number consists of two characters. Ordinal numbers are regularly formed by prefixing 第 tí‘ to the cardinal numbers.

正月初一 tsung‘ niöh t’sú ih, the 1st day of the 1st month.

明朝初幾 ming tsau t’sú ’kí, what day of the month is to-morrow.

後日初一者 ’heu nyih t’sú ih ’tsé, the day after to-morrow is the first.

考歇第一百名 ’k’au h’ih tí‘ ih páh ming, he has passed the examination as the one hundredth.

第三十本 tí‘ san seh ’pun, the thirtieth volume.

是儂第幾個兒子 ’zz nóng‘ tí‘ ’kí kú‘ ní ’tsz? which son are you?

排行第幾 pá hong dí‘ ’kí? which are you in order.

Obs. First is translated 頭一 teu ih.

181. The numeral of multiplication is expressed by means of 倍 pé‘, times; 要加倍 yau‘ ká bé‘, make it twice as large; 加長四倍 ká dzáng sz‘ bé‘, make it four times as long.

182. Distributive numbers are formed by the addition of 個 kú‘, or any other auxiliary substantive particles.

一个一个 ih ku‘ ih ku‘, one by me or one after another.

兩个兩个 ’liáng kú‘ ’liáng kú‘, two and two.

一行一行 ih hong ih hong, row by row.

一條一條 ih diau ih diau, in successive lengths.

183. Indefinite numbers are expressed 百 páh, 100; 千 t’síen, 1,000; 萬 man‘, 10,000, with or without 論 lun.

論千論萬 lun t’síen lun man‘, thousands and myriads.

萬百樣物事 van‘ pah yáng‘ meh zz‘, all things.

論千來者 lun t’síen lé ’tsé, many thousands are come.

文武百官 vun ’vú pák kwén, all officers civil and military.

會醫百病 wé í páh bing‘, can cure all diseases.

百花生日 pák hwó sáng nyih, the flowers’ birth-day.

萬國九州 van‘ kóh ’kieu tseu, all countries.

184. Numbers enter into many common phrases.

三心兩意 san sing ’liáng í‘, vacillating in opinion.

三轉九囘頭 san ’tsen ’kieu wé deu, constantly turning back.

七橫八豎 t’sih wáng pah ’zû, lying in all directions.

三伸四縮 san sun sz‘ soh, timidly advancing and retreating.

瞎七瞎八 hah t’sih hah pah, all in confusion.

Obs. Though not commonly occurring in English and other languages, examples similar to these are not wanting; e.g. at sixes and sevens.

185. Examples of some adjectives, extensive in their use and varied in their meaning, are here appended.

一 ih, one, whole, immediately upon.

獨一無二 tóh ih vú rh‘, there is only one.

一切說話 ih t’sih seh wó‘, all he said.

一統天下 ih ’t’óng t’íen ’au, the whole empire.

一言旣出 ih íen kí‘ t’seh, the words have been said.

一定不易 ih ding‘ peh yuh, certainly unchangeable.

一念囘頭 ih nian‘ wé deu, sincerely repent.

一居一動 ih kü ih ’dóng, all he does.

一動就打 ih ’dóng dzieu‘ ’táng, at the least thing, he fights.

一走就跌 ih ’tseu dzieu‘ tih, the moment he begins to walk, he falls.

186. 全 dzien, complete, all.

勿完全 veh wén dzíen, not complete.

人全拉上 niun zén ’lá long‘, they are all there.

全關着 zén kwan zah, —they are all connected with—

187. 大 tá‘, great, very.

國度是大個 kóh dú‘ ’zz dú‘ kú‘, it is a large kingdom.

要大呢小 yau‘ dú‘ ní ’siau, will you have it large or small?

勿大煞個 veh dú‘ sah kú‘, it is not very large.

大人小囝 tú‘ niun ’siau nön, parents and children.

大勿喜歡 tú‘ veh ’h’í hwén, much displeased.

勿大哩好 veh dá‘ ’lí ’hau, not very good.

勿大哩吃個 veh dá‘ ’lí k’iuh kú‘, seldom eat it.

188. 好 ’hau, good, well, that I may, it may.

禿是勿好 t’óh ’zz veh ’hau, all are bad.

頂勿好 ’ting veh ’hau, worst of all.

恰好 hah ’hau, fortunately, just at the time.

勿好意思 veh ’hau í‘ sz‘, ashamed.

好拉否 ’hau ’lá ’vá, are you well?

醫勿否 í veh ’hau, he cannot be cured.

勿能好 veh nung ’hau, I cannot recover.

好去囘頭 ’hau k’í‘ wé deu, that I may go and inform him.

好做個 ’hau tsú‘ kú‘, it may be done.

189. 靈 ling, efficacious, intelligent.

勿靈個 veh ling kú‘, powerless, inefficacious.

唔沒靈處 m meh ling t’sú‘, having no efficacy.

靈性勿拉心裏 ling sing‘ veh ’lá sing ’lí, always forgetting.

魂靈勿拉身上 wung ling veh ’lá sun long‘, ib.

190. 快 k’wá‘, fast, (adv.) near, soon, lively.

快快搖 k’wá‘ k’wá‘ yau, row quickly.

夜快者 yá‘ k’wá‘ ’tsé, it will soon be night.

死快者 ’sí k’wá‘ ’tsé, he is dying.

快活, 快樂 k’wá‘ weh, or k’wá‘ loh, glad.

爽爽快快 ’song ’song k’wá‘ k’wá‘, well in health.

Section 6. On the Pronoun.

191. The pronouns are regarded by the Chinese as part of the auxiliary particles that with nouns and verbs make up sentences, and they have not proceeded to separate them from the rest of that numerous family by a peculiar denomination.

They are chiefly single words, but frequently admit of the dissyllabic form. Other pronouns, or particles having no meaning of their own (e.g. 是, 個), are prefixed or affixed to give them this form. The details will be found below.

Among the many simple and compound forms used as pronouns, the following may be distinguished as properly and originally such for this dialect.

Personal, 我, 儂, 其, 伊, 㑚, 你, ’ngú, nóng‘, gí, í, ná‘, ’ní, I, thou, he, you.

Reflexive, 自 zz‘, in combination.

Demonstrative, 第, 伊, 個, tí‘, í, kú‘, this, that; also 彼此 pé ’t’sz, occasionally used.

Interrogative, 啥, 幾 sá‘, ’kí, what? how many? inseparable, and 何 hú, what? 那 ’ná (pron. ’á), which? inseparable.

Relative. There is no separable relative pronoun, its place being supplied by 個 kú‘, 所 ’sú is inseparable, and very limited in its use.

Possessives. None. Their place is supplied by 個 kú‘, following the personal pronoun.

Distributives. 各, 每, 逐, koh, ’mé, dzóh, each, every.

Reciprocal. None. The borrowed form 大家 is the substitute.

Indefinite. 某, 啥, 幾, 多, ’meu, sá‘, ’kí, tá, some, several.

Correlatives or adjective pronouns. 禿, 全, 別, t’oh, dzén, bih, all, other, separable and 凡 van, inseparable.

Personal pronouns. 192. The first personal pronoun in the singular is ’ngú, 我 I; the second, 儂 nóng‘ or 那 ná‘, thou; the third, 伊 í or 其 kí, he.

我去者 ’ngú k’í‘ ’tsé, I am now going.

呌儂就來 kau‘ nóng‘ dzieu‘ lé, I told you to come at once.

撥拉伊者 peh ’lá í ’tsé, I have given it him.

其撥拉我 kí peh ’lá ’ngú, he gave me.

In the plural 你 ’ní or 我你 ’ngú ’ní, express we; 那 ná or 儂那 nóng‘ ná‘, you; and 伊 í, they.

我你兩个 ’ngú ’ní ’liáng kú‘, we two.

那多許人 ná‘ tú hau‘ niun, all you men.

When the pronoun consists of one word only, the vacant place is often filled up by 是 ’zz.

是我 ’zz ’ngú, I.

是伊是其 ’zz í ’zz gí, he.

是那衆人 ’zz ná‘ tsóng‘ niun, all you men.

Obs. i. The personal pronoun is often omitted, as 拾蓋看起來 seh ké k’ön‘ ’k’í lé, thus you see; 勿來末總勿好 veh lé meh tsóng veh hau, if you do not come it will be unfortunate.

Obs. ii. The impersonal pronoun in English it, is not expressed, as 落雨者 loh ’ú ’tsé, it is raining.

Obs. iii. In mandarin 我, 你, 他, ’ngó, ’ní, t’á, I, thou, he, all form their plural by taking 們 mun, as a suffix.

Obs. iv. Sometimes 我 ’ngú, may stand for the third person he, This occurs, when two persons in relation to each other are the subject of conversation. The nominative is then considered as I, and the third person, he. Thus, 兄弟曉得呵哥勿喜歡我, h’iúng dí‘ ’hiau tuh á kú veh ’h’í hwén ’ngú, the younger brother knows that the elder is displeased with him. This is not the case when no confusion of persons is likely to happen; e.g. 眼睛𥆝之伊個男人 ’ngan tsing sú tsz í kú‘ nén niun, she looked on her husband.

193. The idea of self is expressed by 自家 zz‘ ká, for all persons, generally preceded by the appropriate pronoun.

伊自家話 í zz‘ ká wo‘, he himself said.

儂自家要去個 nóng‘ zz‘ ká yau‘ k’í‘ kú‘, you must go yourself.

Obs. i. In mandarin 自己 tsz‘ ’ki; Fúh-kien, 家己 ká ’kí.

Obs. ii. The pronoun 自 zz‘, self, though not used out of combination, occurs in several fixed phrases. 自殺自 zz‘ sah zz‘, to kill one’s-self; 自害自 zz‘ hé‘ zz‘, to injure one’s-self, These concise forms are more agreeable and impressive to the native ear, than the equivalent long forms 自家殺脫自家 zz‘ ká sah t’eh zz‘ ká; 自家害脫自家 zz‘ ká hé‘ t’eh zz‘ ká.

Demonstratives, 194. The demonstrative pronouns are 第個 tí‘ kú‘, this, and 個個 kú‘ kú‘ or 伊個 í kú‘, that.

第个事體 tí‘ ku‘ zz‘ ’t’í, this matter.

故个物事 kú‘ kú‘ meh zz‘ that thing.

伊个小囝 í kú‘ ’siau nön, that boy.

伊歇辰光 í h’ih zun kwong, at that time.

Obs. i. When these words combine with any of the auxiliary substantives to form demonstrative adverbs, the particle 個 kú‘ is omitted.

第頭好包 tí‘ deu ’hau pau‘, here it is good walking.

故搭去住 kú‘ tah k’í‘ dzû‘, go and live there.

伊塊人少 í k’wé‘ niun ’sau, the people there are few.

Obs. ii. Some of the mandarin demonstratives 那此彼 ’ná, t’sz, pé, that, this, that, though not belonging to our dialect in their monosyllabic form are found in some combinations. 那裏 ’á ’lí, where? 此地 ’t’sz dí‘, here; 彼此 pé ’t’sz, that and this. Facts of this sort illustrate the necessity for distinguishing between words of one or more syllables, and between roots in apposition, as separable and inseparable.

Interrogatives. 195. The interrogative forms are 啥 sá‘, what? 那裏 ’á ’lí, where? and which? and 幾 ’kí, what? which? also ’kí hó‘ (hau‘), how many.

啥人拷門 sá‘ niun k‘au mun, who knocks at the door?

啥物事 sá‘ meh zz‘, what is the matter.

儂要啥事體 nóng‘ yau‘ sá‘ zz‘ ’t’í, what do you want?

啥所去 sa‘ sü k’í‘, where are you going?

爲啥實盖能 we‘ sá‘ seh ké‘ nung, why do you do so?

到那裏去 tau‘ ’á ’lí k’í‘, where are you going.

那裏堂 ’á ’lí dong, where?

那裏个戶堂 ’á ’lí kú‘ ú dong, which place?

那裏个人 ’á ’lí kú‘ niun, which man?

那裏條路 ’á ’lí diau lú‘, which road?

幾時 ’kí zz, what time?

幾時辰 sa‘ zz zun, what time?

幾點鐘 ’ki ’tíen tsóng, what it is o’clock?

幾許銅錢 ’kí hó‘ (hau‘) dóng díen, how many cash?

轎夫幾家頭 kiau‘ fú ’kí ká deu, how many chair-bearers?

Obs. i. In the compound forms here exhibited, 裏 may be taken to indicate place; 許 hó‘ is a meaningless particle used to complete the rhythmus.

Obs. ii. The interrogative of the books 何 hú, what? is found in combinations, such as 沒奈何 meh né‘ hú, there is nothing I can do. But it is not used alone.

Relative pronouns. 196. The regular relative pronoun 所 ’só, is only used in combination with 以 ’í in the sense therefore, and with ’dzé, 所在 as a noun substantive, house.

新所在 sin sû ’dzé, a new house.

所以要預備 ’só ’í yau‘ ü‘ bé‘, therefore you must prepare.

The place of the relative particle 所, used in books and in some dialects, is supplied by the particles 拉個 ’lá kú‘, or 個 alone, coming after the verb.

買拉个米就擔來撥拉窮人 ’má ’la ku‘ mí dzieu‘ tan lé peh ’lá gióng niun, bring the rice you have bought at once, and give it to the poor. m. ’só ’mái tih ’mí.

網咾機檻咾坑坎咾禿是捉禽獸個 ’mong lau kí ’k’an lau k’áng ’k’én lau, t’óh ’zz tsoh giun seu‘ kú‘, nets, traps and covered pits, are all for catching animals. m. chúh k’in sheu‘ tih.

儂造拉個房子 nóng ’zau ’lá kú‘ vong ’tsz, the house which you have built. m. ’ní ’só kæ‘ tih fáng ’tsz.

皇帝賞個俸祿 wong tí‘ ’song kú‘ fóng lóh, the emoluments which are conferred by the emperor.

Possessive pronouns. 197. The possessive pronouns are expressed by the personal pronouns, with the auxiliary particle 個 kú‘.

我個兒子 ’ngú kú‘ ní ’tsz, my son.

儂个宗祖 nóng‘ kú‘ ’tsú tsóng, your ancestors.

第塊地皮是㑚个 tí k’wé dí‘ bí ’zz ná‘ kú‘, this piece of land is yours.

Obs. i. In mandarin, 的 tih. The southern Fúh-kien dialect, besides having two distinct plural forms for the personal pronouns 恁 ’lin, you, 咱 ’lán, we has also separate possessive forms for all the three persons 恁 ’lin, your; 阮 ’gwan, mine, 咱 ’lán, ours; 因 in, their, his. The intervening particle 個 is thus rendered unnecessary for that dialect. It is however often inserted. When these forms ’gwán, ’lin, in, are compared with the personal pronouns 我 你 伊 ’gwá, ’li or ’leu, í, the termination n looks extremely like an appendage to the root in each case.

Obs. ii. After the personal pronouns, when a preposition of motion precedes, a substantive of place is required; e.g. 到我喊頭來 tau‘ ’ngú han‘ deu lé, come to me. This is generally true in all instances, where place is left to be understood in English. 㑚塲好個狗 ná‘ dzáng hau‘ kú‘ ’keu, one of your dogs. It will be seen that the pronouns in these examples are possessive, though in the former, the corresponding English word is a personal pronoun.

Distributive pronouns. 198. The words corresponding to our distributive pronouns, each, every, etc. are the following 每逐各 ’mé, dzóh, k’oh.

每 ’mé, each.

每人撥一塊 ’mé niun peh ih k’wé‘, give one piece to each.

每家兩个人 ’mé ká ’liáng kú‘ niun, in each family there are two.

逐 dzóh, each in succession.

逐一个殺一干 dzóh ih kú‘ sah ih kûn, let each person kill one.

逐日出門一囘 dzóh nyih t’seh mun ih wé‘, go out once day.

逐樣菜拔脫一科 dzóh yáng t’sé‘ bah t’eh ih k’ú, of each kind of vegetable, pull up one plant.

逐科花採一朶 dzóh k’ú hwó ’t’sé ih ’tú, of each plant pluck one flower.

各 koh, each, every.

各樣書買一部 koh yáng‘ sû ’má ih bú‘, buy a book of every sort.

各樣顔色要 koh yáng‘ ’ngán suh yau‘, I want every kind of colour.

各人良心勿差 koh niun liáng sing veh t’só, men’s consciences tell them what is right.

各管各 koh ’kwén koh, each attends to his own affairs.

各處風俗不同 koh t’sû‘ fóng zóh peh dóng, different places have different customs.

Obs. i. Like the Greek pas, all or each, 各 koh is also an adjective all; e.g. 各處 koh t’sû‘, all places.

Obs. ii. 每 mé, means always, in such phrases as 每要望望儂 ’mé yau‘ mong‘ mong‘ nóng‘, I wish constantly to come and see you; 每每 ’mé ’mé, always.