PART I. HUMANITIES. (continued 2)

Exercises may be written and a grammar used later, but if the teacher economises time, there will remain enough in each lesson to prepare pupils for the writing of the next exercise and to warn them of mistakes they would otherwise be likely to make. I need not repeat here what I have said under the head of corrections and time saving (see p. 28, introduction).

Philology.Finally as regards grammatical rules. There are doubtless many forms which must be learned, and rules which we must treat as arbitrary, because we can see no reason for them, but the more reasons we can show, the more interesting will language become, and the easier to learn. Thus children are glad to discover that the terminations are not mysterious letters for which there is no reason, but the remnants of pronouns put on at the end—that in the French future we get the same as the English, “I have to write,” only “have” comes after, and in the conditional, “I had”. They need not then learn these tenses, only notice the abbreviations. The survival of the t in a-t-il and many other things will enliven the grammar lesson. Peile’s delightful Manual of Philology and D’Arcy Thomson’s Day-dreams of a Schoolmaster are suggestive, but of course the more a teacher knows of philology, the more interesting she can make her lessons, and one versed in the subject should be found in every school.

Rationale of rules.The never-ending rules for the past participle may be at once disposed of by just showing children that the participle being an adjective must agree with the word it belongs to. If I say, “I have written a letter,” of course “written” belongs to letter and therefore it must agree. We need not make them think about whether it is subject or complement. The only curious thing they have to notice, is that it does not agree when the word it belongs to comes after “have”. Is it because the thought of the act of writing is more present to the mind when we say, “I have written a letter,” and we do not think of the letter as written, whereas when the letter is objectified to our gaze, being represented by a pronoun, we think of it rather as a letter written?

The learning of a third language will present less difficulties. If the language is German we can, by a few simple etymological laws, get command of a copious vocabulary in a short time. The declensions offer some difficulty at the outset, chiefly on account of the adjectives. But the phonetic change is made in order to avoid the repetition of the harsh sound s, m, r, and therefore when this occurs in a preceding pronominal adjective, it is dropped or softened in the second adjective; thus the ear guides, and we have not to think about the forms; one has only to notice that in the oblique cases it is weakened to n, and in the plural it is always n.

The order of words offers difficulties too, and we have a complicated construction. We have to fix our attention on the functions of words, as we did not in a simpler language, for a whole row of words goes to make up an adjective, and dependent sentences are constantly taking the place of simple words. Insight there must be to see what are dependent sentences, and then the whole paraphernalia of rules about certain conjunctions which require the verb to be sent to the end vanish too and we move freely.

Another difficulty is the different uses of prepositions. In English we go “through” the street, in German “on”. We go “through” a town, the Germans “over”. Let the difference of the conception be realised, and the prepositions will come right.

Literature.It is a great pleasure to those approaching maturity to study a language made for metaphysics. We cannot read German without finding everywhere fossil poetry and philosophy, and the rolling periods and the grand verse stir our soul like a trumpet, and we know that we hear the voice of an heroic people, who speak a language and think thoughts akin to our own.

Latin does not attract perhaps in the same way; the military precision of the Latin classics has its charm. I feel strongly that Latin should, however, properly come after German, specially for girls. There is a pestilential atmosphere in the Campania, and one needs to have one’s moral fibre braced by the poetry of the Hebrews and of England and Germany, if one would remain unaffected by writings saturated with heathen thought.

Those who are able to spare time and strength for Greek, and love poetry in all its forms, will delight indeed in the “Wine of Hellas,” and with the enthusiasm which they will bring to a new study they will surmount in a short time obstacles which would have delayed them for months, when they had less knowledge of co-ordinate forms, less taste, less insight, less joy in wrestling with problems and searching into mysteries. If there is not time nor talent nor inclination for all, then I would say prefer Greek to Latin.

The chief thing for the teacher to do is so to teach that the pupil shall enjoy the work. I do not mean that the pupil should be spared hard work and drudgery, or be always expecting to find honey on Hymettus; but do we not all know that the labour of making our way over rotten glaciers and up stony moraines is forgotten when we stand on the crest, and that all the way we go, we think of the joy set before us, when we shall attain to some lofty peak, whence we can see the outstretched heavens and the sunlit earth? For this we must throw ourselves in each language upon literature—the forms of grammar will be the ladder whereby we mount.

And then we shall return to our own native poets and thinkers, with minds enriched by foreign travel, and Milton will be the interpreter of the poetry of the world—of ancient and modern times, Spenser of the mediæval romances, Chaucer of the world of nature, Wordsworth and Coleridge of spiritual philosophy, and we shall feel that we must be worthy of so great an inheritance, and not trample under our feet the pearls, the precious jewels of speech.

Do I seem unpractical? It is just these ideas that are practical, which we must get our children to see and to feel, and then the burden of earnest, thoughtful labour will seem light, and our English tongue will not be degraded by slovenly pronunciation or the use of vulgar and inappropriate words.

SPELLING REFORM.

By Dorothea Beale.

Let me earnestly beg of teachers not to put aside the question of spelling reform as of little moment, but to do their utmost to bring it about.

Can it be to educators of little moment that learning to read, instead of introducing children to an orderly system, reveals chaos, and interferes with the tendency upon which all science is founded to expect law and order. As Professor Max Müller writes «Every thing that children have to learn in reading and spelling is irrational; one rule contradicts the other, and each statement has to be accepted simply on authority, and with a complete disregard of those rational instincts, which lie dormant in the child, and ought to be awakened by every kind of healthy exercise».

I find it difficult to express my strong sense of the immense importance of this reform on grounds educational, economic, patriotic. Not only does our cacography oppose an enormous obstacle to intellectual progress during the most important years of mental development, and thus squander brain power on useless work, it is also a waste of money which is expended by the upper classes in forcing on the children of the poorer a waste of time and—a sort of useless prison-labour.

D^r Gladstone calculates that the average board-school child spends more than 2000 hours in acquiring the arts of reading and spelling, and that the waste of money is over £ 1000000. This was 20 years ago; with increased grants, the loss of money must be far more now. He also calculates the waste of capital in printing unnecessary letters at nearly 20 per cent. This is only one of the many arguments for reform, which he puts most clearly and forcibly.

Most of the richer children have an indefinite amount of leisure in childhood, and they forget how long it took to learn to read, but children in elementary schools groan under a pedantic tyranny, which imposes wearisome and useless labours upon those who might otherwise in their short school time gain such facility in reading, that it would be a pleasure ever after, and the time which is now wasted on spelling, would be available for much beside: Germans have time to acquire foreign tongues, but Englishmen and Frenchmen have not time to acquire them in addition to their own spelling; either language from its simple structure might become a world-wide tongue, and there would be no need of Volapuk.

I quote from Professor Max Müller’s article.

«According to a Liverpool Schoolmaster of great experience it takes from 6 to 7 years to learn the arts of reading and spelling with a fair amount of intelligence. I. e. about 2.000 hours. A Glasgow schoolmaster writes, «I have taught poor children to read the Sermon on the Mount after a course of exercises extending over no more than 6 hours», and a father writes, «My boy who is a few months more than 4 will read any phonetic book ... and how long do you think it took me to impart to him this power? Why something less than 8 hours, and that was in snatches of five minutes at a time; his next brother a boy of 6 has had a phonetic education, what is the consequence? Reading in the first stage was so delightful that he taught himself to read. My eldest boy 11 years old, at a first-rate school has carried off the prize for orthography». Mr. Ellis, who did so much for education writes, «With the phonetic system the Primer is mastered within 3 months at most; careful experiments have established 1) that pupils may be taught to read books in phonetic print in from 10 to 40 hours, and that when they have attained fluency in reading ordinary print, the pronunciation is much improved, the interest in study kept alive, and a logical training of enduring value given ... and they acquire the art of ordinary spelling more readily than those instructed on the old method.»»

Let those who think I exaggerate, look into Miss Soames’s introduction to Phonetics, and they will marvel how a foreigner can ever learn to read and write English—she gives the 34 ways in which we write the indefinite ‘a’ sound in aloud—the 26 for representing ‘or’; the 18 for giving ‘sh’ the 20 representing ‘n’, 18 for ‘k’, and so on—Pagliardini enumerates the 44 ways in which ‘oo’ is written and 36 for the sound ‘ee’; those who have tried to teach foreigners know how hopeless it all seems.

Pagliardini tells of a work published 1861 on French spelling, which gives 163 ingenious rules and occupies 285 pages. It is asserted that 2 lessons a week for 3 years will suffice. How much better writes Pagliardini would these precious hours be spent in studying noble thoughts in books, the history of nations, the mathematical sciences, or the laws by which God governs the universe, or if confined to words, then how much more interesting and intellectual would be their decomposition into their elements, showing their affinity with words in other languages. What a fund of poetry might be found in the metaphors of which words are the abbreviated forms. All this, now unopened to his view for lack of time, would be revealed.

This may be paralleled by the spelling book of the Meiklejohn series. ‘Spelling with sidelights from history.’ It contains 150 pages, gives many rules, and concludes with one thousand of the most difficult words selected from examination papers.

M. Pitman has done good service in printing and circulating for a very small sum various tracts, and I hope my readers will get some, specially the paper by Prof. Max Müller. Alas, reforms are slow when the opinion of many unthinking persons has to be formed, before they can be carried. It needed a pope to reform the calendar.

The Westminster Review for Sept. 1897 has an article on spelling reform, urging its great importance, if English is to be a world-wide language. The impossibility of getting a new alphabet adopted at least for a long time is urged as a reason for pressing minor reforms, the chief being the omission of all useless letters. Thus we should leve out awl thos perplexing vowels in lev recev decev belev; and thes changes mit posibly be carid with sum slit efort at wuns, if sum popular orthor wood requir his book too be printed foneticaly.

Some defend our spelling for philological reasons, but it is unanimously condemned by philologists; I name those best known in England—Professor Max Müller pronounces it a national misfortune, and has written an article against it—Professor Sayce and Skeat, Ellis and Sweet, D^r Murray, editor of the Etymological Dictionary, condemn it, and amongst linguists, Pagliardini, and scientists, D^r Gladstone.

But the chief reason, that we should press forward this movement is, that only thus does it seem possible to avert the catastrophe foreshadowed in an article on the Queen’s English in the Review of Reviews for June 1897. Dialectic varieties are arising in the English-speaking Colonies, which, if unchecked by phonetic symbols corresponding with speech, will develop into different languages. The longer we delay, the greater will be the difficulty of agreeing on a common notation—at present the differences of opinion between us and our colonies, and even between us and our American cousins are slight, but those who have heard the English of the States spoken by the children of German immigrants, will recognise the danger.

Miss Soames before her death published reading books in phonetic type, and spent much time and money in promoting the teaching of English reading on this system, and in introducing to the notice of English people the alphabet of the Association Phonétique Internationale, 11, Rue de Fontenay, Bourg la Reine (Seine).

Such an alphabet would be better than one suitable for English only, but if Pitman’s is the only one generally available, it is better to use that for elementary schools, and remember the maxim ‘le mieux est l’ennemi du bien’—For teaching the right pronunciation of foreign languages, le Maître Phonétique is very valuable.

Melville Bell’s Visible Speech is a physiological alphabet of marvellous ingenuity—but perhaps too elaborate for general use, and the conclusions at which he arrives are not always endorsed by the chief authorities. All students of phonetics will learn much from reading it.—English visible speech, in 12 lessons 50 cents, Volta bureau Washington, gives the essentials of the system—the large work costs 4 dollars.

Great efforts are being made in France to introduce an international phonetic alphabet.

If all could agree on one alphabet, it would be possible for a foreigner to read at sight any foreign language. It is true there would be certain niceties of pronunciation to be taught Viva Voce, but the pronunciation would be very nearly correct at once.

I subjoin a few specimens of writing and the alphabet from ‘lə mɛːtr fɔnetik’ (Le Maître Phonétique).

The French alphabet is very simple. The consonants are as in English except

- ɲ for the palatal n as in signe.

ʃ for ch as in champ—Ex. shut.

ʒ for ʒʰ as in je—Ex. pleasure.

The vowels are

- ɑ pâte - ɛ tête - i ni - o côte - u tout

a patte e dé j yeux ɔ tort y tu

- œ seul - w oui - nasalises

ø peu ɥ huile ː lengthens

ə de

The complete international alphabet which is subjoined requires more signs but this suffices in French.

French.—kɑ̃tquand ynune fwafois ɔ̃on lilit kuramɑ̃couramment l ekrityːrl’écriture fɔnetikphonétique iil syfisuffit dde kɛlkəzquelques œːrheures purpour aprɑ̃ːdrapprendre aà liːrlire l ekrityːrl’écriture ɔrdinɛːr.ordinaire.

In English we want θ ð for th in thick & then, ɕ for ch in hue, ŋ for the guttural nasal, ʌ for but, a vowel not quite the same as seul, æ for at—

English.—nau ðə pɔint ai wɔnt tu get æt iz hweðəɹ ðe seːm deskripʃən kæn bi givn.

(now the point I want to get at is whether the same description can be given.)

German.—vɛn viːr uns in unserm lɑndə rɑif dɑfyːr hɑltn di ɑlgəmɑinə høːərə bilduŋ ɑusʃlisːliɕ auf di mɔdɛrnə kultuːr tsu gryndn.

(Wenn wir uns in unserm Lande reif dafür halten die algemeine höhere Bildung auschliesslich auf die moderne Cultur zu gründen.)

COMPLETE ALPHABET

Laryn- gales Guttu- rales Vé- laires Palatales d’arrière Palatales d’avant Linguales Labiales

C O N S O N N E S - Plosives ʔ q G k g c ɟ t d p b

Nasales ŋ̊ ŋ̌ ɲ̊ ɲ̌ n̥ n̬ m̥ m̬

Latérales ɫ̥ ɫ̬ ʎ̥ ʎ̬ ɭ̥ ɭ̬

Roulées Q̥ Q̬ R̥ R̬ r r̬

Fricatives h H h̬ ʁ̥ ᴚ̬ (ʍ w) x g (ɥ̊ ɥ̌) ɕ j ɹ̥ ɹ̬, θ ð, ʃ ʒ, s z f vF ʋ ʍ wɥ̊ ɥ

V O Y E L L E S - Fermées u ɯ ü ï y i (u ü y)

Mi-fermées o v ö ë ø e (o ö ø)

Mi-ouvertes ɔ ʌ ɔ̈ ä œ ɛ (ɔ ɔ̈ œ)

Ouvertes ɑ a

Phonetic alphabet as illustration

HISTORY AS AN EDUCATIONAL SUBJECT.

By Dorothea Beale.

Definition.The second subdivision of Part I. is of great educational value. “History,” writes Dr. Harris, “reveals the higher self of man as organised in institutions. For the first time man comes to know his substantial self, when he comes to study history. His little self beholds his colossal self.” The Man “writ large” of Plato.

Enlarges sympathies.“History,” writes Dr. Martineau, “enlarges the sympathies, opening fresh continents of character to mental survey, throwing human tones upon the ear in language unheard before; it acts upon the judgments of conscience like foreign travel upon those of perception; it imparts a breadth of view unattainable within a narrow circle. The smaller the scale of the personal lot, the more precious and needful are the friendships of history.

“The ground plot of a man’s own destiny may be closely shut in, but if he can find his way through vanished cities, hear the pleading of justice, visit the battlefields where the infant life of nations has been baptised in blood; if he can steal into the prisons, where lonely martyrs have waited their deaths; if he can walk in the garden or the porch, where the lovers of wisdom discourse; if the experiences of his own country consecrate the very soil—he consciously belongs to a grander life. Hence the advantage which human studies possess over every form of science, the sympathy with man over the knowledge of nature. They are an enlargement of moral experience, and call into continual exercise the sense of right and wrong.

“In watching the drama of history, the soul may be purified by ‘pity and fear’. ‘Here we find examples for judgment, examples of patient suffering, that touch the springs of pity; of selfishness and cruelty that gnaw the heart with honest indignation, of heroic faithfulness that flings across the soul a breeze of resolution, of saintly love that diffuses the very atmosphere of heaven.’”[17]

Supplements the teachings of science.In history as in science we learn facts that we may trace laws, and history corrects by a larger outlook the erroneous judgments deduced from a limited experience. History too seems specially useful as a complement to the teaching of science. In physics we find inexorable law. Admiration and fear may be excited, but we look on the inevitable; we pass no moral judgment. History and biography show us the Divine government adapting itself, so to speak, to the necessities of man, an education of men and of man, we study a mystery which attracts and baffles us; we are able to predict our world’s path in space and time, unable in reference to those larger regions beyond our “little systems”—regions, however, in which we must believe the same laws, physical and moral, to be working.

Gives an outlook beyond time.History corrects the judgment of the world; in its pages we look only at dead men, and we call him happy, not who has been successful, but him who has left the world better because he has lived, and so history reverses the pernicious teaching which puts before the young success as the main object of life, and shows us the difference between noble and pitiful ambitions. The heroes of history are those who endured hardness and lived and died for others, a Heracles, a Theseus, a St. Louis, a Gustavus, a Washington. The villains are those who lived for self, in ease and splendour, and self-indulgence. We find in these, and still more in those in whom the lights and shades are less strongly marked, encouragements and warnings for our own life, and help in interpreting the lives of those around us. How tawdry looks the field of the cloth of gold in the light of a later century! How silly seem those courtiers who carried their “manors on their backs”! “He is worth so much” has a different meaning for the dead and for the living; the dead have not, they are. Each noble life has left the world richer in spiritual energy, in the power of self-sacrifice, in great ideals, in true riches; there is a treasury of saints, not of a transferable righteousness, but of a transforming, a transfiguring. We can see that no noble life has been lived in vain. “In the sight of the unwise they seem to perish, yet is their hope full of immortality;” the corn which falls into the ground and dies bears much fruit.

Reveals progress through the ages.Lastly if we include in this study not only the history of men and of societies, but of the intellectual and moral life of man as a whole, not his descent but his ascent, history forms a subject of surpassing interest and energising hope. We find there enacted upon the largest theatre the daily recurring drama of the contest of light with darkness. We learn how man’s eyes have been gradually opened to the wonders of the visible universe, and his soul lifted into the regions of the invisible, his intellectual conceptions enlarged, his higher being developed, and his desires purified; history which discourages, as we look at a narrow tract, strengthens our faith in a Divine order of progress, as we take in the larger regions of time; the waves seem often to recede, while the tide advances, the stars seem to retrograde, but it is because our little world oscillates in space; and so our faith is strengthened, and our hope increased, and we learn not patriotism merely, but we catch something of that enthusiasm of humanity, which shone with unclouded brightness in the Son of Man.

Cultivates the judgment.Another use of history, rightly taught, is to train in habits of justice and truthfulness, though it is too often written to serve party ends. It is not easy to be just. The hearts of the young are naturally drawn out to those who suffer. If the Eikon Basilike was not true, we are inclined to say it must have been true, as we look upon Vandyke’s picture, see the calm face of the martyr, or read the verses:—

Stirs right enthusiasm for heroic men.We must, however, not let our sympathy with suffering blind us to the fact that Charles failed in his duty as a king—that had he been successful in what he attempted, England must have suffered from the evils under which France subsequently groaned. We must point out that it was his incurable deceit which brought him at last to the scaffold. But neither, on the other hand, must we ignore the fact that Cromwell trampled on the rights of men, that his was a lawless Government too. We would not, however, have that sham impartiality which paints all men of one colour and height, which is incapable of conceiving a hero, and contemplates crime with calmness, remarking there are always two sides to a quarrel. Need I say that throughout, the teacher must stir noble enthusiasms, a worthy emulation, admiration for true manliness, for virtue, rouse sympathy for the oppressed, zeal for right—show that the history of each nation is that nation’s Bible—the Book which tells of the Heavenly Father’s care for it, as manifested in the incidents of its life? If addressing higher classes, the teacher will point out, as opportunity offers, that each had a work to do in the world, Hebrew, Greek, Roman, as Miss Wedgwood has shown so well in the Moral Ideal.[18]

Shows the disintegrating power of unrighteousness.The young must learn, too, that the great principle is found everywhere, that what we sow we must reap in the moral as well as the physical world—that the selfish neglect of the poor brought about the Black Death and gaol fevers, that the selfishness, rapacity and immoral greed fostered by England’s unjust claims on France, brought its own punishment; this was seen when the Hundred Years’ War ended in the internecine strife of the fifteenth century, and led to the extermination of a selfish aristocracy. So too the degradation of the higher classes, say in the eighteenth century in France, which led them to regard the lower classes as scarcely human, brought about the fearful retaliation of the Revolution. Or again the wealth of Spain, filling the nation with pride and haughtiness, was actually her ruin; by persistently destroying or expelling, by war or persecution, all the nobler spirits, the nation was degraded in a few centuries. Of course these latter lessons will be more suited to a higher class, but something of it may be taught early.

Questions of right and wrong will ever be arising. What ought to have been done under such circumstances? Is rebellion ever justifiable? and when? What forms of government are best? is there an absolute best? We shall see how short-sighted is crime when we come to the murder of Cæsar, of Henry III., Henry IV., William the Silent. The teacher will not omit to look at the historical clock, when asking whether acts were right or wrong. We must do justice to devotion, while pointing out errors and crimes; we must be warned by seeing that wrong deeds are often done by those who mean well; we must learn that though error and ignorance is evil, and we must fight against both, yet that good often comes of the honest working out even of mistaken opinions; that through illusions we gain the vision of truth.

Teaches by experience.The many experiments of the past show us too that evils which exist in a community cannot be cured by merely changing a form of government, or getting rid of this man or that man by violence; to do this is only to sow dragon’s teeth. A nation is made up of individuals, and only by individual virtue can salvation come; so people now seek to bring about the well-being of nations by education rather than by revolution, because freedom without sense to use it is an evil, and a nation that is truly free will deserve and obtain free institutions. As Mazzini says:—

Teaches the solidarity of man“We must convince men that they are all sons of one sole God, and bound to fulfil and execute one sole law here on earth; that each of them is bound to live not for himself, but for others; rights can only exist as a consequence of duties fulfilled, and we must begin with fulfilling duties in order to achieve rights. We can obtain our rights only by deserving them through our own spirit of love and sacrifice. If we seek our rights in the name of duties, we shall obtain them. If we seek them in the name of egotism, or any theory of happiness and well-being propounded by the teachers of materialism, we shall never achieve other than a momentary triumph, to be followed by utter confusion.”

One may point out the gradual progress which, with occasional recessions, has, we trust, been made. One may stir in the young patriotism, and an enthusiasm of humanity, and make them feel a desire to do what they can to amend the evils of their own time.

and the duty of each to the community.Lessons of political economy seem to me more important for girls than the legislative contests of constitutional history. They cannot enter into these with the keen interest of boys, who may themselves one day be lawgivers. All should be taught that a selfish, wasteful citizen is a disgrace, a sort of moral caterpillar—learn that selfishness, sensuality, falsehood, under whatever disguises, are detestable, whilst a self-devoted life is a heritage for ever. We should especially recognise the faults of our own nation in past times, and in the present too; we should desire the elevation of the degraded classes, and each should feel that his life and example has at least some power, that each of us is responsible to men as well as to God, that it is by noble enthusiasms, by self-devotion, by giving up one to another that human society is possible.

History, like geography, can be approached two ways:—

Methods of approaching the subject.1. We may take the map of the world, indicate its leading features and its political divisions.

2. We may take a small tract, realise by description the form and beauty, the flora and fauna, the temperature, the snowy peaks, the rushing rivers, the silent stars, think it all out, until we feel at home in the land, work up through details of topography to clear conceptions.

In teaching history, I think we ought to take some kind of time-map, mark out in it a few of the most prominent recorded facts, tell something of the heroes, after whose names tracts of time have been called, trace out a few of the leading empires, give landmarks.

With juniors.Then we may, after showing the position of a certain period in the world-chart, work it up in detail. The way in which each period should be treated will depend much on the age of the class. With young ones, the teaching will be more narrative and biography; the memory and imagination will be chiefly called into play. Some outline or short history should be read by the child, the most prominent events, etc., should be entered in a special historical map. The chronological, as well as the geographical atlas, should always be at hand. The teacher should go quickly round the class, asking each child a few questions, just to ascertain whether the work has been properly prepared, then she should fill up herself such parts as will come home to the class. For young classes, though some passages from good histories may be read, the teacher must be prepared to give a great deal viva voce. Little children do not take in so well what is written for older people, the words are not adapted to them, nor the mode of expression. Besides, the teacher’s eye is occupied, she does not see whether she is holding the attention of her class. True, her words may not be quite well chosen, but she will be able to make the narrative more life-like to those whose minds she knows. But she must on no account try to learn it up. If she would relate well, she must conjure up the scene before her own mind, carefully paint in the details, and then describe her own vision, watching the children to see if they, too, take it in.

But all must not be told; as far as may be, children should be led to anticipate. Thus in a narrative of a campaign, generally so dry and unprofitable, the children should be led to consider what were the aims, what would be the best way of carrying out operations, what posts would be occupied, which leader chosen, how the money would be raised, etc. They will take great delight in finding out these things, and not easily forget what they have discovered; it will accustom them to read in an intelligent way, so they will be able to predict to some extent what people are likely to do.

With senior classes.The elder classes should read some large history, if possible some original authority, and thus learn to read for themselves, to examine the statements set before them, and to sift evidence. The characters of Richard II. and Richard III., of Mary Queen of Scots and Elizabeth, of the Stuarts and Cromwell, of Laud and Bacon, will form good exercises in the discussion of probabilities, and teach caution and moderation in the judgments of daily life. For elder classes, too, we may make great use, not only of Shakspere, but of the best historical novels. For the teaching of higher classes I may point to the following papers and add also a chapter on time-maps.

TEACHING MODERN HISTORY TO SENIOR CLASSES.

By Alice Andrews.

The Princess.

Introductory.In teaching history our aim should be not to miss the “spirit” of the period we are taking. We have to inquire what forces are at work moulding the character of the nation, and to estimate the results they produce. We have to find the place our period holds in building up the national history. Each period has a heritage from the past, each hands on its legacy for the future—of warning from failure or from a success which is more disastrous than failure—of encouragement from victories, not necessarily of the battlefield, and which perhaps were won at the cost of noble lives willingly, even joyfully, offered.

There have been periods of ignoble wars, such as the Hundred Years’ War, when Englishmen were brutalised by murder and rapine, ruining a people too deeply sunk in misery to defend themselves. And retribution overtook the nation as it overtakes the individual. Our own Wars of the Roses were the fruit of the unjust wars in France. There have been periods of ignoble peace, when “peace with dishonour” might have been England’s motto, when foreign troops were subsidised to protect the shores that Englishmen were too craven-hearted to defend themselves, when enthusiasm was ridiculed as “mock patriotism,” and political reformers were nicknamed “boy patriots”. Corruption was reduced to a system, and Walpole believed that every man had his price. The Church was paralysed by spiritual deadness.

Individual men stand out as warnings or examples. Richard II. appears first as full of noble impulses, a born leader of men, but his crime determines his life. To rid himself of the man who knows his crime, he banishes Norfolk for life; the other, who suspects it, he banishes for a term of years, and this is reduced at the intercession of old Gaunt. Either the punishment was, or was not, just. If just, it ought not to have been reduced on petition; if unjust, it ought never to have been inflicted. Henceforward Richard rapidly deteriorates: he seizes Gaunt’s lands in spite of his promise to the absent Bolingbroke, in spite of the warning of his uncle York:—

Richard has himself set the example of disregard of others’ rights, and makes it possible for Bolingbroke to return in the name of justice and raise the country against the king.

Previous knowledge.The teacher of history in the older classes ought to be able to assume a correct knowledge of the most important facts and dates at least in English history. These are very easily learnt in childhood and most difficult to acquire by older girls. Those who have been trained on the historical chart are acquainted with the main characteristic of each century, and the principal events in it, and have no difficulty in grouping fresh knowledge round central well-known facts, just as the geographical student can fill in with increasing completeness a map from memory. Comparatively few are trained in any knowledge of foreign history, and I have known not a few grown-up girls find the greatest difficulty in mastering the leading names and events in French and other European history. In this respect other nations are beyond us. Foreign girls, both French and German, are trained to connect the history of their own country with the general course of events, and know the facts of European history as a whole. The absence of this knowledge in English girls makes the study of foreign policy unnecessarily difficult to them.

Continuity of history.In outline history, paint with a thick brush. “One can’t see the wood for the trees in it” might too often be the criticism of the pupil on a lesson. The conscientious teacher tries to omit nothing, the consequence in the pupil’s mind is blind confusion. The principle of selection rules here if anywhere. We must aim at avoiding the defect which Lord Acton denounces as “the want of an energetic understanding of the sequence and real significance of events, which ... is ruin to a student of history. It is playing at study (he continues) to see nothing but the unmeaning and unsuggestive surface as we generally do.” We want instead to trace in broad outline the continuity of history—for instance, look at the Wars of the Roses in this light. How do they stand in relation to constitutional development? While the nobles were at war, the commons were gaining victories, bloodless it is true, but more lasting than any gained on battlefields. It was a time of immense constitutional development. And yet these victories were practically worthless for the moment. What advantage was it to the victim of the “overmighty subject” that the Statute Book provided for his rights and liberties? The “Paston Letters” give a vivid picture of the impotence of the ordinary subject to get the law enforced. What the country needed was strong government, not political privileges. “Constitutional development had outrun administrative order,” had outrun, that is to say, the general point of development reached by the nation at large, and the Tudors came in, so to speak, on the programme of strong government. The Tudor rule represented the two great principles of orderly administration and even-handed government. It needed a dictatorship to accomplish the task. The task was completed at the Armada, and the country took back the trust at the accession of the Stuarts. That the Stuarts failed to recognise this, was the cause of the long constitutional struggle that culminated in the Civil War. Once more constitutional development proceeds, but now the nation is keeping pace with it.

Topical or sectional arrangement.The subject of sectional as opposed to chronological teaching seems to belong here, for upon it depends the very essence of clearness in teaching. If pupils have before them the time-map, or chronological chart, already referred to, the teacher can with greater freedom treat the subjects sectionally, for before the eye of the pupil are grouped all the parallel events in each square representing some definite space of time. To teach chronologically may seem more accurate perhaps, but really too often produces hopeless confusion in the mind of the pupil—the thread is lost in taking up many different subjects, e.g., in Elizabeth’s reign, I would take as separate sections her relations with Scotland, necessitating a review of Scotch affairs generally, and the series of plots for releasing Queen Mary; Elizabeth’s policy with regard to (a) the Anglican Church; (b) Roman Catholics; (c) Protestant Nonconformists; her Irish policy; her foreign policy illustrated by her “courtships”; the domestic history of the reign and so on. The different sections touch sometimes, but it only adds to the interest to illustrate the new section from one already known. So in the Seven Years’ War, I would not follow the course of events for each separate year on the Continent and in America and in India, but I would take the whole course of the war in Europe, explaining why it was not only justifiable but a stroke of genius in Pitt, to do what he had himself denounced in the “Hanover-troop minister,” and by utilising foreign troops for England’s war on the Continent, set her free to follow her true interests in the colonies, and I would trace as separate sections the laying of the foundations of her world-empire in India and in Canada.

Syllabus of lessons.This method of teaching presupposes that a scheme has been drawn out for the course. If possible the scheme should be given to the class in the form of a syllabus of the lessons. If printing is too expensive, it is worth while to cyclostyle copies oneself. The value the class attaches to them is sufficient reward for the trouble, and they become a model to the girls on which to arrange their own study of history in post-school days. Examples of such a syllabus for English history and French history lessons will be found at the end of the paper.

Illustrations: (a) Historical atlas.The historical map ought to be the inseparable accompaniment of the history lesson, and in this respect there is nearly everything to be wished for. Good wall maps with bold colouring in which the outlines of different territories can be seen from a distance, and in which the names are clearly printed in English, have yet to be found. To use a modern map in doing French outlines or other continental history is most misleading, and yet too often this is all the teacher has at hand. There is Sprüner of course, but even if the school can afford these expensive maps, they are not very satisfactory for the ordinary class; the colouring is not distinct, and the map is so overcrowded with names that it is difficult to find at a glance the places one wants. They are rather for private and minute study than for class work. The publisher’s explanation is that there is not a sufficient demand to make it worth while to bring out historical maps, an incidental illustration of how little attention is given in English schools to continental history, while a class map of the Roman Empire can be found everywhere. At present the teacher is forced to make her own maps. If she is happy enough to have old pupils with a talent for map-drawing, she can gradually make a collection of maps enlarged from those in good histories; the maps in Kitchin’s History of France are invaluable for this purpose, but Kitchin provides nothing for the periods of the Italian expeditions, and these have to be adapted from Sprüner.

Gardiner’s Student’s Atlas provides what is necessary for the pupil in the English history class; there is a small cheap German atlas for general history (Putzger, 2 marks), but it is not very satisfactory for the ordinary English schoolgirl, the difference in the names is puzzling. What is wanted is a student’s atlas for continental, especially French history, at a reasonable price.

But even given the atlas, it remains for the teacher to find an unfailing receipt by which to ensure its use.

(b) BlackboardNot the least part of the value of a syllabus in the hands of a pupil, is the saving of time it makes in the lesson, otherwise the blackboard must be used for unfamiliar names and words. The merest glance through a pupil’s rough notes of French history will be a sufficient proof of this.

(c) First-hand acquaintance with authorities.Besides the text-book, which every pupil should possess, no teacher of older girls will be satisfied unless they read at least passages from the authorities on the period. The difficulty is to provide a sufficient number of copies for a large class, or any copies at all, beyond those possessed by the teacher or the school: this difficulty, however, may be met. There are always girls who are glad to have good books suggested for Christmas or birthday presents, and who begin a really nice library of their own in this way. But a class-library can be formed without much trouble. The nucleus of a class-library being made by the necessary books for one year’s work, the girls can be asked to leave a similar legacy for their successors. A list of books wanted, with their prices, can be prepared, and it will be found that several will combine to give really expensive books, and in this way the class can command the use of sets of Stubbs, Froude, Gardiner, Ranke, Lecky, etc., besides smaller books like the Great Statesmen Series.

Since it is impossible for girls with their limited time to read the whole of the big histories, the teacher will find it a valuable practice to dictate the numbers of the pages (in one or more volumes) bearing upon her lesson, which the girls should read. They are thus trained to use authorities, and this is being recognised more and more as of the first importance. There was a time when girls depended entirely upon their notes, and the misspelling of names of historians showed that their knowledge of great writers was second-hand. But when they get a first-hand acquaintance with historians like Froude, Gardiner, Seeley, Ranke, Lecky, they are insensibly being trained to be satisfied with nothing but the best.

(d) Contemporary writings: chronicles.The period should be studied by the teacher, and to a certain extent by the pupil, in contemporary writers. Chronicles are delightful reading. Who that has once learnt to know Saint Louis of France in the pages of his faithful seneschal, can fail to breathe the very atmosphere of the time? De Joinville shows him what a later preacher called him, “the most loyal spirit of his age”. Again no weighty dissertations on the small account in which human life was held in the Middle Ages would be so convincing as the incidental contemptuous remarks of the courtier-chronicler Froissart. The exquisite courtesy to a De Ribeaumont was quite compatible with the halters for the six citizens of Calais. And to take one more illustration quite late on in the centuries—what a gulf separates ante-Reform times from our own! How expressive of the haughty landed aristocrat are these words of the Duchess of Buckingham after condescending to listen to the Wesleyan preaching: “I thank your ladyship for the information concerning the Methodist preachers. Their doctrines are most repulsive and strongly tinctured with impertinence and disrespect towards their superiors, in perpetually endeavouring to level all ranks and to do away with all distinctions. It is monstrous to be told that you have a heart as sinful as the common wretches that crawl the earth. This is highly offensive, and I cannot but wonder that your ladyship should relish any sentiments so much at variance with high birth and good breeding.”

Full lists of contemporary writers will be found in Traill’s volumes on Social England, which as “a record of the progress of the people in Religion, Laws, Learning, Arts, Industry, Commerce, Science, Literature and Manners, from the earliest times to the present day,” meets perhaps the greatest want of the ordinary teacher, to whom no one general history of social progress was before accessible.

(e) Historical pictures.As illustrations there are also historical portraits, contemporary pictures of historic scenes, and pictures of costumes. Most schools now subscribe to the “Art for Schools Association,” and can make a very good portrait gallery of their own. The splendid collection of historical costumes designed by Mr. Lewis Wingfield for the Healtheries can still be seen, I believe, and a few of them have been reproduced by him in a book with descriptive letterpress. Exhibitions, like the Tudor and Stuart, are most valuable to the realisation of history, and visits to historical buildings are within the possibilities of most, and add great zest to many a holiday both for teachers and girls. It is impossible to forget the circumstances of the Dauphin’s coronation at Rheims, after staying where Joan of Arc stayed and standing in the cathedral, where she witnessed the fulfilment of her mission.

(f) Historical poems, Shakspere’s plays, historical novels.Passages from historical poems or from a Shakspere play often add to the interest of a lesson; as the challenge-scene from Richard II., the trial-scene from Henry VIII., Milton’s sonnet on the massacre in Piedmont, Spenser’s Gloriana and the false Duessa for Elizabeth and Mary Queen of Scots. And in quite modern history Mrs. Hamilton King’s Disciples, Swinburne’s Songs before Sunrise, Mrs. Browning’s Peace of Villafranca, all give expression to the passionate longing for freedom of Italy.

Perhaps nothing makes history more real than a good historical novel. Bulwer-Lytton’s Last of the Barons makes the figure of Warwick as lifelike as that of any minister of our own day. Edward IV., Clarence, Richard III. have each their individuality, and so has that shadowy prince who was killed at Tewkesbury, while Isabella Neville stands out for ever distinct from her gentle, timid sister Anne.

John Inglesant gives the very spirit of the Charles I. period—cavaliers and ladies coquetting with the classics in the learned Oxford halls, the devotion, even to the death, of the Jesuit-trained John Inglesant, and the midnight apparition of the murdered Strafford to the king, for whom he had laid down his life.

It is quite worth while to put up a list of historical novels bearing on their period, for older as well as for younger classes.

Home-work: (a) Viva-voces.How are we to test the work done by the pupils? Lord Acton quotes from Sir W. Hamilton: “I must regard the main duty of a professor to consist, not simply in communicating information, but in doing this in such a manner and with such an accompaniment of subsidiary means, that the information he conveys may be the occasion of awakening his pupils to a vigorous and varied exertion of their faculties”.

By means of viva-voce questions and paper work, the class should be tested between each lecture. The object of the teacher is to find out with as little expenditure of time as possible, that the work set has been thoroughly done. I know no better means of doing this than by what are called written viva-voces. The teacher prepares two sets of questions called respectively A and B. The alternate girls write the answers to the A and B questions in small exercise books which they keep for the purpose. They rule two margins, the left-hand for the number of the question, the right-hand margin is used by the corrector. Ten minutes can test an hour’s lesson. The books are changed so that the Bs correct the work of the As, and have to attend to the answers of the questions they did not do. The teacher repeats aloud the answer to each question. Each corrector signs her name and puts the mark obtained. The teacher, when she looks through the books afterwards, can thus bring home any careless correction to the right person, and anything like favouritism in correcting is prevented. This viva-voce work ensures accurate knowledge of facts, and I have known girls find it sufficiently useful, to continue the same system among themselves after they have gone up to the university.

(b) Essay-writing.The most valuable exercise for the pupil is the writing of essays. These may begin on a subject already dealt with in class (care being taken that the essay is not a reproduction of notes of the lesson), but the pupil will soon be trained to read and think out for herself subjects which she has not previously heard discussed. She will learn experimentally what Lord Acton calls, “those shining precepts which are the registered property of every school, that is to say, learn as much by writing as by reading; be not content with the best books, seek sidelights from the others; have no favourites; keep men and things apart; guard against the prestige of great names; see that your judgments are your own and do not shrink from disagreement; no trusting without testing; be more severe to ideas than to actions; do not overlook the strength of the bad cause or the weakness of the good”.

The giving back of the essays ought to be a very valuable lesson. Happy passages should be read aloud, weak passages criticised, each paper estimated as a whole, and the pupil ought to leave the class, feeling that if the work were to be done again, she at least understands the general drift of the subject and could treat it more adequately than before.

I venture to illustrate my meaning, the subject set being a discussion of the policy of Francis I. in his relations with Charles V. The essay should show that Francis I., like his predecessors in the Italian expeditions, Charles VIII. and Louis XII., failed to realise in what direction lay the true interests of France, with regard to the new problem of balance of power. By entering into personal rivalry with Charles and striving for territorial conquest in Italy, Francis lost the opportunity which should have belonged to France, of controlling the European situation. If he had only been content with securing gateways into Italy and making alliances with the northern Italians and German Protestant princes against Imperial encroachments, he would have gained the casting vote in European affairs and have held the key to the problem, which it was not permitted to France, till the time of Richelieu, to solve.

Post-school work.A word or two as to the way in which the teacher can help her old pupils to read history. There are a fortunate few who pass on to the universities. An increasing number can attend University Extension lectures and become members of a local Students’ Association. But it is those who are not within reach of any local organisation, who are glad of a little help. To these, when they first leave school, an old girls’ Reading Society is generally welcome. The regular reading it requires is a training in methodical arrangement of time, and schemes of reading, with plenty of choice, are a help to those who have hitherto had all their intellectual work arranged for them. Teachers have sometimes found it possible to take up parties to the Summer Extension meetings. Parents are willing to let their daughters go with responsible guardians, and the preparatory reading is a great interest, besides the stimulus that the lectures themselves give to subsequent work at home.

Conclusion.The educational value of historical study does not belong to this paper, but I end by quoting three passages, which are full of encouragement to the teacher of history. They are referred to by Lord Acton in his famous lecture at Cambridge.

“The study of modern history is, next to theology itself and only next in so far as theology rests on a divine revelation, the most thoroughly religious training that the mind can receive.” (Bishop Stubbs.)

“History is full of indirect but very effective moral teaching. It is not only, as Bolingbroke called it, philosophy teaching by examples, but it is morality teaching by examples. It is essentially the study which best helps the student to conceive large thoughts. It is impossible to overvalue the moral teaching of history.” (Sir J. Fitch.)

“The object (in history teaching) is to lead the student to ... take interest in history not as a mere narrative, but as a chain of causes and effects, still unwinding itself before our eyes and full of momentous consequences to himself and his descendants, an unremitting conflict between good and evil powers, of which every act done by any one of us, insignificant as we are, forms one of the incidents, a conflict in which even the smallest of us cannot escape from taking part, in which whoever does not help the right side is helping the wrong.” (Mill. Inaugural Address.)

SPECIMEN SYLLABUS OF ENGLISH HISTORY.

Foreign Policy of Elizabeth.

Introductory.—Keynote of the period; dynastic alliances. Power of House of Hapsburg built up on political marriages, even England threatened with absorption by the Hapsburgs, as a consequence of Mary Tudor’s marriage to Philip, and though Mary’s death made “a great rent in the Hapsburg net, in which England was enmeshed” (Seeley), yet Philip long struggled to re-establish the Hapsburg dominion in England, and this, according to the fashion of the time, by marriage. “Courtships of Queen Elizabeth” begin January, 1559; Philip offers his hand to Elizabeth: “The more I reflect on this business, the more clearly I see that all will turn on the husband which this woman will choose” (De Feria). Other suitors in Hapsburg interest, Philibert of Savoy, Archdukes Ferdinand and Charles—Elizabeth encourages Hapsburg suitors—could thus keep English Catholics in hand in spite of innovations, and get better terms from France in Treaty of Cateau Cambrésis, April, 1559, France believing her supported by Spain. But England’s safety from Hapsburgs largely due to her danger from Valois. The Valois had secured Scotland, and claimed England through marriage of Mary and Francis. For Philip to overthrow Elizabeth would mean to clear the way for Mary of Scots: it was not till he could come as Mary’s heir, that he openly made war on England.

Period I. The Scotch Period, 1558-1567.

(i.) 1558-1564, in which a Basis is laid for the Union of England and Scotland.

England and Scotland both under queens; both had to choose between a power based upon the wishes of the nation, and a power supported by foreign help. Elizabeth chose a national position: “took a course visibly full of danger, a course in which success was only possible by courage and heroic endurance, but in which success, if it came, might be splendid, and might raise the nation itself to greatness”. Mary, on the contrary, brought her subjects under a foreign yoke. Since Mary of Guise’s regency was a High Catholic rule, the Reformation in Scotland took the form of a national movement, and the national party turned towards England for help. “The first achievement of Elizabethan policy lay in this, that she called out a great Reformation party in England and Scotland at once, and thus laid the foundation of the union of England and Scotland.” Elizabeth’s self-justification in helping subjects against their sovereign: that she was maintaining national independence against a foreign power. Arran becomes Elizabeth’s suitor in Protestant interest. January, 1560—Treaty of Berwick—importance. Elizabeth “put herself at the head of the national religious movement in Scotland”; “in consideration of the attempt to annex Scotland to the French crown, she promised to aid the Scotch to drive out the foreign invaders”. Success of Elizabeth’s policy; French troops recalled. July—Treaty of Edinburgh ends the government of Scotland by the French; December—death of Francis II. severs the union of French and Scotch crowns. 1561—Return of Mary to Scotland; she refuses to ratify the Treaty of Edinburgh, and sets to work to build up an Anglo-Scotch party in the interest of the Counter-Reformation.

(ii.) 1565-1567, in which the Danger is of the Union of England and Scotland under Mary against Elizabeth.

1565—Marriage of Mary and Darnley—importance: Mary puts herself definitely at the head of the Catholic party in England. 1567—Murder of Darnley; marriage with Bothwell; Lochleven; battle of Langside; collapse of Counter-Reformation in Great Britain; prospect in James of a solution for England of both problems of succession and religion.

Period II. The French Period, 1567-1585.

Danger lest France or Spain, or both, make war on England to release Mary and secure the Catholic succession, but hands of both tied at home, and Elizabeth’s efforts directed to keeping them so. To that end, sends help to Huguenots in Wars of Religion, and to the revolted Netherlands.

France alarmed by victory of Lepanto (1571), makes advances to England. Courtship of Anjou, 1570-72, and of Alençon, 1572-84. “Matters were indeed in a critical position for England; the Ridolfi plot was brewing, the English Catholic nobles in a ferment, and the Pope, Philip, the League and the Guises ready to turn their whole power to the destruction of Elizabeth.” 1572—Treaty of Blois, pledging Charles IX. and Elizabeth to give informal aid to the revolted Netherlands. The St. Bartholomew; marriage negotiations interrupted. 1574—Don John, Governor of the Netherlands, grasps the necessity of the overthrow of Elizabeth as a preliminary to reducing the Netherlands, and aims at himself marrying the Queen of Scots and securing England. “The true remedy for the evil condition of the Netherlands ... is that England should be in the power of a person devoted and well affectioned to your Majesty’s service.” 1575—The Netherlands offer sovereignty of Holland and Zealand to Elizabeth; she declines. 1578—Flemish appeal to Alençon to lead them; he accepts in reliance on England; Elizabeth’s policy is that Alençon shall be under English, not French, patronage, and she poses before Europe as his affianced bride. 1579 and 1581—He visits England for supplies. 1582—Alençon invested with sovereignty of the Netherlands; Elizabeth’s connection emphasised by presence of Leicester and Sir P. Sidney. 1584—Alençon expelled from Netherlands; his death. “Elizabeth had begun her long marriage juggle in 1559 in hourly danger of being overwhelmed and crushed by her own Catholic subjects in union with one or other of her great continental neighbours. She ended it in 1583, triumphant all along the line, with both her rivals crippled and distracted, whilst she really held the balance of peace and war of Europe in her hands.”

Period III. The Spanish Period, 1585-1603.

(i.) To 1596, when England, France and the Netherlands fight Spain either Separately or in a Concert which is secret.

Counter-Reformation in France represented by the League, the anti-dynastic party; Pact de Joinville between Philip and the League, after murder of William of Orange, for extirpation of heresy in France and the Netherlands; importance of 1585 in English policy; Alençon gone, Elizabeth must act openly if Netherlands are to be saved. Only military movement as yet helping Scotch in 1561. With 1585 begins what is meant by the “Elizabethan Age”. Pause to estimate Elizabeth’s policy. Froude finds no clue but inconsistency—really a consistent inconsistency. Seeley’s estimate: “There are emergencies in which a persistent abstinence from action, a kind of resolute irresolution, is the only sound policy.... Everything at her accession was in a sort of suspense. Whether the nation was Catholic or Protestant, by what title she herself reigned, who would be her own successor, and whom she should marry—all was undefined.” Elizabeth really understood popular government; she gave her people twenty-six years of peace, in which they learnt to know themselves and what they wanted. 1585—Siege of Antwerp; Netherlands in extremity; offer sovereignty to Elizabeth; she refuses; Philip tries intimidation by wholesale arrest of British sailors; war inevitable. Leicester’s expedition; his blunders; fall of Antwerp; Zutphen; Elizabeth also lets loose her “Knight of the Ocean”; Drake’s expeditions, 1577, 1585, 1587; execution of Mary Queen of Scots. “The execution of Mary Stuart in the greatest degree, and the campaign of Leicester in a secondary degree, together with the adventurous voyages of Drake, brought on the open war between Elizabeth and Philip.” 1588—Armada; causes of failure: (a) superiority of English ships and English sailors; (b) English guns heavier and better served; (c) unfavourable winds causing delay and then destruction; (d) unfitness of Parma for command. “But all said and done, the victory was one of men and tactics more than materials.” “The Armada was not defeated by a storm, but at Gravelines, on Monday, 29th July; and the enterprise was defeated when Parma failed to bring up his flotilla.” Results of Armada: (a) gave England a new position in Europe; (b) secured her from danger of future invasion, and consequently (c) enabled Elizabeth to turn her attention to the divisions that weakened the English Church; (d) gave the nation leisure for the struggle between Crown and Parliament, which only ended with William III. 1589—Elizabeth’s Counter-Armada; Drake’s advice, “better cheap” than awaiting renewed attack. Spain’s power broken, the religious question is fought out on a new battle-ground; succession struggle in France; League helped by Spain against Henry of Navarre; Arques; Ivry. 1591—English forces under Essex to help Henry of Navarre. 1595—Henry publishes declaration of war against Spain.

(ii.) 1596-1598. France, England and Netherlands united in a Formal Coalition of one Catholic and two Protestant Powers against the Counter-Reformation.

1596—Elizabeth makes a formal alliance offensive and defensive with Henry IV. and the States against Spain, and sends expedition under Howard and Essex against Cadiz; the “Trafalgar of the Elizabethan War” (Laughton). 1597—Essex and Raleigh make the “Island voyage” against Spain.

(iii.) 1598-1603. Coalition Dissolved. Philip III. against Elizabeth and Netherlands.

1598—Henry IV. deserts his allies and makes peace with Spain in Treaty of Vervins. Philip III. continues war against Elizabeth in order to use Ireland—in revolt—as basis of operations for the Counter-Reformation against England. Danger from Ireland increased by treason of Essex. 1602—Spanish expedition lands in Ireland; joins Tyrone against Kinsale; defeated by Mountjoy. 1603—Elizabeth increasingly hostile towards Spain till her death.

Results of Elizabeth’s Policy.

1. She gave England twenty-six years of peace, in spite of the distracted state of things abroad, and by this means (a) the religious question, (b) the succession question, were settled without civil war.

2. By creating a new mental atmosphere, she gave England a new national temper, which found expression in a national poetry. Shakspere’s “jubilant patriotism”:—

—K. John.

—K. Richard II.

And the passionate devotion to Elizabeth as the embodiment of the national greatness:—

—K. Henry VIII.

Elizabeth the Gloriana of Spenser.

3. She saved England from absorption by Spain or France, and from fear of future invasion.

4. She created the monarchy of Great Britain by laying the basis of union between England and Scotland.

5. She made England insular, but counterbalanced the disadvantages of insularity by encouraging maritime expansion.

SYLLABUS OF LESSON ON RICHELIEU.

1610. Louis XIII.

Difficulties of Regent Mary de Medici. “The day of Kings is past, that of Grandees and Princes has arrived.” Her Spanish policy. Concini.

1614. States-General, last of old Régime. Louis assumes government. Fall of Concini. Rise of De Luynes. Queen Mother becomes centre of disaffection. Guise. Bouillon. Mayenne. Epernon. Huguenots.

1622. Peace of Montpellier. Huguenots have only Rochelle and Montauban.

1624. Entrance into power of Richelieu.

RICHELIEU. Born a leader of men. Genius of conception, force of will. Ideal, absolutism. Obstacle, feudal nobility; destroys their political vitality by increasing power of monarchy. 1. Substitutes Intendants for great Governors of Provinces. 2. Destroys feudal strongholds. 3. Brings nobles under the law; duelling, Montmorency; peculation, Marshal de Marillac; conspiracy, Cinq Mars. 4. States-General never meet. 5. Parlements restricted to judicial duties. 6. Heavy taxation. Cultivates three powerful alliances: 1. Men of letters; 2. Favour of commons; 3. Love of national glory.

Foreign Policy. To substitute influence of France in Europe for Austro-Spanish power. Founder of an “occidental” policy. Two things necessary: 1. Balance of power; 2. Mutual religious toleration. Difficulties at home: 1. Spanish sympathies of Anne of Austria; 2. Huguenot struggles for independence.

Periods of Richelieu’s Rule.

I. The Valtelline Period, 1624-26. Richelieu enters European politics. Importance of Valtelline as connecting link between Austro-Spanish dominions. Seized in defiance of Treaty. Interference of Richelieu. Huguenot revolt. T. Montpellier pacifying them while he concludes Valtelline question in T. Monzon.

II. Period of La Rochelle, 1626-28. Richelieu crushes all opposition at home to clear his way for decisive interference abroad. “La conspiration des Dames.” Vendome in Brittany. 1627. Buckingham’s expedition to Rhé. 1629. Fall of La Rochelle and Montauban.

III. Period of absolute supremacy at home, 1629-35. Re-enters European politics, but only as a secondary power, in Thirty Years’ War. France acts again in Italy. Succession in Mantua and Montferrat. Valtelline question reopened, and again settled in favour of France. Day of Dupes, 11th Nov., 1630. T. of Cherasco, 1631. Intrigues of Gaston of Orleans with enemy. Richelieu acts with Gustavus Adolphus, the “Protestant Crusader”. Interests of France move to Lorraine border. Death of Gustavus indirect advantage to France. Richelieu’s terms with Bernard of Weimar. 1635. France declares war against Spain.

IV. Period of France’s supremacy in Europe, 1635-43. 1636. Recovery of Corbie from Spanish. 1638. B. Rheinfeld. Fall of Brisach. 1639. Death of Bernard of Weimar. “Turning point of the contest,” from a useful ally was becoming a dangerous rival. Richelieu secures Alsace. Conspiracy of Cinq Mars.

1642. Death of Richelieu. Rise of Mazarin.

LIST OF BOOKS.

The following lists have been drawn up with the help of several teachers of history, and are intended for the practical work of the school. They aim at giving the chief authorities for each period, besides other books dealing with special subjects. Where possible, the publisher and price have been given. Those who want more exhaustive lists and desire original authorities can find them in the syllabuses of the University Extension Lectures.

The historical stories have been chosen from lists furnished by pupils.

Text-books.

Gardiner. Student’s History. Longmans. 4/- a volume.

Vol. i., to 1509; vol. ii., 1509-1689; vol. iii., 1689-1885.

J. F. Bright. History of England. Longmans.

Vol. i., “Mediæval Monarchy,” 449-1485 (4/6); vol. ii., “Personal Monarchy,” 1485-1688 (5/-); vol. iii., “Constitutional Monarchy,” 1689-1837 (7/6).

Ransome. An Advanced History of England. Rivingtons. 7/6.

Acland and Ransome. Analysis of English History. Longmans. 6/-.

D. Beale. Text-book of English and General History. Bell & Daldy. 2/6.

Taswell-Langmead. Constitutional History. Stevens & Hayes. 15/-.

D. Beale. Student’s Chronological Maps (Charts). Bell & Daldy. 3/6.

Gardiner. Student’s Historical Atlas. Longmans. 5/-.

F. W. Putzger. Historischer Schul-Atlas. Bielefeld and Leipzig. Verlag von Velhagen und Klasing. 2 marks.

Period 1066-1272—

Stubbs. Constitutional History. Frowde. Clarendon Press. 12/- each volume.

Vol. i., to 1215; vol. ii., 1215-1399.

J. R. Green. History of the English People, vol. i. Macmillan. 16/-.

— The Making of England. Macmillan. 16/-.

— The Conquest of England. Macmillan. 18/-.

Freeman. History of the Norman Conquest. Macmillan. 36/-.

Lingard. History of England, vols. i. and ii. Duffy. Set of 10 vols. £1 10/-.

Kate Norgate. England under the Angevin Kings. 2 vols. Macmillan. £1 12/-.

Mrs. J. R. Green. Henry II. (Twelve English Statesmen). Macmillan. 2/6.

O. H. Richardson. National Movement under Henry III. Macmillan. 6/6.

Stubbs. Early Plantagenets (Epochs). Longmans. 2/6.

Cox. Crusades (Epochs). Longmans. 2/6.

Traill. Social England, vol. i. Cassell. 15/-.

Thorold Rogers. History of Agriculture and Prices, vols. i. and ii. Clarendon Press. £2 2/-.

Hunt. English Church in the Middle Ages. Longmans. 2/6.

Stubbs. Introductions to (a) Gesta Henrici II.: Benet of Peterbro; (b) Roger of Hoveden (for foreign policy) (Rolls Series).

W. H. Hutton. - St. Thomas of Canterbury. David Nutt. 1/-.

Misrule of Henry III. David Nutt. 1/-.

Simon de Montfort. David Nutt. 1/-.

In English History from Contemporary Writers Series.

De Joinville. Saint Louis. Chronicle (translated by James Hutton). Sampson Low. 2/6.

Period 1272-1399—

Stubbs. Constitutional History, vol. ii. Clarendon Press. 12/-.

Green. History of the English People, vol. i. Macmillan. 16/-.

Lingard. History of England, vols. ii. and iii. Duffy. 10 vols. £1 10/-.

Author of “The Greatest of the Plantagenets.” Life and Reign of Edward I. Seeley Jackson. 6/-.

Tout. Edward I. (Twelve English Statesmen). Macmillan. 2/6.

Longman. Life and Times of Edward III. Longmans. 2 vols. 28/-.

Traill. Social England, vol. ii. Cassell. 15/-.

Burton. History of Scotland. Blackwood. 8 vols. £3 3/-.

Oman. Art of War (Hundred Years’ War). Fisher Unwin. 17/6.

Wakeman. History of the Church of England. Rivingtons. 6/-.

Stubbs. Early Plantagenets (Epochs). Longmans. 2/6.

Poole. Wycliffe and Early Movements for Reform. Longmans. 2/6.

Freeman. Historical Essays. 1st series, Essay on Edward I. Macmillan. 10/6.

Jusserand. English Wayfaring Life in the Middle Ages. Fisher Unwin. 7/6.

Ashley. Economic History. Longmans. Part i., 5/-; part ii., 10/6.

Shakspere. Play of Richard II.

Froissart. Chronicles.

Chaucer. Canterbury Tales.

Langland. Piers Plowman.

Period 1399-1485—

Stubbs. Constitutional History, vol. iii. Clarendon Press. 12/-.

Green. History of the English People, vols. i. and ii. Macmillan. 16/- each vol.

Lingard. History of England, vols. iii. and iv. Duffy & Sons. 10 vols. £1 10/-.

Ramsay. Lancaster and York. Clarendon Press. £1 16/-.

Wylie. England under Henry IV. Longmans. 4 vols. 10/6, 15/-, 15/-, £1 1/-.

Church. Henry V. (Men of Action Series). Macmillan. 2/6.

Gairdner. Richard III. Longmans (out of print). 10/-.

Oman. Warwick (Men of Action Series). Macmillan. 2/6.

Stubbs. Lectures on the Study of Medieval and Modern History. Clarendon Press. 8/6.

Seebohm. Oxford Reformers. Longmans. 14/-.

Traill. Social England, vol. ii. Cassell. 15/-.

Gairdner. Lancaster and York (Epochs). Longmans. 2/6.

James Gairdner. Paston Letters. Constable. 16/-.

Fortescue. Governance of England (edited Plummer). Clarendon Press. 12/6.

Shakspere. Plays: Henry IV., Henry V., Henry VI.

Tudor Period, 1485-1603—

York Powell and Tout. Text-book, History of England (Henry VIII. to William III.). Longmans. 2/6.

Lingard. History of England, vols. iv., v., vi. Duffy & Sons. 10 vols. £1 10/-.

Green. History of the English People, vol. ii. Macmillan. 16/-.

Froude. History of England from the Fall of Wolsey to the Armada. Longmans. 12 vols. 3/6 each.

Hallam. History of England (Constitutional). Murray. 7/6.

Busch. England under the Tudors. Innes & Co. 16/-.

Gairdner. Henry VII. (English Statesmen Series). Macmillan. 2/6.

Bacon. Henry VII. (edited Lumby). Cambridge University Press. 2/-.

Brewer. Reign of Henry VIII. Murray. 2 vols. 15/- each.

Beesley. Queen Elizabeth. Macmillan. 2/6.

Creighton. Elizabeth. Boussod. £2 8/-.

— Age of Elizabeth (Epochs). Longmans. 2/6.

— Wolsey (Twelve English Statesmen). Macmillan. 2/6.

Ranke. History of England, vol. ... endon Press. 6 vols. £3 3/-.

Traill. Social England, vols. ii. and iii. Cassell. 15/- each volume.

Stubbs. Lectures on Medieval and Modern History. Clarendon Press. 8/6.

Macaulay. Essays (Burleigh). Longmans. 2/6.

Seeley. Growth of British Policy. Cambridge University Press. 2 vols. 12/-.

Seebohm. Oxford Reformers. Longmans. 14/-.

Wakeman. History of the Church of England. Rivingtons. 6/-.

Burnet. History of the Reformation. Clarendon Press. 7 vols. £1 10/-.

Aubrey Moore. History of the Reformation. Kegan Paul. 16/-.

Froude. English Seamen in the Sixteenth Century. Longmans. 6/-.

Hume. Courtships of Queen Elizabeth. Fisher Unwin. 12/-.

— The Year after the Armada. Fisher Unwin. 12/-.

— Walter Raleigh. Fisher Unwin. 5/-.

— Philip II. (Foreign Statesmen). Macmillan. 2/6.

Cunningham. English Industry and Commerce. Pitt Press. Vol. i., 13/4; vol. ii., 15/-.

H. Hall. Society in the Elizabethan Age. Sonnenschein. 10/6.

Berville. The Story of the Chevalier Bayard (Chronicle). Friswell. 2/6.

Stuarts and Commonwealth, 1603-1660—

Cordery and Philpotts. King and Commonwealth (text-book). Seeley. 5/-.

Gardiner. History of England, 1603-1642. Longmans. 10 vols. 6/- each.

— History of the Great Civil War, 1642-1649. Longmans. 4 vols. 6/- each.

Lingard. History of England, vols. vii. and viii. Duffy & Sons. 10 vols. £1 10/-.

Green. History of the English People, vol. iii. Macmillan. 16/-.

Ranke. History of England, vols. i., ii., iii. Clarendon Press. 6 vols. £3 3/-.

Hallam. Constitutional History. Murray. 7/6.

Guizot. History of the English Revolution. Bohn. 3/6.

— Life of Oliver Cromwell. Bentley. 6/-.

Frederic Harrison. Cromwell (Twelve English Statesmen). Macmillan. 2/6.

Traill. Social England, vol. iv. Cassell. 17/-.

Sanford. Studies and Illustrations of the Great Rebellion. John Parker. 16/-.

Forster. Sir John Eliot. Longmans (out of print).

— Grand Remonstrance. Murray. 12/-.

Church. Bacon (English Men of Letters). Macmillan. 1/-.

Carlyle. Cromwell’s Letters and Speeches. Chapman & Hall. 2/6.

W. H. Hutton. William Laud (Leaders of Religion Series). Methuen. 3/6.

Ottley. Lancelot Andrewes (Leaders of Religion Series). Methuen. 3/6.

Lady Verney. Memoirs of the Verney Family. Longmans. 2 vols., 42/-; vol. iii., 21/-.

The Later Stuarts, 1660-1714—

Hale. Fall of the Stuarts (Epochs). Longmans. 2/6.

Morris. Age of Anne. Longmans. 2/6.

Lingard. History of England, vols. ix., x. (ends 1689). Duffy. 10 vols. £1 10/-.

Ranke. History of England, vols. iii., iv., v. (use for foreign policy). Clarendon Press. £3 3/-.

Macaulay. History of England. Longmans. 5/-.

Hallam. Constitutional History. Murray. 7/6.

Lecky. History of England in the 18th Century. Longmans. 7 vols. 6/- each.

Green. History of the English People, vols. iii. and iv. Macmillan. 16/- a vol.

Traill. William III. (Twelve English Statesmen). Macmillan. 2/6.

Stanhope. Reign of Queen Anne. Murray. 16/-.

Wyon. History of Great Britain during the Reign of Queen Anne. Chapman & Hall (out of print). 2 vols. £1 12/-.

Leslie Stephen. Swift (Men of Letters Series). Macmillan. 1/-.

Swift. Conduct of the Allies. Various.

Hassall. Bolingbroke (Statesmen Series). W. H. Allen. 2/6.

Macaulay. Essays (Temple). Longmans. 2/6.

Evelyn. Diary (Chandos Classics). Warne. 1/6.

Traill. Social England, vol. iv. Cassell. 17/-.

Burnet. History of His Own Times. Clarendon Press. 9/6.

Anson. Law and Custom of the Constitution. Clarendon Press. Vol. i., 12/6; vol. ii., 14/-.

Hodder. Shaftesbury. Cassell. 3/6.

Hanoverian Period, 1714-1815—

Skottowe. Our Hanoverian Kings. Sampson Low. 3/6.

Lecky. History of England in the 18th Century. Longmans. 7 vols. 6/- each.

Stanhope. History of England (to 1783). Murray. 9 vols. 5/- each.

Green. History of the English People, vol. iv. Macmillan. 16/-.

Erskine May. Constitutional History (from George III.). Longmans. 3 vols. 18/-.

Hallam. Constitutional History. Murray. 7/6.

Ranke. History of England, vol. v. Clarendon Press. £3 3/-.

Seeley. Expansion of England. Macmillan. 4/6.

Traill. Social England, vol. v. Cassell. 17/-.

Morley. Walpole (Twelve English Statesmen). Macmillan. 2/6.

Macaulay. Essays (Clive, Hastings). Longmans. 2/6.

Morley. Chatham (Twelve English Statesmen). Macmillan. 2/6.

Not yet published.

Rosebery. Pitt (Twelve English Statesmen). Macmillan. 2/6.

Montagu Burrows. British Foreign Policy. Blackwood. 6/-.

Mahan. Influence of Sea Power on History. Sampson Low. 15/-.

Burke. Thoughts on the Present Discontents. Clarendon Press. 4/6.

— Reflections on the French Revolution. Clarendon Press. 5/-.

Also cheaper editions.

Carlyle. French Revolution. Chapman & Hall. 2 vols. 2/6 a vol.

Also cheaper issues.

Thos. Wright. Caricature History of the Georges. Hotten. 6/6.

LIST OF HISTORICAL NOVELS AND TALES AND POEMS Illustrating the Period 1066 to 1815.

Period 1066-1272—

Kingsley. Hereward the Wake (Last Struggle of the English). Macmillan. 3/6.

Lytton. Harold. Routledge. 2/-.

M. M. Blake. Siege of Norwich Castle (Struggle of the English). Seeley. 5/-.

Henty. Wulff the Saxon (written for boys). Blackie. 6/-.

— Winning his Spurs (written for boys) (Crusades). S. Low. 2/6.

Macfarlane. Camp of Refuge (Hereward). Constable. 3/6.

Sir W. Scott. Count Robert of Paris (First Crusade). Black. 1/6.

— The Betrothed (Henry II.). Black. 1/6.

— The Talisman (Richard and Saladin). Black. 1/6.

— Ivanhoe (Richard Cœur de Lion). Black. 1/6.

C. M. Yonge. The Constable’s Tower (King John). National Society. 3/-.

— The Prince and the Page (Edward I.). Macmillan. 3/6.

— The Little Duke (Richard the Fearless of Normandy). Macmillan. 2/6.

These are children’s books.

G. P. R. James. Philip Augustus (Struggle with King John). Warne. -/6.

Tennyson. Harold: a drama.

— Becket: a drama.

Period 1272-1399—

Jane Porter. The Scottish Chiefs (1296-1314). Routledge. 2/-.

Grace Aguilar. The Days of Bruce. Nisbet. 2/-.

Mary Peard. Prentice Hugh (Edward I.). National Society. 3/6.

M. Everett Green. The Lord of Dynevor (Edward I. Wales). Nelson. 2/6.

Sir W. Scott. Castle Dangerous (1306). Black. 1/6.

Henty. In Freedom’s Cause (William Wallace). Blackie. 6/-.

C. M. Yonge. The Lances of Lynwood (Black Prince in Spain). Macmillan. 2/6.

Henty. St. George for England (Crecy, Poitiers). Blackie. 5/-.

Conan Doyle. The White Company (Black Prince in France). Smith & Elder. 6/-.

E. Mitchell. The Golden Horseshoes (Chivalry. Edward III.). Masters. 5/-.

Everett Green. In the Days of Chivalry (Black Prince). Nelson & Sons. 5/-.

Henty. A March on London (Wat Tyler). Blackie. 5/-.

— The Lion of St. Mark (Venice). Blackie. 6/-.

Lytton. Rienzi (Last Tribune, 1354). Routledge. 3/6.

Sir W. Scott. Lord of the Isles (Bruce).

Period 1399-1485—

James. Agincourt (1415). Warne. -/6.

Henty. At Agincourt. Blackie. 6/-.

Mark Twain. Joan of Arc (serious). Chatto & Windus. 6/-.

Author of “Schönberg Cotta Family”. Joan the Maid. Nelson. 4/-.

Andrew Lang. The Monk of Fife (Joan of Arc). Longmans. 3/6.

Mrs. Oliphant. Joan of Arc. Putnam. 5/-.

Sir W. Scott. The Fair Maid of Perth (Murder of Rothsay). Black. 1/6.

C. M. Yonge. The Caged Lion (James I. of Scotland). Macmillan. 3/6.

Miss Wilbraham. For and Against (Wars of the Roses) (out of print).

C. M. Yonge. Grisly Grisell (Wars of the Roses). Macmillan. 3/6.

Lady G. Fullerton. A Stormy Life (Margaret of Anjou). Burns & Oates. 6/-.

C. M. Yonge. Two Penniless Princesses. Macmillan. 3/6.

Sir W. Scott. Anne of Geierstein (Margaret of Anjou). Black. 1/6.

Lytton. Last of the Barons (Warwick the King Maker). Routledge. 3/6.

H. Ainsworth. The Star Chamber (Henry VII.). Various.

Author of “The Spanish Brothers”. Crushed yet Conquering (John Huss). Religious Tract Society. 6/-.

Sir W. Scott. Quentin Durward (Louis XI. and the Scottish Guard). Black. 1/6.

G. P. R. James. Mary of Burgundy (1477). Warne. -/6.

Period 1485-1603—

Harrison Ainsworth. The Star Chamber. Routledge. 2/-.

Everett Green. Evil May Day (1517). Nelson. 2/6.

— The Church and the King (Dissolution of the Monasteries). Nelson. 5/-.

A. Manning. The Household of Sir Thomas More (Diary of Margaret Roper). Hall. 2/6.

Harrison Ainsworth. Windsor Castle (Henry VIII.). Routledge. 2/-.

C. M. Yonge. The Armourer’s Prentices (Divorce). Macmillan. 3/6.

Mark Twain. The Prince and the Pauper (Edward VI.). Chatto. 3/6.

Stanley Weyman. Francis Cludde (Mary Tudor). Cassell. 6/-.

Harrison Ainsworth. Tower of London (Lady J. Grey). Routledge. 2/-.

Kingsley. Westward Ho! (Elizabeth’s Seadogs). Macmillan. 2/6.

Sir W. Scott. The Monastery (Murray’s Regency). Black. 1/6.

— The Abbot (Loch Leven). Black. 1/6.

— Kenilworth (Amy Robsart). Black. 1/6.

Whyte Melville. The Queen’s Maries (Mary of Scots). Longmans. 1/6.

Eliza Pollard. A Gentleman of England (Sir P. Sidney). Addison. 5/-.

C. M. Yonge. Unknown to History (Mary of Scots in Captivity). Macmillan. 3/6.

Everett Green. Loyal Hearts and True (Queen Elizabeth). Nelson. 5/-.

Henty. Under Drake’s Flag. Blackie. 6/-.

— St. Bartholomew’s Eve. Blackie. 6/-.

Robert Leighton. Under the Foeman’s Flag (Armada). Melrose. 3/6.

Mrs. Marshall. Penshurst Castle (Sir P. Sidney). Seeley. 5/-.

Hon. E. Lawless. With Essex in Ireland. Smith, Elder. 6/-.

— Maelcho (Irish Rising of 1579). Smith, Elder. 6/-.

Kingsley. Plays and Puritans (Essays). Macmillan. 3/6.

Reed. Sir Ludar (Ireland. Queen Elizabeth). Sampson Low. 2/6.

Charles Reade. The Cloister and the Hearth (for Picture of Middle Ages. Erasmus). Chatto. 3/6.

Mrs. Charles. The Schönberg Cotta Family (Luther). Nelson. 3/6.

Author of “Mdlle. Mori”. In the Olden Time (Peasant War in Germany, 1525). Longmans. 2/6.

C. M. Yonge. The Dove in the Eagle’s Nest (Maximilian). Macmillan. 3/6.

G. Eliot. Romola (Savonarola). Blackwood. 3/6.

Yeats. The Honour of Savelli (Cæsar Borgia). Sampson Low. 2/6.

Grace Aguilar. Vale of Cedars (Ferdinand and Isabella). Groombridge. 5/-.

Gordon Stables. Westward with Columbus. Blackie. 5/-.

Author of “Dark Year of Dundee”. The Spanish Brothers (Persecutions). Nelson. 4/-.

Henty. By Pike and Dyke (Netherlands). Blackie. 6/-.

— By England’s Aid (Netherlands). Blackie. 6/-.

Liefde. The Beggars (Netherlands). Hodder. 3/6.

Everett Green. Shut In (Siege of Antwerp, 1585). Nelson. 5/-.

Stanley Weyman. The House of the Wolf (St. Bartholomew). Longmans. 3/6.

C. M. Yonge. The Chaplet of Pearls (St. Bartholomew). Macmillan. 3/6.

Stanley Weyman. A Gentleman of France (Henry III. and the League). Longmans. 6/-.

James. Henry of Guise (the States of Blois. League Times). Routledge. 2/-.

Sir W. Scott. Marmion (a tale of Flodden Field).

— The Lady of the Lake (James V. and Douglas).

— The Lay of the Last Minstrel (1557).

Tennyson. Columbus: a poem.

— Queen Mary: a drama.

— The Revenge: a Ballad of the Fleet.

Period 1603-1660—

Sir Walter Scott. The Fortunes of Nigel (Court of James I.). Black. 1/6.

— A Legend of Montrose (Montrose and Argyle, 1645). Black. 1/6.

— Woodstock (Cavaliers and Roundheads). Black. 1/6.

Harrison Ainsworth. Guy Fawkes. Routledge. 2/-.

Shorthouse. John Inglesant (perfect Picture of Court of Charles I.). Macmillan. 3/6.

Whyte Melville. Holmby House (Cavaliers and Roundheads). Longmans. 1/6.

Edna Lyall. To Right the Wrong (Cavaliers and Roundheads). Hurst & Blackett. 6/-.

A. J. Church. With the King at Oxford (Charles I.). Seeley. 5/-.

J. S. Fletcher. When Charles the First was King. Bentley. 3 vols. 31/6.

Author of “The Schönberg Cotta Family”. The Draytons and the Davenants (Civil Wars). Nelson & Sons. 3/6.

Wilkie Collins. Hide and Seek (Civil Wars). Chatto. 3/6.

George Macdonald. St. George and St. Michael (Civil Wars. Siege of Raglan Castle). Kegan Paul. 3/6.

Rev. A. D. Crake. Fairleigh Hall (Civil Wars). Mowbray. 2/6.

M. and E. Lee. Rosamond Fane (Escape of Duke of York). Griffith & Farran. 3/6.

Anna Glyn. A Pearl of the Realm (Civil Wars. Nonsuch Palace). Hutchinson. 6/-.

Emma Marshall. A Haunt of Ancient Peace (Little Gidding). Seeley. 5/-.

Edited by Canon Carter. Nicholas Ferrar (not a story; account of Little Gidding). Longmans. 6/-.

— Brave Dame Mary (Siege of Corfe Castle). S.P.C.K. 2/-.

C. M. Yonge. Under the Storm (Cavaliers and Roundheads). National Society. 3/6.

Miss Holt. Ashcliffe Hall (Cavaliers and Roundheads). Silver & Co. 3/6.

Harrison Ainsworth. Boscobel. Routledge. 2/-.

Emma Marshall. The White King’s Daughter (Charles I.). Seeley. 3/6.

Emma Marshall. Under Salisbury’s Spire (George Herbert). Seeley. 5/-.

Marryat. The Children of the New Forest (Cavalier story for children). Routledge. 2/-.

Author of “The Schönberg Cotta Family”. On Both Sides of the Sea (Commonwealth and Restoration). Nelson. 5/-.

D. G. McChesney. Miriam Cromwell’s Royalist. Blackwood & Son. 6/-.

Miss Manning. Mary Powell (Diary of Milton’s Wife). Hall. 2/6.

Field. Ethne (Cromwell in Ireland). Wells, Gardner. 6/-.

Alfred de Vigny. Cinq Mars (in French. Richelieu). Calmann Levy. 2 vols. 8 francs.

G. P. R. James. Richelieu. Warne. -/6.

Stanley Weyman. Under the Red Robe (Richelieu). Methuen. 6/-.

— My Lady Rotha (Thirty Years’ War). Innes. 6/-.

Henty. The Lion of the North (Gustavus Adolphus). Blackie. 6/-.

Sir W. Scott. Rokeby (Marston Moor).

Browning. Strafford.

Period 1660-1714—

Sir Walter Scott. Old Mortality (Lauderdale and Claverhouse). Black. 1/6.

— Peveril of the Peak (Popish Plot). Black. 1/6.

— The Bride of Lammermoor (1700). Black. 1/6.

— The Black Dwarf (Jacobites). Black. 1/6.

Austin Clare. The Carved Cartoon (Plague and Great Fire). S.P.C.K. 3/-.

Henty. When London Burned. (Plague and Great Fire). Blackie. 5/-.

Harrison Ainsworth. Old St. Paul’s. (Plague and Great Fire). Routledge. 2/-.

Miss Manning. Cherry and Violet (Plague and Great Fire). Nimmo. 6/-.

Anthony Hope. Simon Dale (Treaties of Dover). Methuen & Co. 6/-.

Edna Lyall. In the Golden Days (Algernon Sidney). Hurst & Blackett. 6/-.

Emma Marshall. Winchester Meads (Bishop Ken). Seeley. 5/-.

Conan Doyle. Micah Clarke (Monmouth’s Rebellion). Longmans. 3/6.

M. and C. Lee. The Oak Staircase (Monmouth’s Rebellion). Griffith & Farran. 3/6.

Blackmore. Lorna Doone (Monmouth’s Rebellion). S. Low. 2/6.

Walter Besant. For Faith and Freedom (Monmouth’s Rebellion). Chatto. 3/6.

Everett Green. In Taunton Town (Monmouth’s Rebellion). Nelson. 5/-.

A. E. Mason. The Courtship of Maurice Buckler (1685). Macmillan. 6/-.

Mary Peard. To Horse and Away (Charles II.). National Society. 3/6.

Mary Rowsell. Traitor or Patriot (Rye House Plot). Blackie. 3/6.

Stanley Weyman. Shrewsbury (a Romance of the Reign of William III.). Longmans. 6/-.

Henty. Orange and Green (B. Boyne). Blackie. 5/-.

Emma Marshall. Kensington Palace. Seeley. 5/-.

Anon. The Last of the Cavaliers (1688). Bentley. 6/-.

Henty. The Bravest of the Brave (Peterbro in Spain). Blackie. 5/-.

M. Rowsell. Thorndyke Manor (Jacobite). Blackie. 3/6.

Conan Doyle. The Refugees (Revocation of the Edict of Nantes). Longmans. 3/6.

Thackeray. Esmond (Jacobites. Anne’s Reign). Smith, Elder. 1/6.

Period 1714-1815—

Sir W. Scott. Rob Roy (Rising of 1715). Black. 1/6.

— The Heart of Midlothian (Porteous Riots). Black. 1/6.

— Waverley (Rising of 1745). Black. 1/6.

— Guy Mannering (1750). Black. 1/6.

— Red Gauntlet (Jacobites, 1770). Black. 1/6.

— The Antiquary (1798). Black. 1/6.

Henty. Bonny Prince Charlie. Blackie. 6/-.

— A Jacobite Exile (in service of Charles XII. of Sweden). Blackie. 5/-.

— With Frederick the Great (Seven Years’ War). Blackie. 6/-.

— Hold Fast for England (Siege of Gibraltar). Blackie. 5/-.

— With Clive in India. Blackie. 6/-.

— With Wolfe in Canada. Blackie. 6/-.

— In the Reign of Terror. Blackie. 5/-.

— True to the Old Flag (War of American Independence). Blackie. 6/-.

— One of the Twenty-eighth (Waterloo). Blackie. 5/-.

— With Moore at Corunna. Blackie. 6/-.

— Through Russian Snows. Blackie. 5/-.

Walter Besant. Dorothy Forster (Rising of 1715). Chatto. 3/6.

Thackeray. The Four Georges. Smith, Elder. 1/6.

Andrew Lang. Pickle the Spy (Young Glengarry. Ellibank Plot). Longmans. 18/-.

Author of “Atelier du Lys”. Mistress Beatrice Cope (Rising, 1745). Hurst & Blackett. 3/6.

Harrison Ainsworth. Preston Fight. Routledge. 2/-.

Thackeray. The Virginians. Smith, Elder. 5/-.

Author of “The Schönberg Cotta Family”. Diary of Mrs. Kitty Trevylyan (Wesley). Nelson & Sons. 3/6.

— Against the Stream (End of 18th Century). S.P.C.K. 4/-.

Dickens. Barnaby Rudge (Gordon Riots). Chapman & Hall. 2/6.

Walter Besant. The Chaplain of the Fleet (Fleet Marriages). Chatto. 3/6.

Sarah Tytler. The Huguenot Family (Refugees in England). Chatto. 2/-.

Fenimore Cooper. The Last of the Mohicans (English and Americans). Routledge. 2/-.

G. Parker. The Trail of the Sword (French in America). Methuen. 6/-.

Emma Marshall. The Four Reigns (George III. to Victoria). Seeley. 5/-.

— In Colston’s Days (Old Bristol). Seeley. 5/-.

— Under the Mendips (Hannah More). Seeley. 5/-.

Dickens. A Tale of Two Cities (French Revolution). Chapman & Hall. 2/6.

Stanley Weyman. The Red Cockade (French Revolution). Longmans. 6/-.

Author of “Mdlle. Mori”. The Atelier du Lys (French Revolution). Longmans. 2/6.

Harriet Martineau. The Peasant and the Prince (French Revolution). Routledge. 1/6.

M. E. Coleridge. The King with Two Faces (Gustavus III. of Sweden. French Revolution). Edward Arnold. 6/-.

Author of “Mdlle. Mori”. On the Edge of the Storm (French Revolution). Warne. 3/6.

Felix Gras. The Reds of the Midi (French Revolution). Heinemann. 3/6.

Sarah Tytler. Citoyenne Jacqueline (French Revolution). Chatto. 2/-.

Whyte Melville. Sister Louise (French Revolution). Ward, Lock. 2/-.

C. J. A., author of “Good Fight of Faith”. In Palace and Faubourg (French Revolution). Nelson. 5/-.

Author of “Atelier du Lys”. A Child of the Revolution. Longmans. 2/6.

F. M. Peard. Mother Molly (Threatened Invasion of Napoleon). Bell. 5/-.

Conan Doyle. Uncle Bernac (Napoleon). Smith, Elder. 6/-.

— Brigadier Gerard (Napoleon). Newnes. 6/-.

Tolstoi. War and Peace (Napoleon’s Russian Campaign, for teachers). W. Scott. 4 vols. 2/6 a vol.

THE TEACHING OF ANCIENT HISTORY.

By Mary Hanbidge, M.A. (Lond.).

General scope.The importance of history as a school subject has been fully discussed in an earlier section. But “history,” as taught in schools, too often connotes merely English, or, at best, modern history. Hence the necessity of asserting separately the claim of ancient history, though in the very fact that it is not a separate subject, lies its importance.

The progressive development of the human race is a scientific axiom. If we ignore the continuity of history, we tend to base our teaching only on facts, rather than on the laws which form the bond of sequence between them. Thus the sense of historical proportion is never awakened; and the girl so trained may know in detail the history of England, and the history of the Israelites, but has little idea of their relation to the rest of the modern or ancient world. The child of to-day cannot attain to a true understanding of the history and culture of her own nation unless she has some ideas of the civilisation we inherit. The Renaissance is a fact which every text-book emphasises, and every schoolgirl knows; but what does she know of its spirit? How little can she realise the enthusiasm that stirred those “spacious times” if she is an utter stranger to the “glory that was Greece, and the greatness that was Rome”! Again, in neglecting ancient history, we lose sight of the homogeneity of the human race, that oneness which Thucydides felt would make his history not merely a passing record, but a prophecy ες το αει. And in truth the ancient city states grappled with many of the social and political problems of to-day. They are set before us in miniature, we see them in their entirety, and their solution guides or warns us. The influence of capital in politics, the depopulation of country districts, the dangers of a foreign corn supply, the drifting of democracy to socialism, and the treatment of subject races, were questions of as vital importance for Greece and Rome as they are to-day. So true is Dr. Arnold’s paradox that the ancient world is the most modern of all. Thus regarded, ancient history forms a valuable mental training for upper forms, a training which, in the case of girls, is especially useful, since women too often do not realise the modern problems in which they are unconscious factors. A further advantage is the accessibility of the original authorities, even to a school class. Here at least they are not dependent on retrospective theories, but can see how the history of the day impressed the men who made it—a result not so easily obtainable in other branches of history.

General suggestions.To turn to the practical teaching of the subject. From the beginning, the child must be trained to realise that the history of the world is a whole. Throughout the school, ancient and mediæval history should be taught side by side with that of England and Palestine. English history may with advantage be taught in less detail, and time thus secured for the sister subject. In French and German schools this system is definitely adopted; we append a German scheme. If possible, the subject should be in the hands of the same teacher, that the correlation of interest may be duly emphasised. In classes where reading lessons are given, poems, plays, etc., which bear upon the history, should be chosen, and may suggest subjects for composition. A geography lesson should precede the history course, and the importance of geography throughout cannot be overestimated.

Graduated scheme. Course A. Ages 9-10.With young children history proper is an impossibility, but an interest in the life of the past may be awakened very early. The mental development of the child epitomises that of the race, and in the record of a nation mythology precedes history. In the lowest classes of the Cheltenham Ladies’ College a course of stories from Greek mythology has met with marked success. Quite little children know Jason, with his one sandal, as well as they do Cinderella, and Athene is a familiar friend, whose picture they recognise. Cavillers may say that we are only teaching fairy tales, but the same children grown a little older see their Athene the central point of all the glories of Periclean Athens, and find themselves in a world they know.