CLASS I.—MAMMIFEROUS ANIMALS. (continued 2)

ORDER IV.—GLIRES.

68. The COMMON PORCUPINE (Hystrix cristata) is a quadruped, the upper parts of which are covered with quills or spines six or seven inches in length, each variegated with black and white rings; and its head has a crest of smaller spines.

This animal, which is common in exhibitions of wild beasts in this country, and is about two feet in length, is found wild in Spain and Italy, as well as in several parts of Africa, Asia, and America.

In America porcupines are hunted chiefly on account of their quills, which are applied by the Indians to many useful purposes. The women dye them of several beautiful colours, split them into slips, and weave them into bags, belts, baskets, and other articles, the neatness and elegance of which would not disgrace more enlightened artists. The flesh of the porcupine is said to be excellent eating, and, at the Cape of Good Hope, is frequently introduced at the tables even of the principal families.

It was formerly believed that these animals, when attacked, had a means of defending themselves by forcibly darting their quills at the aggressor; but this opinion has been fully refuted. Their principal mode of defence is by throwing themselves on one side, and erecting their spines against the assailant. They live in dens under the ground, and are chiefly in motion during the night, in search of fruit, roots, and other vegetables, which constitute their principal food. Though apparently heavy and inactive animals, they are able to climb even to the tops of the highest trees, with great facility.

69. The BEAVER (Castor fiber, Fig. 25.) is a quadruped, with smooth, glossy, and chesnut-coloured hair; and a flat, oval, and naked tail, marked into scaly divisions, somewhat like the skin of a fish.

These animals inhabit the banks of rivers and lakes in woody and unfrequented parts of the north of Europe, Asia, and America: their general length is betwixt two and three feet.

In ancient times the beaver is supposed to have been found wild in this country, and its skin was so valuable as to constitute the chief and most valuable fur which the island produced. The hair is of two kinds, of which the upper is long and thick; and the lower, or that immediately next to the skin, is of dark brown colour, short, close-set, and as soft as down. In commerce a distinction is made betwixt fresh, dry, and fat beaver' skins. Of these the first are obtained from animals that are killed in the winter; the second sort from those taken during the summer; and the third or fat sort are such as have been carried, for some time, on the bodies of the American Indians, who, as it were, tan the skins with their perspirable matter. It is the fur of the first sort which is chiefly manufactured into hats; but the fat skins are esteemed the most valuable in consequence of the long hairs having been worn off, and the fine downy fur being left perfectly free from them. Each full-grown beaver yields about twenty-four ounces of fur. This, besides hats, is wrought into gloves, caps, stockings, and other articles of dress. The skin of the beaver, as leather, serves for saddles, the upper leathers of shoes, gloves, the covering of trunks, &c. The Russians sell great numbers of these skins to the Chinese, but, probably, the greatest traffic in them is from North America. We may form some idea of the numbers which are exported from that country, when it is stated that more than 50,000 skins have been vended by the Hudson's Bay Company at one sale; and that, in the year 1798, no fewer than 106,000 beavers' skins were collected in Canada, and exported thence into Europe and to China.

Besides their fur these animals furnish a valuable substance, which is known by the name of castor^[1] or castoreum, and is contained in two little bags, called the inguinal glands, each about the size of a hen's egg. This substance is of a brownish oily consistence, has a disagreeable, narcotic smell, and a bitterish, acrid, and nauseous taste. The castor which is imported from Russia is generally esteemed the most valuable; though in many cases that from Hudson's Bay has been found nearly if not fully equal to it. Castor has been long celebrated as a remedy in hysterical complaints; and has been frequently used with advantage in languid habits and constitutions.

The American Indians are partial to the flesh of the beaver, and they use its teeth for the cutting, hollowing, and polishing of wood; they also clothe themselves in beavers' skins, and, in winter, wear them with the hair next to their bodies as a defence against the cold.

Beavers are only found in the most retired situations, always in the immediate neighbourhood of water, and generally in extensive communities.

70. The CHINCHILLA (Muslaniger) is a small quadruped of the rat tribe, which has a beautifully soft grey fur.

The fur of this animal, which is a native of some parts of South America, was formerly used by the Peruvians, as a fine kind of wool, and was spun and woven into stuffs of extremely delicate texture, to which they attached great value. Of late years, however, the manufacture of it has been much neglected. As a fur, the skin of the chinchilla is much in request in this country, in consequence of its having become a fashionable trimming for ladies' dresses, and a favourite article for muffs.

71. The GREY SQUIRREL (Sciurus cinereus) is a quadruped about the size of a rabbit, which has the upper parts of its body grey, and the under parts white. It is found in America, and in some countries of the north of Europe.

The skins of these animals are sometimes used as a fur for the lining of winter garments, and are frequently imported into England, but they are not of much value. As, however, they are very tough, they are tanned and employed in America for many of the purposes of leather, but particularly for the making of ladies' shoes. The Laplanders, in winter, annually make war upon the troops of grey squirrels which are found in some parts of their country. This they do chiefly for the sake of their skins, which they make up into bundles of about forty each. But no merchandize is more liable to deception than this. The purchaser receives them without examination, the skins are packed with the fur inward, and all the bundles are sold at the same price.

In several of the plantations of North America these animals, from their immense numbers, and the devastations they commit, are greatly injurious to the inhabitants. Rewards for their destruction are consequently given; and, in Pennsylvania alone, more than 600,000 of them have, in some years, been destroyed.

The grey squirrels reside chiefly in trees, but lay up stores of provision, for winter, in holes which they dig in the ground. They are extremely agile animals, and run about among the branches with as much facility and security as upon the ground.

72. The BLACK SQUIRREL (Sciurus niger) is a small black quadruped of the squirrel tribe, which is not uncommon in North America and New Spain.

The finest furs which the Iroquois Indians possess are those of black squirrels. These they make into robes and garments, which they sell at a price as high as seven or eight pistoles each.

73. The COMMON HARE (Lepus timidus, Fig. 26) is distinguishable from all other animals of its tribe by the ears being tipped with black, and longer than the head; the hind-legs being half as long as the body, and the tail short.

It is found in every quarter of the world except Africa.

Notwithstanding the great estimation in which the flesh of the hare is now held as food, it was absolutely forbidden by the Druids; and was abhorred by the Britons for many centuries after the abolition of that order. At the present day it is not eaten by the inhabitants of many eastern nations. It is prohibited by the Mahometans and Jews; and the Copts, who have adopted many of the Jewish customs, refrain from it. The ancient Romans, however, considered it so great a delicacy for the table, that Martial styles the hare, in this view, the first of quadrupeds.

The fur of the hare forms an important article in the manufacture of hats, and vast quantities of hares' skins are, for this purpose, annually brought from Russia and Siberia. This is the chief use which we make of them; but, in some parts of the Continent, the fur is spun and woven into a kind of cloth. The inhabitants of Dalecarlia, a province of Sweden, set a peculiar value upon such cloth, from an opinion that it is itself so attractive to fleas as to preserve the wearer from their attacks! The Romans spun the fur both of the hare and rabbit into cloth; but Pliny says that such cloth was neither soft nor durable.

In the extreme northern countries, where the frosts of winter are intense, and where snow lies upon the ground for many successive months, all the hares, at the approach of that season, change their coat, and, instead of retaining a coloured fur, become perfectly white.

The chase of the hare is, at this day, a popular amusement in most parts of England; and four or five centuries ago it was so much followed, that even ladies had hunting parties by themselves, in which they rode astride upon the saddle.

It is sometimes difficult to ascertain the excellence of hares for the table, but the following directions may be of use. When newly killed the body will be stiff, and the flesh of pale colour; but when a hare has been some time killed the body becomes limber, and the flesh gradually turns black. A young hare may be known from an old one, after it is dead, by the bones of the knee joint. If, on thrusting the thumb-nail against this joint, the bones are somewhat separate, the hare is young; if there be no space, it is old; and the greater the separation, the younger the animal may be considered. The under jaw of a young hare may easily be broken, and the ears easily torn; the cleft also of the lip is narrow, and the claws smooth and sharp. In an old hare the cleft of the lip spreads very much, the claws are blunt and rugged, and the ears dry and tough. Hares may be kept better if they are not opened for four or five days after they are killed; and they are considered in the best state for the table when the colour of the flesh is beginning to turn.

So numerous are these animals in some parts of England, where attention is paid to preserving the breed, that they become greatly injurious to the crops of all the neighbouring farmers. They feed upon green corn, clover, and other useful vegetables; and frequently commit much damage in young plantations, by eating the bark from the trees. Some years ago a gentleman in Suffolk found it necessary to destroy the hares near some new plantations, and 1082 were ascertained to have been killed.

74. The ALPINE HARE (Lepus Alpinus) is a Siberian animal, destitute of tail, of tawny colour, with rounded, brown ears, and brown feet.

Amongst the mountains of Siberia alpine hares are very numerous. They live in burrows or holes under ground, and store up, beneath the shelter of trees or rocks, large ricks of dried grass and other vegetables for their winter's subsistence. These collections are anxiously sought after by persons engaged in the hunting of sables (55); and, in many instances, they are the means of preserving their horses from perishing by famine. Some of the adjacent peasantry also search them out as food for their horses and cattle. The skins of the alpine hares supply one of the articles of commerce betwixt the Russians and Chinese.

75. The RABBIT (Lepus cuniculus) is a British quadruped belonging to the same tribe as the hare; and is principally distinguishable from that animal by its proportionally shorter ears, and by the hind legs being only one-third of the length of the body.

The colour of the wild rabbit is dusky brown above, and paler or whitish on the under parts. In the domestic rabbit the colour is various, white, grey, black, or black and white.

These animals inhabit nearly all the warmer parts of Europe, as well as several of the temperate countries of Asia and Africa.

There are farms in many parts of England, particularly in Lincolnshire, Norfolk, and Cambridgeshire, where the breeding of rabbits is rendered an extremely advantageous pursuit. The most desirable situations are those in which the soil is loose and sandy, and where the ground rises, in different parts into low hills. Such lands can be more profitably employed as rabbit-warrens than any others, from the greater facility with which the animals are able to form their burrows in the earth, and the less liability they have to be flooded, by the falling of heavy rains.

In a commercial view rabbits are animals of much greater importance than hares; because, from their habit of living in greater numbers together, they can be better attended to and managed; and also because they multiply much more rapidly than hares. Their fecundity, indeed, is truly astonishing. They breed several times in the year, and generally produce seven or eight young ones at a birth; and it has been calculated that, if the progeny from a single pair could, without interruption, proceed in the same ratio for four or five years, the whole stock would, even in that short period, amount to more than one million.

The particular uses of the rabbit are nearly the same as those of the hare (73). The fur is a principal substance employed in the composition of hats; and such parts of it as are unfit for this purpose may advantageously be adopted for the stuffing of beds and bolsters. Rabbits' skins are also sometimes used as a cheap and warm-trimming for female dress; and the skins themselves, after the hair has been stripped from them, are boiled down, and made into size or glue. The flesh, though, like that of the hare, forbidden to the Jews and Mahometans, is a very delicate and palatable food. We are informed by Pliny, the Roman naturalist, that the ancients had a favourite dish which was made of sucking leverets or rabbits unpaunched. The modes of ascertaining the quality of rabbits as food are nearly the same as those which have been mentioned respecting the hare.

It is customary, in most warrens, to use ferrets (56) in the catching of these animals. The ferrets are muzzled and put into the burrows; and, by pursuing the rabbits under ground, they alarm and drive them into nets that are placed over the outlets, in open and extensive grounds other modes are adopted. These, as we are informed by Mr. Daniel, in his work on Rural Sports, are by implements called fold-nets, spring-nets, and a kind of trap called tipes. The fold-nets are set, about midnight, between the burrows and the feeding grounds; the rabbits being driven into them with dogs, and kept enclosed in the folds till morning. The spring-net is generally laid round a haystack, or some other object of inducement for rabbits to collect in numbers. The tipe consists of a large pit or cistern, covered with a floor. This has, near its centre, a small trap-door nicely balanced, into which the rabbits are led by a narrow road or meuse. It was customary formerly to set this kind of trap near a hay-stack; but, since turnips are now grown as food for these animals in an enclosure in the interior of the warren, it is placed within the wall of this enclosure. For a night or two the rabbits are suffered to go through the meuse and over the trap, that they may be familiarized to the place where the turnips are grown. After that the trap-door is unbarred, and immense numbers fall in. On emptying the cistern, the fat rabbits are selected and killed, and the others are turned out upon the turnips to improve. Five or six hundred couples have not unfrequently been taken in one night by this contrivance; and once, in the Driffield warrens, as many as fifteen hundred couples were caught.

Many persons breed rabbits in a tame or domestic state. The skins of these are useful; but, for food, the wild animals are greatly preferable. Care should, at all times, be taken to keep them clean; and, during the breeding season, the males and females must be kept apart. The best food for tame rabbits is the shortest and sweetest hay that can be had; and one load of this will serve two hundred couples for a year.

ORDER V.—PECORA.

76. The ARABIAN CAMEL, or DROMEDARY (Camelus dromedarius, Fig. 7), is distinguishable from every other specics of camel, by having a single bunch upon the middle of its back.

This animal, which is a native of many of the deserts of Asia and Africa, is of a tawny grey colour, and has soft hair, which is longer on the neck, under the throat, and on the haunch, than elsewhere.

The Arabian, like all other species of camel, has its upper lip cleft, and its feet with two long hoofs on which it treads, and two others shorter, which do not touch the ground.

These animals constitute the principal source of riches, and the whole force and security, of the Arabians. They are the only beasts by which the inhabitants of the sandy deserts of many parts of Asia could travel or convey their burdens. Their tough and spongy feet, which are peculiarly adapted both to the climate and the country, and their abstemious temperament, but particularly their capability of travelling without water, for many successive days, enable them to perform such journeys as would destroy, probably, any other species of quadruped. The caravans, or troops of merchants, that traverse, in all directions, the deserts of Egypt and Arabia, are always accompanied by camels, which are often more in number than the men. These commercial travels are sometimes to the distance of 700 or 800 leagues, and are usually performed at the rate of ten or twelve leagues a day, the camels being, every night, unloaded to rest and feed. For the latter purpose, if better provender cannot be had, they are contented with a small quantity of dates or a few beans, together with the scattered and oftentimes bitter herbage which the desert affords. The burden of each camel usually weighs about half a ton; and, at the command of his conductor, he kneels down for the greater convenience of being loaded. It is from this practice that we account for those horny parts that are observable on the bellies, knees, and limbs, even of the animals that are exhibited in England. Camels are trained, from the earliest part of their life, to the labours which they are afterwards to perform: and, with this view, when but a few days old, their limbs are folded under their body, and they are compelled to remain on the ground whilst they are loaded with a weight, which is gradually increased as they increase in strength. As soon as they have acquired sufficient strength they are trained to the course, and their emulation is excited by the example of horses or of other camels.

The pace of the camel is a high and swinging trot, which, to persons unaccustomed to it, is at first disagreeable and apparently dangerous, but is afterwards sufficiently pleasant and secure. The Arabians, in general, ride on a saddle that is hollowed in the middle, and has, at each bow, a piece of wood placed upright, or sometimes horizontally, by which the rider keeps himself in the seat. A ring is inserted into the nostrils of the camel, to which a cord is affixed; and this serves as a bridle to guide and stop him, or to make him kneel when the rider wishes to dismount. Mr. Bruce informs us that, in the caravans of one of the Abyssinian tribes, the people sometimes ride two together on each camel, and sit back to back.

The camels of Sahara are probably more fleet than any that are known; and, on these animals, the Arabs, with their loins, breast, and ears bound round, to prevent the injurious effects of percussion from the quickness of motion, can cross that great desert in a few days. With a goat's skin or a porous earthen pitcher filled with water, a few dates, and some ground barley, the Arab travels from Timbuctoo to Morocco, feeding his camel but once upon the road. In one instance a camel was known to travel from Fort St. Joseph, on the river Senegal, to the house of Messrs. Cabane and Depras at Mogador, a distance of more than 1000 miles, in seven days.

It has been observed that the camel is the most completely and most laboriously enslaved of all animals; the most completely, because, in the other kinds of domestic animals, we find at least some individuals in their natural state, and which have not yet been subdued by man: but the whole species of the camel is enslaved; and not any of them are now to be found in their primitive state of independence and liberty. He is the most laboriously enslaved because he has never been trained, but as a beast of burden whom man has not harnessed nor taught to draw, but whose body is considered a living carriage which may be loaded and oppressed.

The above are not the only uses of the camel. The hair or fleece of these animals, which is renewed every year, and which regularly falls off in the spring, is so soft that the finest parts of it may be manufactured into stuffs of beautiful texture: and, in Europe, when mixed with the fur of the beaver (69), it is sometimes made into hats. The inhabitants in some parts of Sahara live in tents formed of woven camel's hair; this forms a thick covering completely water-proof. After the hair has been stripped off, the skin is converted into leather.

In Arabia the milk of the camel is a most important article of nutriment; and the flesh, though dry and hard, is not unpalatable, particularly when young. By the inhabitants of Egypt camels' flesh is so much esteemed, that, at Cairo and Alexandria, it was formerly forbidden to be sold to Christians. In many parts of Africa the tongues are salted and dried, both for use and exportation; and, with the ancient Romans, the heels of camels were eaten as a great delicacy.

77. The BACTRIAN, or TWO-BUNCHED CAMEL (Camelus bactrianus), is known by having two bunches on its back; and by being somewhat larger, and having shorter legs than the Arabian species.

This animal is found in Usbec Tartary, the ancient Bactria: it is likewise a native of Siberia, Thibet, and some parts of China.

The purposes to which the Bactrian camel are applied are the same as those already described respecting the Arabian species (76). These animals, however, are sufficiently hardy to sustain the climate of the temperate parts of Siberia, and to be able, without injury, to traverse even humid and marshy countries, which would soon prove fatal to the Arabian camel.

78. The LLAMA, or GLAMA (Camelus glama), is a South American species of camel, of small size, which has a protuberance on the breast, and no bunch on the back.

The colour of the llama is white, grey, and russet, variously disposed. Its height, to the top of the back, is somewhat more than four feet, and to the head nearly six feet.

Without the aid of these animals, the Spaniards who inhabit the mining districts of South America would labour under great inconveniences for the transport of their merchandise and treasures: since mountains that are altogether inaccessible to the horse, are with facility traversed by the llama. This beast, though not so patient, is nearly as abstemious as the camel. He proceeds, when loaded, with a slow but sure pace, and performs journeys, in these mountainous regions, more than 200 leagues in extent. Sometimes he will travel four or five days successively without appearing desirous of repose, and then he rests spontaneously, for twenty or thirty hours, before he resumes his toil. Like the camel, these animals kneel to be loaded; and they are directed in this, and in most other of their motions, by their conductor's whistle. The value of the best llamas is about eighteen ducats, and of the common ones twelve or thirteen ducats each. The burdens they are able to carry are from 150 to 200 pounds' weight: and the number of llamas that are kept in actual employ is supposed to exceed 300,000.

Of the skin of the llama a hard kind of leather is made, which is converted into harness, the soles of shoes, and to many other useful purposes. But, as it is only tanned, and not curried, it is soon injured by exposure to wet. The hair, or fleece, particularly of the wild llamas, which is longer than that of the animals in a domesticated state, is much in request for the manufacture of camlets and other stuffs, some of which are of very beautiful texture, and also for the making of hats. On this account the animals are frequently hunted in the plains with dogs, or killed with guns; but such is their activity amongst rocks, that, if they can once reach these, the hunters are generally obliged to desist from any further pursuit. The flesh of the llama is a wholesome and excellent food. Sometimes it is salted, and, in this state, like our salt beef, is adopted as provision for ships proceeding on long voyages. That, however, of the young llamas four or five months old is preferred, and is considered as good as veal. Many parts of these animals are adopted by the inhabitants of South America as medicines.

79. The VICUNA (Camelus vicugna) is a small South American species of camel, with woolly fleece, a flat and blunt nose, an erect tail; and without any bunches.

This animal inhabits, in a wild state, and in extensive flocks, the highest peaks of the Andes.

Unable to sustain burthens exceeding sixty or seventy pounds in weight, the vicuna is seldom employed in the transport of merchandise. It is chiefly in esteem on account of its fleece, which is of a dead rose colour, and as soft and valuable as silk. This, in South America, is spun and woven into gloves, stockings, quilts, carpets, and innumerable other articles, which are sold at great prices, and constitute an important branch of commerce.

In most of their habits these animals have a close alliance with the llama, and their general figure is nearly the same. They are gentle and inoffensive, and, though not tamed with quite so much facility, are capable of great attachment towards those who have the care of them. Amongst their native mountains they are so light and agile, in all their motions, that it is not easy to come within reach of them, except by stratagem; and, consequently, though dogs are sometimes employed to hunt them, they are much more frequently killed by snares or traps than in any other way.

In consequence of the great advantages which, in America, are derived from the wool of the vicuna, the Spaniards were, some years ago, induced to attempt the introduction of these animals into Europe. Some of them were brought to Spain; but, from want of proper attention to their natural habits, the experiment entirely failed.

80. The MUSK (Moschus moschiferus, Fig. 27) is a small quadruped, somewhat shaped like a deer, but without horns; it has two projecting tusks curved downward, a short tail; and, about the middle of the under part of the male, there is an oval bag, about the size of a small egg.

This animal is seldom more than about two feet in height at the shoulder, and is clad with long, upright, and thickset hair. Each hair is waved, and of three different colours; the tip ferruginous, the middle black, and the bottom dusky.

It inhabits the mountains of Thibet, Tonquin, and Siberia.

The drug called musk is a brown fatty substance, which appears somewhat like clotted blood. It is contained in the bag or receptacle under the belly, which has two small external orifices; through these, when it is overcharged, the animal squeezes it out upon trees or stones. The mode in which musk is collected for sale is to kill the animals, cut off the bags, and tie them closely up to prevent it from being spoiled by evaporation. In those countries where the animals are most abundant they are pursued in the autumn and winter, and generally with so much success that many thousands of bags are annually collected. It is, however, presumed that, of those which are sold, many are factitious, formed of other parts of the skin, and filled with musk adulterated by mixture with other substances. Indeed, so valuable is this drug, that it is seldom to be obtained in a pure state. To increase its quantity blood is not unfrequently mixed with it; and, to increase its weight, lead finely ground, and sometimes even little bits of lead, are put into the bags. The natives of India are said to have various methods of detecting this adulteration, by the taste and the weight; but, principally, by a thread steeped in the juice of garlic, which they draw through the bag with a needle; this, if it retain the smell of garlic, is considered a decisive indication of the musk having improper ingredients mixed with it. The purest musk is said to be that which is brought from Patna, in the dominions of the Great Mogul, where it is collected from various parts of the interior of the country. It is imported into Europe in bags, each of which is about the size of a pigeon's egg, well filled, and covered with short brown hair.

Musk was formerly much used as a perfume. It is now chiefly in repute as a medicine in spasmodic, convulsive, and other complaints; and, when properly given, is thought a remedy of great service. So powerful is the scent of this drug, that the smallest particle of it will perfume a very considerable space; and, when the bags are fresh, if one of them be opened in a close apartment, every person present is obliged to cover his mouth and nose with several folds of linen, to prevent suffocation.

In all the countries where these animals are found, their skins are in great request as a strong and valuable leather; and, when tanned and properly prepared, the Russians have a method of rendering this nearly as soft and shining as silk. These skins are also sometimes dressed as furs for winter clothing. The flesh of the musk is frequently eaten; but that of the young ones only is tender and of good flavour.

These animals, which are astonishingly light and active in all their motions, and at the same time of inoffensive and timid habits and disposition, are caught by snares placed near their feeding places; are shot with arrows, and sometimes killed by cross-bows, so placed that they discharge arrows, by the animals treading on a string connected with the trigger.

81. The ELK, or MOOSE DEER (Cervus alces, Fig. 8), is the largest species of deer that is known, and is distinguished from all others by having broad and flattened horns with several points, no brow-antlers, and a hairy protuberance on the throat.

In size these animals are frequently larger than a horse. Their upper lip is square, very broad, deeply furrowed, and hangs over the mouth. The hair of the male is black at the points, dusky in the middle, and white at the roots; that of the female is of sandy brown colour, except under the throat, belly, and flank, which are whitish. The males only are horned.

The elk inhabits the forests of North America, of some parts of Europe, and of Asia as far south as Japan.

Strong and powerful as these animals are, it has been found possible to domesticate and train them to labour. Mr. Livingston, at a farm near New York, made the experiment by breaking two elks to the harness. After having been only twice bitted, though two years old, they appeared equally docile with colts of the same age, applying their whole strength to the draught, and proceeding in a steady pace. The motion of these animals is a shambling kind of trot, but it is very rapid, and, in drawing carriages, they are able to out-travel a horse. They are also less delicate in their food than horses, are long-lived, and more productive than any known beast of burden, having annually from one to three young ones at a birth. Elks were formerly used in Sweden for the drawing of sledges; but as they were frequently employed in the escape of criminals from justice, the use of them was prohibited under severe penalties.

The inhabitants of all countries where the elk is found esteem its flesh a sweet and nutritious food, though the grain is coarser than that of most other kinds of venison. The American Indians assert that they can travel further, after having eaten of it, than of any other animal food. After having been properly salted and dried, the tongues are better than those of the ox; and the nose, when cooked, is stated to eat like marrow, and to be one of the greatest delicacies which are produced in Canada. Of the skins an excellent buff leather is made, which is strong, light, and soft. This leather is used by the Indians for tent-covers, snow-shoes, and the coverings of canoes. The long hair of the elk is well adapted for the stuffing of mattresses and saddles.

In Canada the hunting of the wild elk is a frequent but in general a most laborious, pursuit, which chiefly occupies the attention of the Indians during winter, when the whole surrounding country is covered with snow.

In a wild state these animals browze the thick and lofty grasses of the plains, and the leaves and tender branches of trees. During the summer they frequent the banks of rivers and lakes; and in winter they often traverse vast distances upon the frozen snow. Notwithstanding the natural strength of their body, their disposition is so mild and inoffensive, that, even when pursued and attacked, they seldom attempt any resistance.

82. The REIN-DEER (Cervus tarandus, Fig. 28) is known by its horns being long, bent back, slender, branched, and generally broad at the extremities.

It is about four feet and half high at the shoulder, and is of brown or greyish white colour above, and white on the under parts of the body. Both the sexes are horned.

These animals inhabit several of the alpine districts of America, and of the northern countries of Europe and Asia.

Useful and even indispensable as many of the domestic animals of this country are to us, the rein-deer is infinitely more so to the Laplander. For travelling, and the conveyance of heavy burdens in sledges and carriages, he supplies the place of the horse; and such is the speed with which he traverses the frozen snows of that dreary region, that he is able, with ease, to perform a journey of near a hundred miles in one day. To this labour the animals are trained from the earliest period of their lives: and neither darkness nor storms can essentially impede their progress. The usual mode of travelling is in sledges, to which one or more of the animals are yoked. The sledges are extremely light, somewhat shaped like a boat, having at the back an upright board for the driver to lean against. Being rounded and not flat underneath, much dexterity is requisite in the balancing and management of them. The driver is tied in, and protected by a cover which encloses all the lower parts of his body, and shelters him from the inclemency of the weather. The rein-deer is yoked by a collar, from which a trace is brought under the belly between the legs, and fastened to the fore part of the sledge; and the animal is guided by a cord or rein fastened to its horns, and tied to a hoop held upon the driver's right thumb. He directs the course of the deer by pulling the rein on the side he would have him go, encouraging him at the same time with his voice. In general, the Laplanders can travel with ease about thirty miles without stopping.

To persons unaccustomed to the habits of the Laplanders and their animals, it will appear wonderful that they should be able to travel during the winter, by night as well as by day, the earth presenting one uniform surface of snow, and not a single vestige of human industry and labour being discernible to direct their course; the snow, at the same time, flying about in all directions, and almost blinding them. Yet it is certain that they are under no difficulty in finding the spot to which they are bound; and dangerous as these journeys may seem, they rarely experience any accident. When several persons are travelling in company, they fix bells to the harness of the animals, that the whole may be kept together by hearing when they cannot see each other, after the light of their short day has failed them. To guide them in their course, the Laplanders observe, in the day-time, the quarter whence the wind blows, and, at night, they are directed by the position of the stars. The missionary Leems, who resided ten years amongst the Laplanders, remarks that, during the whole of that time, he did not remember more than one fatal accident to have occurred from this mode of travelling.

As the rein-deer supplies, to the Laplanders, the place of a horse for conveyance and carriage, so it is an invaluable substitute for the cow in affording them food. The females supply them with milk, each yielding about as much as a common she-goat. This, though not so thick as the milk of the cow, is said to be sweeter and more nutritive: and produces them both butter and cheese. The mountain Laplander subsists, through the whole winter, upon these, or upon flesh of the rein-deer, slaughtering two or three every week, according to the number of his family. The animals are killed by stabbing them in the neck, and the wound is so dexterously inflicted that no blood flows from it; but this is found in the inside, whence it is carefully taken out, and prepared for use. The fat of the rein-deer serves also for food.

Of the skin, after it has been properly prepared, the Laplanders make garments, gloves, shoes, and caps, which cover them from head to foot, and protect them against the cold. These skins also serve as interior coverings for tents, as linings and coverings for sledges, and as beds. They are more or less valuable, according to the season in which the animals have been killed. If slain in the spring, the hides are found to be perforated, in various parts, by a species of insect which lays its eggs in them; but if the deer be killed in winter the skin is free from these defects. The Laplander, however, desirous of obtaining the same price for a defective skin as for a perfect one, frequently attempts to defraud the purchaser by artfully closing up the holes in such manner as to render them scarcely visible.

The horns are converted into handles for different kinds of instruments, and an excellent glue is made of them. The bones are likewise of use; and the sinews or tendons of the legs, after having been held before the fire and beaten with wooden hammers, are divided into filaments as fine as hair, which answer all the purposes of thread; and these filaments twisted together, serve for bowstrings and cords of different kinds.

So numerous and important are the uses of the rein-deer in Lapland, that there are few inhabitants of that country who do not possess them; and some of the wealthiest Laplanders have herds consisting of more than 1000 head. In the summer-time these feed on divers plants which flourish during that season; but, in winter, they either browze on the rein-deer liverwort (Lichen rangiferinus), which they dig up from beneath the snow with their feet and horns; or on another kind of liverwort, which hangs on the branches of fir-trees, and which affords them sustenance when the snows are too deep or too hard frozen to allow them to reach that.

Wild rein-deer live in the mountains and woods, and the hunting of them is, in general, attended with excessive fatigue; as they are endowed with astonishing muscular powers, and also possess a nicety and acuteness of precaution which can scarcely be equalled. Some idea may be formed of the difficulty of this pursuit, when it is stated that a Laplander, in chase of one of these animals, has been known to creep on his hands and knees through shrubs and moss, for nearly five miles, before he could approach within gun-shot of his prey. The various modes in which rein-deer are pursued, are too numerous and too intricate to require a detail in this place. It may be sufficient to say that they are assailed by dogs, traps, pitfalls, snares, cross-bows, and fire-arms, in all the ways which the inventive art of man can devise.

83. The STAG, or RED DEER (Cervus elaphus, Fig. 9), is a large species of deer, generally of reddish brown colour on the upper parts of the body, and white beneath; with large and much branched horns, rounded through their whole length.

The males only are horned. The males is called stag, or hart, the female hind, and the young one has the name of fawn.

Red deer are found in the mountainous parts of Scotland; in the forest of Martindale, Cumberland; in the New Forest, Hampshire; in the woods on the river Tamar, in Devonshire; and amongst the mountains of Kerry in Ireland. On the Continent of Europe and in several parts of Asia and North America, they are very common.

The hunting of these animals was formerly considered one of the most important occupations of the English nobility, and, during the Saxton Heptarchy, it was the privileged pursuit of the sovereign and his court. By the kings of the Norman line laws of the most sanguinary description were enacted for the preservation of these the royal game, it being then deemed less criminal to destroy an individual of the human species than a beast of chase. Forests were enlarged for the shelter of wild animals, and for the more ample enjoyment of the diversion of hunting, at the expense of every principle of justice and humanity. Happily for us, the scenes of devastation which this pursuit occasioned have long ceased to exist; and those vast tracts of country which were once dedicated to hunting, are now, for the most part, applied to the advantages and comfort of man.

As, therefore, the breed of red deer is now chiefly preserved in this kingdom from motives of curiosity, rather than either an object of amusement or utility, we are indebted almost wholly to foreign countries for those parts of the stag which are important in a commercial, economical, and medical view. The skins are manufactured into an excellently soft, and somewhat yellow-coloured leather, which is useful for numerous purposes. Many very extraordinary medicinal virtues were formerly attributed to the horns of the stag, and indeed to nearly all parts of its body: but the experience of late years gives no countenance to them. The horns are of nearly the same nature as bones, and the preparations of them, by heat, are similar to those of solid animal substances in general. Consequently the articles denominated spirit of hartshorn, and salt of hartshorn, though formerly obtained only from the horns of different species of deer, are now chiefly prepared from bones. The former of these, which is a volatile alkali of very penetrating nature, is an efficacious remedy in nervous complaints and fainting fits; and salt of hartshorn has been successfully prescribed in fevers. The scrapings or raspings of the horns, under the name of hartshorn shavings, are variously employed in medicine. Boiled in water, the horns of deer give out an emollient jelly which is said to be remarkably nutritive. Burnt hartshorn is employed in medicine. The horns of the stag are used by cutlers and other mechanics for the handles of knives and for cutting instruments of different kinds. The flesh of every species of deer has the name of venison; that of the young red deer is very delicate eating, that of the female is by no means bad, but that of the full-grown stag has a strong and disagreeable flavour.

These animals generally live in herds that consist of females, with their offspring, headed by one male, and they inhabit the wildest and most unfrequented parts of forests, browzing on grass, and on the leaves and buds of trees. They have a penetrating sight, and an exquisite smell, and are always on guard against the approach of danger. Their disposition, when unprovoked, is mild and peaceable; but if attacked, they prove extremely formidable opponents. The females produce their offspring (generally one each) about the end of May, or the beginning of June.

84. The FALLOW DEER (Cervus dama, Fig. 10) is a considerably smaller animal than the stag, generally of brownish bay colour on the upper parts of the body and whitish beneath, with branched horns, bent backward, compressed and broad at their extremity.

The males only are horned. The male of the fallow deer is called buck, the female doe, and the young one fawn.

Common as these animals are in parks throughout every part of England, they are not found wild in this country. They, however, inhabit various forests of the Continent; even as far as the south of Persia.

There is no species of food in more general request by epicures and bon-vivans than the venison of the fallow deer. This, when properly dressed, is an excellent aliment, and easily assimilated to the human fluids; but when half putrid, as is generally the case, it is considered very detrimental to health. The best season for killing the bucks for venison is from about the first of July to somewhat later than the middle of September; and that for the does is from about the middle of November to the middle of February.

The does produce one, sometimes two, and rarely three young ones each, about the beginning of June; these, for the first year, are called by the park-keepers fawns, if, during that time, they have no horns; the second year, if the young one be a male, it is called a pricket; in the third year, a sorel, and in the ensuing year, a sore; when he attains his fifth year he has the name of buck, and is accounted fit to be killed; but if he be suffered to live a year or two longer, he will improve both in flesh and fatness. If the young one be a female it is called during the first year, a fawn, during the second a teg, and, after that, it takes its proper name of doe. Such does as are intended to be killed in their season are either what have had no fawns in the preceding summer, or have had these killed and taken away.

The horns of fallow deer are used for all the same purposes as those of the stag (83); and their hides, under the name of buck-skin and doe-skin, have long been celebrated for their softness and pliability; and the manufacturing of them into breeches and gloves affords subsistence to a very numerous and industrious class of people.

Extensive herds of fallow deer associate together in large parks. These animals are less savage than red deer, yet when offended they often become ferocious. They feed on several kinds of vegetables, and on the leaves, bark, and young branches of trees; many of which, particularly hollies, are cut down, by park-keepers, in the severe weather of winter, for their subsistence.

85. The ROE or ROE-BUCK (Cervus capreolus) is a small species of deer, not more than two feet and half high at the shoulder, of reddish brown colour, which has short erect horns, divided towards their extremity into two or three points.

The males only have horns.

Small flocks of these animals are found wild in several of the mountainous districts of Scotland, and also in the mountainous woods of Germany, Switzerland, and other parts of the continent of Europe, as well as in those of North America.

In some countries the venison of the roe is esteemed, during the proper season, equal to that of any other species of deer. There is, however, a great difference in it, according to the country in which the animals have fed, and the different races or varieties of the animals themselves. The flesh also of the bucks which have passed their second year is said to be tough and not well flavoured, whilst that of the does, though of much greater age, is tender. Those animals that are fed in parks, plains, and valleys, are also greatly inferior to such as have resided among mountains.

In America the skins of roes are an important object of commerce. They are very light, and are capable, for some time, of resisting the effects of moisture. Of these skins the American Indians make bags or bottles, in which they are able to keep oil, honey, butter, and other similar substances. They are also converted into clothing, and are sometimes dressed as furs, but the hair soon falls off. The hair itself is valuable for the stuffing of horse-collars and saddles, and it has the advantage of not becoming knotty like that of the ox. The horns are used in making handles for knives and for other purposes.

86. The CHAMOIS (Antilope rupicapra, Fig. 11) is a kind of antelope about the size of a goat, with short, erect, round, and smooth horns, which are hooked backward at the tips.

Its colour is dusky yellowish brown on the upper parts of the body, with the cheeks, chin, throat, and belly, yellowish white. The horns, which are common to both the sexes, are generally about eight inches in length, but shorter in the female than the male.

These animals inhabit many of the mountainous parts of Europe, particularly the Alps and Pyrenees.

There are few pursuits more arduous and difficult than the hunting of the chamois. Being wholly confined to rocky and mountainous situations, dogs are nearly useless in it; and such are the sagacity and acuteness of perception of these animals, that they take alarm at the most distant approach of danger, and the stratagems which are practised to come within gun-shot of them are almost innumerable. They associate in flocks consisting of from four or five to nearly a hundred in number; and, when alarmed, they are able to spring, at a single leap, up rocks the perpendicular height of which is more than twenty feet, and in this case, by a few bounds, they throw themselves entirely out of the reach of their pursuers. If hard pressed, they will sometimes turn upon the hunter and attack him with fury; and instances have been related of men, thus attacked, having been thrown down precipices and destroyed by them.

The chief objects of this pursuit are the flesh and the skin. The former is, in general, a nutritious and wholesome food, and the latter is useful in numerous ways. When dressed, it forms a soft, warm, and pliable leather, which has the name of shammoy, and is manufactured into breeches, vests, and gloves, that are very durable and are much used by the labouring classes of people on the Continent. Of late years, however, the art of tanning has been brought to so much perfection, that excellent shammoy leather is made from the skins of the goat, the sheep, and the deer. The horns of the chamois are often cut into heads for canes, and the farriers of the Continent sometimes sharpen and use them for the bleeding of cattle. The blood of these animals is used medicinally, and, in Switzerland, is a celebrated nostrum for the cure of pleurisy and some other complaints.

87. The COMMON ANTELOPE (Antilope cervicapra, Fig. 12) is a quadruped distinguished by having spiral, round, and expanded horns, each marked with a great number of prominent rings; and the body of a brown colour, clouded with whitish and dusky shades and marks.

It is found in several parts of Africa and India.

One mode of hunting these and some other species of antelope is by the hunting leopard and the ounce, but the most frequent mode of killing them is with guns.

Their skins are sometimes dressed with the hair on, and sometimes as leather; and the flesh constitutes an excellent kind of venison. The horns are convertible to nearly all the same purposes as the horns of the different kinds of deer; and they are also occasionally used as weapons.

88. The COMMON GOAT (Capra ægagrus, Fig. 13) is distinguished by having hollow, compressed, and rough horns, which grow first upright, and then bend backward.

Both the male and female are horned.

These animals are found wild in many of the mountainous countries of the European continent, of Africa, Persia, and India.

In many parts of Europe the goat is an animal essentially serviceable to the necessities and the comforts of mankind; affording even during its life, though fed on the most barren and uncultivated grounds, an abundant supply of milk and cheese.

Goats' milk is not only considered to be thicker, but to have a richer flavour than that of the cow; and, in some situations, especially on ship-board, where the goat thrives better than any other animal, it is peculiarly valuable. This creature eats readily every sort of refuse vegetables, and is kept at little expense. In a medicinal view goat's milk is an useful substitute for that of asses. It is of very peculiar nature, as its oily and coagulate parts do not separate spontaneously; they throw up no cream, and yield scarcely any butter. But this milk affords a very large proportion of cheese. Hence, in Switzerland, and other mountainous countries best adapted to the pasturage of goats, cheese is the chief produce of the dairies.

The flesh of the goat, when full grown, is rank, hard, and indigestible; yet, in some countries, it is eaten both in a fresh and salted state. That of the kid is peculiarly rich, and, by many persons, is considered even preferable to lamb.

When properly tanned, the skin of the goat is manufactured into gloves and other articles of dress. There is a way of preparing these skins by maceration, so as to separate the surface or grain from the coarse under parts, after which they are dyed of various colours for different uses.

Morocco leather is chiefly made from the skins of goats, tanned and dyed in a peculiar manner. The manufacture of this leather was originally invented in the kingdom of Morocco, whence it has its name. The colours that are chiefly communicated to it are red and yellow, the former of which is produced by cochineal, and the latter by a yellow kind of berries. Morocco leather is also dyed black, green, and blue. Until within the last few years, the consumers of this kind of leather in England have depended wholly on a foreign supply: there are now, however, several manufactories of it in the neighbourhood of London, from which the most beautiful moroccos may be had at prices that have superseded the necessity of importing it from abroad. For leather of inferior quality, and particularly for such as is to receive a yellow colour, sheeps' skins are often substituted. The reason why goats' skins have been principally adopted for the manufacture of morocco is, that they take the dye better, and that they are susceptible of richer and more beautiful colours, than those of any other animals.

Goat-skins, as well as the skins of sheep, are sometimes made into parchment. The skins of kids are thin and of beautiful texture; they are consequently well adapted for ladies' gloves and shoes. On the Continent they are made into stockings, bed-ticks, and sometimes into hangings for beds, into sheets, and even into shirts.

Although the fleece of the goat is by no means so valuable as that of the sheep, yet it has been found extremely useful. The long and shaggy coated goat, which is bred in many parts of this country, has, at the roots of the long hair, a fine and beautiful soft wool. The latter, though scarcely known to our manufacturers, has long been used in Russia for gloves, stockings, and other articles of dress, which are highly valuable. About a pound of this wool, in an unsorted state, was, some years ago, sent from Russia to be made into shawls. As the quantity was too small to admit of being manufactured into a web by itself, the chain was formed of silk, and the woof of yarn made from the goat's wool. The fabric, when completed, was compared with the finest Indian shawls; and, notwithstanding the hardness of the silken part, it was decidedly more soft and beautiful than any of these. Of the above-mentioned small quantity of wool three full-sized shawls and one waistcoat were made. Their colour was a dull white, with a delicate and scarcely perceptible glance of red through it; and their texture was so much admired, that Dr. Anderson, to whose care they were consigned, states, that if a hundred of them had been offered for sale, they would have produced at least twenty guineas each.

The long hair of goats, particularly that of the males, is used by peruke-makers, for lawyers and judges' wigs. Previously to its being used, it goes through several processes of preparation. The fine hair of kids is sometimes employed in the manufacture of hats. Goat's hair is occasionally made into a strong and coarse kind of cloth.

Of the horns of these animals the country people make handles for tucks, and knives of different kinds. The fat or suet, which, in general, is very abundant, may be made into candles, which, in whiteness and quality, are greatly superior to those of the best tallow of the sheep and ox.

Goats are active and mischievous animals, of hardy nature, which delight in rocky and mountainous situations. They are sometimes very injurious to young plantations, from their propensity to peel and destroy the trees. The females usually have two, sometimes three, and rarely four young ones at a birth; and, in our climates, the duration of their life is said not often to exceed eleven or twelve years.

89. The hair of the Angora goat is long, soft, and silky, and is one of the most beautiful substances with which we are acquainted, for the manufacture of shawls, and other fine stuffs; and these, which in England have the name of camblets, are sometimes sold at very high prices. It is supposed that, with attention, Angora goats might be successfully and advantageously bred in Great Britain; particularly in those parts where the country is mountainous, and where the climate and food might not be far different from those of their native country of Asia Minor.

90. The COMMON SHEEP (Ovis aries, Fig. 14) has, in general, hollow, compressed, transversely wrinkled, and somewhat crescent-shaped horns; but some of the varieties are entirely destitute of these weapons.

The male is called ram, the female ewe, and the young one has the name of lamb.

Sheep are found in nearly every country of the world.

The bodies of these animals, in temperate and cold climates, are clad with a curled and closely matted kind of hair, which has the peculiar appellation of wool. The distinguishing characteristic of wool is that, when even the coarsest sort is manufactured into cloth, it thickens in the milling, and forms a close texture, owing to the peculiar roughness of its surface, and to its curly form; whereas the finest possible hair, under the same operation, will neither thicken nor form any texture whatever. It is by the manufacture of wool into various kinds of clothing that many thousands of people, in different countries of Europe, are entirely supported and fed. In temperate countries the fleeces of sheep are shorn or cut off once, and in others, where the climate is warmer, twice in the year, the animals being previously well washed to cleanse the wool. The Shetland sheep, and some others, have the fleece pulled, and not cut off.

When wool is intended to be manufactured into cloth of mixed colours, it is dyed in the fleece before it is spun. When intended for tapestry, it is dyed after it is spun; and when to be wrought into cloth of uniform colour, it is not dyed until the cloth is made.

Much wool is used in the manufacture of hats. For this purpose it goes through a process called felting, to unite or mat it into a firm substance. Felt is either made of wool alone, or of a mixture of wool with camel's or other hair.

The skins of sheep, after the processes called tanning and currying, are manufactured into a thin and coarse but useful kind of leather, which is much in request by saddlers, book-binders, and others. These skins, by a different process, are converted into parchment, which is used for writing deeds upon. Lambs' skins are made into gloves.

Every part of the sheep is advantageous to mankind. The flesh, under the denomination of mutton, supplies us with a wholesome and palatable food, which is in greatest estimation when the animals are at least three, and not more than six years old. That of lambs, in the spring of the year, is also in considerable demand. House lamb is so denominated from the animals being fattened within doors; but this kind of food is neither so wholesome nor so nutritive as the meat in a natural state. Suet is a solid kind of fat which is found in various parts of the bodies (particularly about the kidneys and intestines) of sheep, oxen, and other ruminating animals. It differs materially from fat or grease, as the latter remains soft, and this hardens in cooling. Suet is used for culinary and other purposes, and very extensively in the making of candles. The milk of sheep is rich and nourishing, and in great esteem among the peasantry of all countries where these animals are bred. It produces an abundance of butter, but this is so unpalatable as seldom to be eaten. Ewes' milk yields a large proportion of strong and tough cheese. Of the entrails of sheep are made the strings generally called cat-gut, which are used for different kinds of musical instruments, and for the coverings of whips. Handles of knives, and several other useful articles, are made of the bones of sheep; the refuse parts of which are coarsely ground to serve as manure. A very important advantage is in another respect derived from these animals, by folding them upon land on which corn is afterwards to be grown.

There are, in Great Britain, many different breeds of sheep, some of which are very valuable.

91. Those called Leicester sheep are chiefly bred in that and the adjacent counties, and are much esteemed for their property of readily fattening. Their mutton, when in perfection, has a fineness of grain and a superiority of flavour beyond that of almost every other kind of sheep. These animals are capable of being rendered so fat, that, in some instances they have measured more than six inches deep in solid fat on the ribs. But, in this case, the mutton is scarcely eatable.

92. A coarse wool, but so long as to measure from ten to more than eighteen inches, is obtained from the breed called Lincolnshire sheep.

93. For united excellence of wool and mutton the South Down sheep are in great demand. This breed, which particularly abounds on the dry and chalky downs of Sussex and other southern parts of England, has of late been dispersed over nearly the whole kingdom. The animals are distinguishable by their grey or speckled face and legs, and being destitute of horns.

94. From the Ryeland and or Herefordshire sheep is obtained a peculiarly short, soft, and fine wool, which, if the filaments were of equal thickness and quality throughout, would be as valuable as the best wool that we import from Spain. The mutton of these sheep is also fine-grained and of excellent flavour.

95. A breed of sheep, which is well known in Northumberland by the name of Cheviot sheep, produces very admirable mutton and wool of fine texture. Of the milk of these sheep great quantities of cheese are made, which is sold at a low price. This, when three or four days old, becomes very pungent, and is in considerable esteem for the table.

96. The Shetland islands produce a kind of sheep so small as seldom to exceed the weight of thirty or forty pounds. Their wool is sufficiently soft to be adapted even to clothing of the most delicate texture. A pair of stockings that were made of it were so fine as to be sold for six guineas. The skins of these sheep with the fleece on are capable of being converted into a fur of great value; and, when the wool is stripped from them, they are, as leather, peculiarly estimable for aprons, and are purchased by mechanics for this purpose at double the price of other skins of the same size.

97. It is to the breed called Dorsetshire sheep that the London markets are principally indebted for the house-lamb, which, at an early part of the season, bears so high a price. After the lambs are produced they are confined in small dark places, and never see the light, except when brought out to be fed by the ewes; and, at the times when thus brought out, their cabins are cleansed, and littered with fresh straw, as a great part of their value depends upon the cleanliness in which they are kept.

98. The mutton of the Heath sheep, a breed which is found in most of the north-western parts of England, and even as far as the western Highlands of Scotland, is accounted peculiarly excellent; and immense numbers of these sheep are annually sold at the north country fairs. The animals themselves are hardy and active, and well adapted to subsist in healthy and mountainous districts.

99. MERINO SHEEP are a celebrated Spanish breed of sheep, with small horns, white face and legs, small bones, a loose skin hanging from the neck, the wool fine, the external part of the fleece dark brown in consequence of the dust adhering to it, the interior delicate white, and the skin of rosy hue.

The celebrity of this breed, for the production of a remarkably fine wool, has been such, that all the highest priced cloths manufactured in this country, until of late years, were made of Spanish wool. In the year 1787 some of these sheep were first introduced into England. And, although it was formerly a prevailing opinion that the excellence of their fleece depended, in a great degree, upon the temperature of the Spanish climate, it has been satisfactorily ascertained that the fineness of Spanish wool is not in the slightest degree impaired by breeding the sheep in this country. Even in Hungary sheep of this kind have, for many years, been so successfully reared, that much of the fine wool used in our clothing countries has been imported from thence. The average weight of the Merino fleece is about three pounds and half. It has lately been a great object of attention in England to improve our own breeds, particularly the Ryeland, by a mixture with merinos, and this cross breed is stated to retain all the principal characteristics of the Spanish race. The mutton of these sheep, for size and flavour, is much in demand, and sells in the market at a higher price than that of most other kinds of sheep.

100. The BROAD-TAILED SHEEP are a very remarkable kind of sheep, distinguished by their tails being extremely large, and so long as sometimes to drag upon the ground.

They are found in several parts of Persia, Syria, Egypt, and other eastern countries.

The tails of these animals are almost wholly composed of a substance resembling marrow, and sometimes they are equal in weight to one-third of the whole carcase. To prevent them from chafing against the ground, the shepherds not unfrequently put boards, with small wheels, under them, attached to the hinder parts of the animal. The substance of these tails is in great demand, instead of butter, for culinary purposes; and it forms an ingredient in several kinds of dishes. The fleece of the broad-tailed sheep is peculiarly long and fine, and, in Thibet, is manufactured into shawls and other articles of peculiarly delicate texture, which form a considerable source of wealth to the inhabitants.

Of these, and of another kind of sheep called Tartarian or fat-rumped sheep, the hinder parts of which are so excessively fat as entirely to enclose the tail, there are great numbers bred in Tartary. It is even stated that, on an average, 150,000 of them are annually sold at the fairs of Orenburgh, and a much greater number in some other places.

101. The COMMON OX (Bos taurus domesticus, Fig. 29) is characterised by having rounded horns which curve outward, and a loose skin or dewlap beneath the throat.

The male is called bull, the female cow, and the young one calf.

This animal, in a wild state, is the bison (Fig. 15) which is found in the marshy forests of Poland and Lithuania.

It is almost impossible to enumerate all the benefits that mankind derive from these admirable animals. In many countries nearly the whole labour of agriculture is performed by oxen, and, after this service is over, they are fatted and slaughtered for food. It is well known in what estimation they were formerly held in Egypt; they furnished even deities to the superstitious inhabitants of that country. From their supplying the Gentoos with milk, butter, and cheese, their favourite food, those people bear for them a veneration so great that nothing on earth would induce them to slay one of them.

In nearly all eastern countries oxen are employed in treading out corn. By the Caffres of the Cape of Good Hope they are used as beasts of draught and burden. When Mr. Barrow and his suite went into the country of the Caffres, the king, who was at a distance from his usual residence, was sent to; and he is stated to have arrived riding upon an ox full gallop, attended by five or six of his people.

To the milk of the cow we are indebted for several important articles of human subsistence. It is adapted to every state and age of the body, but particularly to the feeding of infants after they have been weaned. Skimmed milk, or that which remains after the cream has been taken off, is employed, in considerable quantity, by wine and spirit merchants, for clarifying or fining down turbid white wine, arrack, and weak spirits.

Nearly all the cheese that is consumed in the British islands is made of cow's milk. For this purpose the milk is curdled by mixture with a substance called rennet, which is prepared from the inner membrane of a calf's stomach; and the curd, thus formed, after being cleared of the whey or watery part contained in the milk, is collected together, pressed, and dried for use.

The richest of all the English kinds of cheese is that called Stilton cheese. This, however, is not, as its name would import, made in the town of Stilton, but in various parts of Huntingdonshire, and in Leicestershire, Rutland, and Northamptonshire. Stilton cheese is indebted, for its excellence, both to the rich pastures on which the cows are fed, and to the peculiar process by which it is made. It is not sufficiently mellowed for use until two years old, and is not in a state to be eaten till it is decayed, blue, and moist. To hasten the ripening of Stilton cheeses, it is not unusual to place them in buckets, and to cover these with horse-dung. Cheshire is famous for its cheese, which is generally much salter and more smart upon the palate than any other English kind. In Wiltshire and Gloucestershire much cheese of rich and excellent quality is made.

The neighbourhood of Chedder, in the county of Somerset, produces a very admirable kind, which is little inferior in taste to Parmesan, and is supposed to owe its peculiar quality to the cows feeding in rich pastures, and particularly on the flote fescue grass (Festuca fluitans), with which many of those pastures abound. Cottenham cheese is a soft white cheese, for which we are chiefly indebted to a small village of that name situated a few miles from Cambridge. In the neighbourhood of Bath and York, and also in Lincolnshire, a rich and excellent kind of cream cheese is made. In Scotland a species of cheese is produced which has long been known and celebrated under the name of Dunlop cheese, from a parish of that name in Ayrshire, in the neighbourhood of which it is principally made.

Of foreign kinds of cheese the most celebrated is Parmesan. This is made of ewes' milk, or of a mixture of ewes' or goats' milk with that of the cow. We receive it from various parts of Italy, and also from other countries, although the name would import it to be made exclusively in the neighbourhood of Parma. In the district of Gruyere, a small town in the canton of Friburg in Switzerland, a well-known kind of cheese of large size is made, which goes by that name. Gouda cheese is famous in Holland. The common Dutch cheeses are of globular shape, and each three or four pounds in weight. They are prepared in the same manner as Cheshire cheese, with the exception that, instead of rennet, the Dutch use spirit of vitriol (sulphuric acid). Hence this kind of cheese has a sharp and saline taste, which is said to exempt it from the depredations of mites. Green Swiss cheese has a strong and peculiar flavour derived from the fragrant powder of melliot (Trifolium melilotus officinalis). This cheese is, however, to many persons, very disagreeable.

When milk has been suffered to stand a few hours, a substance called cream rises to the surface. This is skimmed off for several uses, but principally for the purpose of being made into butter, which is done by beating it in a vessel called a churn. In Cheshire it is customary to churn the butter from the whole milk, without its being skimmed, but this is contrary to the practice in most other parts of England. The consumption of butter is so great that not less than 50,000 tons' weight of it are stated to be annually used in London only. That, which is principally in esteem there is produced in Essex, and known by the name of Epping butter.

To make butter keep for a greater length of time than it would otherwise do, it is salted and packed in small tubs or barrels; and, in this state, it is a very considerable article of commerce. In the salting and packing of butter many abuses are practised, to increase its bulk and weight, against which there is an express act of parliament. Lumps of good butter are sometimes laid, for a little depth, at the top of a barrel, with butter of inferior quality beneath it. Sometimes the butter is packed hollow; and sometimes the exterior part of the butter is good whilst the whole interior is bad.

After the butter has been separated there remains in the churn a kind of whey which is called butter-milk, and the quality of which greatly depends on the manner of churning. Before it turns sour, butter-milk is a favourite beverage in the families of some farmers. It is also occasionally used as a wash for the face, being considered a remedy against freckles; but it is principally applied for the feeding of pigs.

The flesh of oxen constitutes the kind of food which we call beef. This is usually eaten in a recent state, but is sometimes, particularly in the northern parts of England, in Ireland, and Holland, salted in the manner of bacon, and in this state, it is a considerable article of trade. It affords a strong and invigorating nutriment, superior to any that we are acquainted with. Beef-tea is a preparation commonly made for invalids and convalescents, and consists of an infusion of the lean parts of beef in boiling water. Veal, or the flesh of calves, is an highly esteemed and delicate food.

The skins of cattle, after they have undergone the processes of tanning and currying, are employed for making harness, saddles, bridles, the soles of shoes, and for various other purposes. Calves' skins are used for the upper leathers of shoes, and by saddlers, book-binders, &c. The skins of sucking calves are manufactured into vellum, a thin substance which is employed by book-binders; also for writing and drawing upon, and for other uses. From the parings and other offals of the hides of oxen, and the parings and scraps of the legs, by boiling them in water to the consistence of a jelly, straining them through a wicket basket, suffering the impurities to subside, and then boiling them a second time, is made glue. This, in a state of jelly, is poured into flat frames or moulds; when congealed, it is cut into square pieces, and afterwards dried, by being suspended in a coarse kind of netting.

The leg-bones of oxen, after having been whitened by boiling them with quick-lime, are used in the manufacture of the handles of knives and forks, and for innumerable other purposes. This substance, when good, is nearly allied to ivory: but is easily distinguished by its porous nature, its coarse grain, and its wanting the beautiful white veins which are so conspicuous in ivory. Bones, after having been burnt or calcined, are used by the refiners of gold and silver.

The horns of oxen are used for many of the same purposes as bone. After having been softened by heat they are capable of being moulded into almost any shape. They are sometimes stained in such manner as to imitate tortoise-shell, and they are then used for the making of combs. By a peculiar process they are rendered semi-transparent, and, when formed into thin plates, are employed instead of glass for lanthorns. Horn was the first transparent substance that was ever used for lanthorns and windows.

Tallow is the fat of sheep and oxen, cleared of its fibrous parts by straining and other management. It is further improved and clarified by the addition of alum, and, in this state, is used for the making of candles. Tallow is also a chief ingredient in soap. From the feet of oxen is procured a kind of oil, called Neats'-foot oil, which is of great use in the preparing and softening of leather. The blood is employed in the clarifying of sugar, and great quantities of it, during the late war, were exported from London to Sweden for this purpose. The skins of the intestines are used for beating gold leaf betwixt; and these, under the name of gold-beaters' skin, are afterwards considered efficacious as an adhesive plaster for healing small wounds. Of gold-beaters' skin the French manufacturers of toys sometimes construct little balloons for the amusement of children. A few years ago there was, in London, an exhibition of animals formed of this substance and inflated with air.

102. British cattle are considered preferable to the cattle of any other country in the world. Those called Devonshire cattle, which are distinguished by their mahogany colour and light yellow horns, are adjudged to be the best of any. They are much used in agricultural labours, being peculiarly fitted for draught both by their hardiness and activity. The beef of this breed is peculiarly excellent. Their skins are thin, but improve much in tanning; and the tallow is of peculiarly good quality.

103. In the northern parts of England there is a very useful kind, called Holderness or Dutch cattle. These, in size and weight exceed all the British cattle. The cows have great celebrity for yielding a very extraordinary quantity of milk; instances have been mentioned of their yielding thirty-six quarts in a day. This stock is well known in the neighbourhood of the metropolis, being that which is generally kept by the London cow-keepers. The animal exhibited in London in the beginning of 1802, under the name of the "wonderful ox," was a variety produced from this breed, and weighed more than 200 stone.

104. The Lancashire or Long-horned Cattle, are much esteemed for the dairy. The cows yield from sixteen to twenty-four quarts of milk per day; and, on an average, about 300 weight of cheese per annum. They are hardy animals, readily become fat, and produce remarkably well-flavoured beef. But they are chiefly celebrated for the thickness and substance of their hides, which are very valuable, and sell at high prices. In many instances the hides have been known to produce a greater price per pound than the beef.

105. Alderney Cattle are a favourite breed, that have long been known and esteemed, in the southern counties of England, for their milk, which is richer than that of any other breed. These animals are of small size, the cows seldom exceeding the height of four feet; yet they are known to produce so much milk as to yield from 200 to more than 300 pounds' weight of butter per annum. In the islands of Guernsey, Jersey, and Alderney, where these cattle are chiefly bred, they are sometimes employed in ploughing; but their greatest use is in carting, and, in this respect, they are found to answer peculiarly well in bad roads and hilly countries. Their beef is generally yellow or very high coloured; but it is peculiarly fine in the grain, and of excellent flavour.

106. Scotland is famous for a small kind of black cattle, with fine white upright horns tipped with black, called Highland Stots, or Kyloe Cattle. Having great celebrity for the fineness and sweetness of their beef, as well as the facility with which they are fattened, these cattle are in such esteem as to be driven into the southern counties of England, and occasionally to supply even the London markets. The cows, in proportion to their size, yield a great quantity of rich milk.

107. The YAK, or GRUNTING OX (Bos grunniens), is an animal of large size, with round, upright, and slender horns, a lump on the shoulders, long and pendant hair, white on the back and tail; and the tail somewhat resembling that of a horse.

In a wild state this animal is an inhabitant of the mountains of Thibet.

With the oriental princes the white tails of the yak are of great value for military standards; and the use of them is very ancient. These tails are also employed, in many parts of the East, to ornament the trappings both of elephants and horses; and, when mounted on a silver handle, they are used by the principal men of India as a brush to chase away flies. The Chinese dye the hair of a red colour, and form tufts for their caps of it. Many beautiful kinds of stuffs are woven of a fine wool which these animals have next to their skin.

108. The MUSK OX (Bos moschatus) is a North American animal of small size, with horns broad, and approaching each other at the base, bent downward, and the tips upward and pointed; a protuberance on the shoulder, and the body covered with long silky hair of a dusky red tinge.

To the North American Indians the musk ox is an animal of considerable importance. Its flesh furnishes them with an useful food, which, though it has a musky flavour, is not on that account the less esteemed. This flesh, in a frozen state, is also an article of traffic, with the British and American forts, during winter.

At the roots of the long hair of the musk ox there is a peculiarly beautiful ash-coloured fleece, which is finer and softer than silk, and may be wrought into very elegant articles of dress. It is of the long hair of these animals that the Esquimaux Indians make those caps which give them their very extraordinary appearance, by the ends being contrived so to fall down over their face, as to protect them from the bites of musquetoes. The skins are convertible into leather, and are also frequently used, by Indians, with the hair on, as coverings of various kinds.

109. The AMERICAN BISON (Bos Americanus) is a large species of ox, with round and distant horns which point outward, a long and woolly mane, and a large fleshy protuberance on the shoulders.

These animals inhabit, in immense herds, the savannahs and marshes of the interior of North America.

As they are capable of being domesticated, and, in this state, are sufficiently tractable for the purpose, they are sometimes rendered useful for agricultural labours. The hunting of the wild bison is a common and very arduous employment of the natives of the interior of America, particularly those living adjacent to the rivers Mississippi and Ohio. The flesh of these animals is used as food, and the fatty protuberance on the shoulders is esteemed a great delicacy. The tongues, which are reckoned superior to those of oxen, are frequently transported to New Orleans, where they always have a ready sale. When the animals are quite fat they are said to yield sometimes as much as 150 pounds weight of tallow each. The latter is so important an article of commerce, that, in many instances, the hunters cut out only the tongue and tallow, leaving the remainder of the carcase to be devoured by wild beasts. Powder-flasks are made of the horns. The skins are capable of being converted into an excellent buff leather; and, when dressed with the hair on, the lighter skins serve the Indians as beds, and for clothes, gloves, and shoes. Some persons use them as blankets, and find them a very warm and pleasant covering. The hair is spun and woven into various articles of clothing, which are both durable and useful, and are peculiarly soft and pleasant to the wearer.

110. The BUFFALO (Bos bubalus) is a species of ox, which has large horns of compressed form, with the outer edge sharp, growing straight for a considerable length from their base, and then bent slightly upward: on the shoulders there is a bony protuberance; and the general colour of the hair is black or dusky.

In a wild state these animals are natives of Asia and Africa; and they are domesticated in India, and in some of the warmer parts of Europe.

Although the buffalo is naturally a savage and ferocious beast, yet, when properly trained, it is very serviceable to mankind. These animals are used both for draught and burthen, and are sometimes even trained for the saddle. They are guided by a cord attached to a ring, which is made to pass through the cartilage of their nose. Two buffaloes, harnessed to a carriage, are considered able to draw as much as four horses.

The milk of the buffalo, though not so good as that of the cow, is in greater quantity, and in much esteem. Ghee is a kind of butter made from the milk of these animals, and clarified. This is an article of commerce in various parts of India, and is generally conveyed in bags or bottles made of the hide, each of which holds from ten to forty gallons. The flesh is said somewhat to resemble beef, but to be of a darker colour: that of the calves is considered peculiarly delicate. Of the skin is made a strong and durable leather, which, under the name of buff leather, is applicable to a great variety of uses. The horns have a fine grain, are strong, and bear a good polish; and are, therefore, much used by cutlers and other artificers. They are occasionally imported into this country from Bengal.

These animals usually associate in large herds, in marshy and woody plains. So great is their ferocity that the hunters are at all times fearful of attempting to kill them, unless they are perfectly sure of their aim. They swim over even the widest rivers with a facility which can be equalled by few quadrupeds.

111. The CAPE BUFFALO (Bos cafer) is an excessively strong and ferocious beast of the ox tribe, which has thick horns that are rugged at the base, and lie so flat as to cover almost all the top of the head.

These animals are found in herds of a hundred and fifty or two hundred together, in the plains of Caffraria, and other parts of the south of Africa.

There are no animals of the ox tribe so savage, so much dreaded, nor so wantonly mischievous as these: they attack and destroy mankind without being themselves previously assailed, and commit devastations of the most alarming kind in the neighbourhood of the places where they are found. They are killed on account of their flesh, which is lean, but juicy and of high flavour; and also on account of their hides, which are so thick and tough that even musket-proof targets are formed of them. Of these hides also the strongest and best thongs for harness are made. The Hottentots, who are never inclined to take much trouble in dressing their victuals, cut the flesh off into slices, and then smoke, and at the same time half broil, it over a few coals. They also frequently eat it in a state of absolute putrefaction.

ORDER VI.—BELLUÆ.

112. The HORSE (Equus caballus, Fig. 30) is distinguished from every other quadruped by having his hoofs single, and his tail covered with long hair.

The male has the name of horse, the female of mare, and the young one of foal.

Wild horses are found, in large herds, in Siberia, and several other parts of Asia, as well as in some parts of Africa.

Endowed with the most useful qualifications, the horse is an animal of the greatest importance to the inhabitants of all temperate climates. Though naturally spirited, active, and intrepid, he submits with patience to carry burthens, and to toil, for days together, along roads and in agricultural labours. And, if treated with care and attention, he perseveringly adapts himself to our wants and conveniences. In some parts of Tartary these animals have even been made objects of divine worship, originating, no doubt, in a principle of gratitude for the services they perform. By the Arabians they are nearly as much attended to and beloved as human beings: they live in the same tents with their owners, and participate in all the kindnesses which this people bestow upon their own families. In Arabia, indeed, they may be deemed the chief support of the families which possess them; and (surrounded with foes) the very existence of the owner not unfrequently depends upon the powers of his horse.

In no country of Europe is so much attention paid to the breeding and training of horses as in England. The consequence has been that the British horses are superior, both in swiftness of foot, and in strength and perseverance in the course, to any others in this quarter of the world.

The fleetest of all the British horses is, of course, the race-horse: and, for short distances, none of the Arabians, which have been tried in England, have proved in any degree equal to him. The celebrated horse called Childers, in the year 1721, ran four miles in six minutes and forty-eight seconds, carrying a weight of nine stone two pounds. Had the different racing meetings at Newmarket, York, and other places, no other view than to call together great concourses of people for amusement, their tendency would be injurious rather than beneficial to society; but when it is considered that such meetings are the cause of great emulation in the breeding of a race of animals so valuable as the horse, their utility will be sufficiently apparent.

The English hunters are allowed to be among the noblest, most elegant, and most useful animals that are known; and the value of our hackneys, or road horses, may be imagined when it is stated that many of them are able to trot at the rate of more than fifteen miles per hour.

So great is the strength of these animals, that instances have been mentioned of a single horse drawing, for a short space, the weight of three tons; and of others carrying a load which weighed more than 900 pounds. The immense dray-horses that are employed by brewers, and are so frequently seen in the streets of London, though in some measure they are useful as being able better to sustain the shock of loading and unloading than slighter animals, are chiefly kept from a principle of ostentation. The British draught-horses are extremely valuable animals, but particularly a chesnut-coloured race called Suffolk-horses.

In Scotland there is a breed of small horses, or ponies, which are known by the name of galloways. The best of these seldom exceed the height of fourteen hands and a half,^[2] and are uncommonly active, hardy, and spirited animals. The Shetland Islands produce a race called shelties, which, though exceedingly diminutive in size, are, in other respects, highly excellent.

In Ireland the cart-horses, though of sufficient size, are ill-shaped and bad. The saddle-horses appear naturally as good as ours; but, in general, they are ill kept, worse groomed, and still worse shod.

The French horses are extremely various in their kind; but few of them can be called fine. The best saddle-horses of France are produced in the vicinity of Limosin, and in Normandy. The latter, though not so valuable as hunters, are preferable to all the rest for war. Lower Normandy is famous for fine carriage horses. A prevailing fault in the horses of France is too great a width across the shoulders.