APPENDIX
Reading edition
STANDARD TIME
BY Standard Time is meant that the hour of each 15° of longitude becomes the local mean time for the zone or belt extending 7 1⁄2° on each side of the central meridian; though in practise the zone has to be adapted to local circumstances, and so cannot conform to the exact line or meridian, but is arranged to suit boundaries of States or Provinces as may be most convenient. By way of illustration, it may be noted that in the Province of Ontario, Canada, by Act of the Legislature, the hour of 75° W. is Standard Time for the Province as far as 87° W., and that the S.W. point, 83° W., extends westerly beyond the eastern part of the State of Michigan, where the time of 90° W. is used; so at Windsor, Ontario, it is noon while in Michigan — more to the east — it is 11 A.M. The Standard Time as used in the chief cities of Canada and the United States may be noted: at Quebec, Montreal, and Toronto, at Boston, New York, and Washington, the time of 75° W., five hours earlier than Greenwich, is used; at Winnipeg in Manitoba, and at Detroit, Chicago, and New Orleans, the time of 90°, {143} six hours earlier than Greenwich, is used; at Regina and Denver it is the time of 105°, seven hours earlier than Greenwich; and in British Columbia and at San Francisco the time of 120° W., eight hours earlier than Greenwich, is used; and when 180° is reached another day begins in Eastern Siberia, at the Fiji Islands, and a little to the east of New Zealand.
The same rule applies to places east of Greenwich, where, of course, noon is earlier than at Greenwich according to the longitude. Spain adopted Standard — that is, Greenwich — Time early in the century. When noon at Greenwich it is 2 P.M. in Egypt and South Africa; it is 5:30 P.M. in India, 82 1⁄2° E.; in Japan and Corea, 135° E., it is 9 P.M.; and in Eastern Australia, 150° E., it is 10 P.M.
The question is often asked, “Where does a day begin?” — that is, any special day, New Year’s Day or Easter Day — and the answer is that for all peoples, nations, and languages, using maps with longitude East and West from Greenwich, each day begins at the meridian of 180°, slightly east of New Zealand in the South, and intersecting Eastern Siberia in the North, and so the last day of the nineteenth century and the first day of the twentieth were on the Earth together, not running concurrently or side by side, north and south of the Equator, as has been {144} supposed, erroneously, but the latter following the former from 180° westerly to Greenwich, and on again to 180°, where it gave place to January 2.
Twelve O’clock Noon Greenwich Mean Time
AS COMPARED WITH THE CLOCK IN THE FOLLOWING PLACES
H. M.
Adelaide 9 14 P.M.
Auckland (N.Z.) 11 39 P.M.
Berlin 0 54 P.M.
Berne 0 30 P.M.
Bombay 4 51 P.M.
Boston, U.S. 7 16 A.M.
Brisbane, Qnsland 10 12 P.M.
Brussels 0 17 P.M.
Calcutta 5 53 P.M.
Cape of Good Hope 1 14 P.M.
Chicago 6 10 A.M.
Constantinople 1 56 P.M.
Dublin 11 35 A.M.
Edinburgh 11 47 A.M.
Florence 0 45 P.M.
Glasgow 11 43 A.M.
Hobart, Tasmania 9 49 P.M.
Jerusalem 2 21 P.M.
Lisbon 11 23 A.M.
Madras 5 21 P.M.
Madrid 11 45 A.M.
Malta 0 58 P.M.
Melbourne, Aus. 9 40 P.M.
Moscow 2 30 P.M.
Newfndland, S. Jns. 8 29 A.M.
New York 7 4 A.M.
Paris 0 9 P.M.
Pekin 7 46 P.M.
Penzance 11 37 A.M.
Perth, W. Aus. 7 43 P.M.
Philadelphia 6 59 A.M.
Port Moresby 10 4 P.M.
Prague 0 58 P.M.
Quebec 7 15 A.M.
Rome 0 50 P.M.
Rotterdam 0 18 P.M.
San Francisco, Port 3 52 A.M.
St. Petersburg 2 1 P.M.
Stockholm 1 12 P.M.
Suez 2 10 P.M.
Sydney 10 5 P.M.
Toronto 6 42 A.M.
Vancouver 3 38 A.M.
Vienna 1 5 P.M.
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FOREIGN COINS
WITH THEIR VALUE IN UNITED STATES MONEY AS PROCLAIMED BY THE SECRETARY OF THE TREASURY 1 OCTOBER, 1910
Country Standard Monetary Unit Val. in terms of U.S. gold dollar Coins
Argentine Republic Gold Peso $0.965 Gold — argentine ($4.824) and 1⁄2 argentine. Silver — peso and divisions
Austria-Hungary Gold Crown .203 Gold — 10 and 20 crowns. Silver — 1 and 5 crowns
Belgium Gold Franc .193 Gold — 10 and 20 francs. Silver — 5 francs
Bolivia Silver Boliviano .389 Silver boliviano and divisions
Brazil Gold Milreis .546 Gold — 5, 10, 20 milreis. Silver — 1⁄2, 1, 2 milreis
British Honduras Gold Dollar 1.000
Canada (except Nfd.) Gold Dollar 1.000
Cent. Amer. States —
Costa Rica Gold Colon .465 Gold — 2, 5, 10, and 20 colons ($9.307). Silver — 5, 10, 25, and 50 centimos
Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, & Salvador Silver Peso .391 Silver — peso and divisions
Chili Gold Peso .365 Gold — escudo ($1.825), doubloon ($3.650), and condor ($7.300). Silver — peso and divisions
China Silver [29]Tael:
Canton .612
Haikwan .652
Hongkong .421
Dol- lar British $0.421
Mexican .424
Colombia Gold Dollar 1.000 Gold — condor ($9.647); d’ble-condor. Silver — peso
Denmark Gold Crown .268 Gold — 10 and 20 crowns
Ecuador Gold Sucre .487 Gold — 10 sucres ($4.8665). Silver — sucre and div.
Egypt Gold Pound (100 piasters) 4.943 Gold — pound (100 piasters), 5, 10, 20, 50 piasters Silver — 1, 2, 5, 10, 20 piasters
Finland Gold Mark .193 Gold — 20 marks ($3.859), 10 marks ($1.93)
France Gold Franc .193 Gold — 5, 10, 20, 50, 100 francs. Silver — 5 francs
German Empire Gold Mark .238 Gold — 5, 10, and 20 marks
Great Britain Gold Pound Sterling 4.866 1⁄2 Gold — sovereign (pound sterling), 1⁄2 sovereign
Greece Gold Drachma .193 Gold — 5, 10, 20, 50, 100 drachmas. Sil. — 5 drachmas
Haiti Gold Gourde .965 Gold — 1, 2, 5, 10 gourdes. Silver — gourde and div.
India (British) Gold Pound Sterling[30] 4.866 1⁄2 Gold — sovereign (pound sterling). Silver — rupee and divisions
Italy Gold Lira .193 Gold — 5, 10, 20, 50, and 100 lire. Silver — 5 lire
Japan Gold Yen .498 Gold — 5, 10, and 20 yen. Silver — 10, 20, and 50 yen
Liberia Gold Dollar 1.000
Mexico Gold Peso[31] .498 Gold — 5, 10 pesos. Silver — dollar (or peso) and div.
Nether- lands Gold Florin .402 Gold — 10 florins. Silver — 2 1⁄2. 1 florin and divisions
Newfound- land Gold Dollar 1.014 Gold — 2 dollars ($2.028)
Norway Gold Crown .268 Gold — 10 and 20 crowns
Panama Gold Balboa 1.000 Gold — 1, 2 1⁄2, 5, 10, 20 balboas. Silver — peso and div.
Persia Silver Kran .072 Gold — 1⁄2, 1 and 2 tomans ($3.409). Silver — 1⁄4, 1⁄2, 1, 2, and 5 krans
Peru Gold Libra 4.866 1⁄2 Gold — 1⁄2 and 1 libra. Silver — sol and divisions
Philippine Islands Gold Peso .500 Silver peso — 10, 20 and 50 centavos
Portugal Gold Milreis 1.080 Gold — 1, 2, 5 and 10 milreis
Russia Gold Ruble .515 Gold — 5, 7 1⁄2, 10, and 15 rubles. Silver — 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 50, and 100 copeks
Spain Gold Peseta .193 Gold — 25 pesetas. Silver — 5 pesetas
Straits Settlements Gold Pound Sterling[32] 4.866 1⁄2 Gold — sovereign (pound sterling). Sil. — dol. and div.
Sweden Gold Crown .268 Gold — 10 and 20 crowns
Switzerland Gold Franc .193 Gold — 5, 10, 20, 50, and 100 francs. Silver — 5 francs
Turkey Gold Piaster .044 Gold — 25, 50, 100, 250, and 500 piasters
Uruguay Gold Peso 1.034 Gold — peso. Silver — peso and divisions
Venezuela Gold Bolivar .193 Gold — 5, 10, 20, 50, 100 bolivars. Silver — 5 bolivars
NOTE. — The coins of silver-standard countries are valued by their pure silver contents at the average market price of silver for the three months preceding the date of this table. (Courtesy The World Almanac.)
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COMPARATIVE THERMOMETERS
Réaumur Centi- grade Fahren- heit
80 100 212 Water boils at sea-level
76 95 203
72 90 194
68 85 185
63.1 78.9 174 Alcohol boils
60 75 167
56 70 158
52 65 149 White of egg coagulates
48 60 140
44 55 131
42.2 52.8 127
40 50 122
36 45 113 Tallow melts
33.8 42.2 108
32 40 104
29.3 36.7 98 Blood heat
28 35 95
25.8 32.2 90
24 30 86
21.3 26.7 80
20 25 77
16 20 68 Temperate
12.4 15.3 60
10.2 12.8 55
8 10 50
5.8 7.2 45
4 5 41
1.3 1.7 35
0 0 32 Water freezes
0.9 - 1.1 30
4 - 9 23
5.3 - 6.7 20
8 -10 14
9.8 -12.2 10
12 -15 5
14.2 -17.8 0 Zero Fahr.
16 -20 - 4
20 -25 -13
24 -30 -22
28 -35 -31
32 -40 -40 Mercury freezes
To change from centigrade to Fahrenheit multiply by 9, divide by 5, and add 32. To change from Réaumur to Fahrenheit, multiply by 9, divide by 4, and add 32.
(Courtesy The World Almanac)
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
THE METRIC SYSTEM
Multiples which are used equally with all the principal units M (myria = 10000) K (kilo = 1000) H (hekto = 100) D (deka = 10)
(NOTE. These are Greek numerals)
Divisions which are used equally with all the principle units d (deci = .1) c (centi = .01) m (milli = .001)
(NOTE. These are Latin numerals)
Kinds of Quantities Measured Principal Units Definitions
Length m (meter)
Area sq. m (square meter)
a (Ar) 1 sq. Dm.
Volume cu m (cubic meter)
s (ster) 1 cu. m.
l (liter) 1 cu. d m
Weight g (gram) Weight of 1 cu. cm. of pure water at 4° centigrade
NOTE. 1000 kg. is called t. (a metric ton.)
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LINEAR MEASURE
12 in. = 1 foot
3 ft. = 1 yd.
5 1⁄2 yds. = 1 rod
320 rds. = 1 mile
5280 ft. = 1 mile
3 miles = 1 league
The hand (4 in.) is used to measure the height of horses. The nautical mile is 6086.44 ft. 1 knot is 1.1528 statute miles. 1 degree is 67.168 statute miles.
SQUARE MEASURE
144 sq. in. = 1 sq. ft.
9 sq. ft. = 1 sq. yd.
30 1⁄4 sq. yds. = 1 sq. rod
160 sq. rods = 1 acre
640 acres = 1 sq. mile
The side of a square having an area of an acre is approximately 208 3⁄4 feet.
DRY MEASURE
2 pints = 1 quart
8 quarts = 1 peck
4 pecks = 1 bushel
LIQUID MEASURE
4 gills = 1 pt.
2 pts. = 1 qt.
4 qts. = 1 gall.
31 1⁄2 gall. = 1 barrel
2 barrels = 1 hogshead
APOTHECARIES’ WEIGHT
20 grains = 1 scruple
3 scruples = 1 dram
8 drams = 1 ounce
12 ounces = 1 pound
AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT
16 drams = 1 ounce
16 ounces = 1 pound
100 pounds = 1 hundredweight
20 hundredweights = 1 ton
Long ton = 2240 pounds, used mostly in Great Britain.
TROY WEIGHT
24 grains = 1 pennyweight
20 pennyweights = 1 ounce
12 ounces = 1 pound
1 carat in diamond, measure = 3.2 Troy grains.
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PAPER MEASURE
24 sheets = 1 quire
20 quires = 1 ream
2 reams = 1 bundle
5 bundles = 1 bale
TIME MEASURE
60 seconds = 1 minute
60 minutes = 1 hour
24 hours = 1 day
7 days = 1 week
28, 29, 30, or 31 days = 1 calendar month (30 days = 1 month in computing interest)
365 days = 1 year
366 days = 1 leap year
CIRCULAR MEASURE
60 seconds = 1 minute
60 minutes = 1 degree
30 degrees = 1 sign
90 degrees = 1 quadrant
4 quadrants = 12 signs, or 360 degrees = 1 circle
CLOTH MEASURE
2 1⁄4 inches = 1 nail
4 nails = 1 quarter
4 quarters = 1 yard
MARINERS’ MEASURE
6 feet = 1 fathom
120 fathoms = 1 cab. le’th.
7 1⁄2 cable lengths = 1 mile
5280 feet = 1 stat. mile
6085 feet = 1 naut. mile
MISCELLANEOUS
3 inches = 1 palm
4 inches = 1 hand
6 inches = 1 span
18 inches = 1 cubit
21.8 in. = 1 Bible cubit
2 1⁄2 ft. = 1 military pace
SURVEYORS’ MEASURE
7.92 inches = 1 link
25 links = 1 rod
4 rods = 1 chain
10 square chains or 160 square rods = 1 acre
640 acres = 1 sq. mile
36 sq. miles (6 miles sq.) = 1 township
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CUBIC MEASURE
1728 cubic in. = 1 cub. ft.
27 cubic ft. = 1 cubic yd.
128 c. ft. = 1 cord (wood)
40 cub. ft. = 1 ton (shpg.)
2150.42 cubic inches = 1 standard bushel
268.8 cubic inches = 1 standard gallon
1 cubic foot = about four-fifths of a bushel
METRIC EQUIVALENTS
Linear Measure
1 centimeter = 0.3937 in. 1 in. = 2.54 centimeters
1 decimeter = 3.937 in. = 0.328 feet 1 ft. = 3.048 decimeters
1 meter = 39.37 in. = 1.0936 yards 1 yard = 0.9144 meter
1 dekameter = 1.9884 rods 1 rod= 0.5029 dekameter
1 kilometer = 0.62137 mile 1 mile = 1.6093 kilometers
Square Measure
1 sq. centimeter = 0.1550 sq. in. 1 sq. inch = 6452 square centimeters
1 sq. decimeter = 0.1076 sq. ft. 1 sq. foot = 9.2903 square decimeters
1 sq. meter = 1.196 sq. yd. 1 sq. yd. = 0.8361 sq. m’r.
1 are = 3.954 sq. rd. 1 sq. rd. = 0.2529 are
1 hektar = 2.47 acres 1 acre= 0.4047 hektar
1 sq. kilometer = 0.386 sq. m. 1 sq. m. = 2.59 sq. kilometers
Measure of Volume
1 cu. centimeter = 0.061 cu. in. 1 cu. in. = 16.39 cu. centimeters
1 cu. decimeter= 0.0353 cu. ft. 1 cu. ft. = 28.317 cu. decimeters
1 cu. mr.= 1.308 cu. yd. 1 cu. yd. = 0.7646 cu. mr.
1 cu. mr.= 0.2759 cd.
1 stere= 1.308 cu. yd. 1 cord = 3.624 steres
1 stere= 0.2759 cd.
1 liter= 0.908 qt. dry 1 qt. dry = 1.101 liters
1 liter= 1.0567 qt. liq. 1 qt. liq. = 0.9463 liter
1 dekaliter= 2.6417 gal. 1 gal. = 0.3785 dekaliter
1 dekaliter= .135 pks. 1 peck = 0.881 dekaliter
1 hektoliter= 2.8375 bush. 1 bus. = 0.3524 hektoliter
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Weights
1 gram. = 0.03527 ounce 1 ounce = 28.85 grams.
1 kilogram = 2.2046 lbs. 1 lb. = 0.4536 kilogram
1 metric ton = 1.1023 English ton 1 English ton = 0.9072 metric ton
British Weights and Measures
The British Weights and Measures Act of 1878, which superseded all previous laws upon the subject, enacts the measures which may legally be used in the United Kingdom. These are based upon the Standard Yard and the Standard Pound.
Further Acts of Parliament were passed in 1889 and 1904 dealing with the question of verification of weights and measures, and regulations were issued by the Board of Trade in 1907 respecting the inspection and stamping of weights and measures.
The Yard and the Pound are the only two independent standards for weights and measures, as the Gallon, the standard of capacity, both for dry and liquid measure, is not independent, but is based upon the Pound. The Gallon is defined in the Act of 1878 as the volume of ten Imperial Standard Pounds weight of distilled water weighed in air against brass weights, with the water and air at the temperature of 62° Fahrenheit and the barometer at 30 inches.
The multiples and subdivisions of the Standard Yard, Pound, and Gallon, as laid {154} down in the Act of 1878, are as follows; the legal abbreviations are given in brackets:
1. MEASURES OF LENGTH
12 inches (in.) = 1 foot (ft.)
3 feet = 1 YARD (yd.)
5 1⁄2 yards = 1 rod, pole, or perch
4 poles = 1 chain or 100 links
10 chains = 1 furlong
8 furlongs = 1 mile
2. MEASURES OF WEIGHT
7000 grains (gr.) = 1 POUND (lb.)
Also
16 drams (dr.) = 1 ounce (oz.)
16 ounces = 1 POUND (lb.)
14 pounds = 1 stone
8 stone = 1 hundredweight (cwt.)
20 hundredweights = 1 ton
3. MEASURES OF CAPACITY
4 gills = 1 pint
2 pints = 1 quart
4 quarts = 1 GALLON
2 gallons = 1 peck
4 pecks = 1 bushel
8 bushels = 1 quarter
36 bushels = 1 chaldron
4. MEASURES OF LAND
40 square perches = 1 rood
4 roods = 1 acre
For certain special purposes, the following are also authorized by the Act of 1878 or by Order in Council under the Act:
1. For weighing gold and silver and precious stones: {155}
The Troy ounce, equal in weight to 480 grains. In dealing with quantities less than an ounce, the ounce is divided decimally, not into grains. Larger quantities than an ounce are stated in ounces. There is no Troy pound.
2. For the use of apothecaries and for selling drugs retail:
(a) MEASURES OF WEIGHT
20 grains = 1 scruple ()
3 scruples = 1 drachm ()
8 drachms = 1 Apothecaries’ ounce (oz. Apoth.)
(b) MEASURES OF CAPACITY
60 minims (min.) = 1 fluid drachm (fl. dr.)
8 fluid drachms = 1 fluid ounce (fl. oz.)
Of the Apothecaries’ measure of weight, the grain is the same as the Imperial grain; and the Apothecaries’ ounce contains 480 grains, like the Troy ounce. But, of the measures of capacity, the Apothecaries’ drachm is not the same as the Imperial dram, and the two words are spelt differently. A fluid ounce of distilled water at a temperature of 62° Fahrenheit is equal in weight to the Imperial ounce (437.5 grains), and the fluid drachm (54.6875 grains) is equal in weight to two Imperial drams.
ELECTRICAL MEASURES
It is customary to express electrical measures in terms of the centimeter, the gramme, and the second, and the value of the units {156} has been fixed by international agreement. The principal units, as described in the Order in Council of January 10, 1910, are as follows:
The OHM, the unit of resistance, is the resistance offered to an unvarying electric current by a column of mercury, at the temperature of melting ice, 14.4521 grammes in mass, of a constant cross-sectional area, and of a length of 106.3 centimeters.
The AMPERE, the unit of current, is the unvarying electric current which, when passed through a solution of nitrate of silver in water, deposits silver at the rate of 0.001118 of a gramme per second.
The VOLT, the unit of pressure, is the pressure which, when steadily applied to a conductor whose resistance is one ohm, will produce a current of one ampere.
The WATT, the unit of power, is 1⁄746 of one horse-power, the horse-power being 33,000 lb. raised one foot in one minute. The Board of Trade unit is 1000 Watt-hours.
In carbon lamps of 16-candle power (nominal) about four watts are required per candle power to give good economical results for domestic purposes. One Board of Trade unit will keep a 16-candle carbon lamp alight for about 16 hours; metallic filament lamps require considerably less. {157}
MEASURES FOR SPECIAL PURPOSES
Builders’ Measurements
Stock or kiln bricks 8 3⁄4 inches × 4 1⁄4 × 2 3⁄4
Welsh fire-bricks 9 inches × 4 1⁄2 × 2 3⁄4
Paving bricks 9 inches × 4 1⁄2 × 1 3⁄4
Square tiles 9 3⁄4 inches × 9 3⁄4 × 1
Square tiles 6 inches × 6 × 1
Dutch clinker bricks 9 1⁄4 inches × 3 × 1 1⁄2
A Rod of Brickwork 16 1⁄2 feet × 16 1⁄2 feet × 1 1⁄2 brick thick = 306 cubic feet, or 11 1⁄3 cubic yards, and contains about 4500 bricks with about 75 cubic feet of mortar.
Ordinary bricks weigh about 7 lb. each; a load of 500 weighs about 1 ton 11 cwt. 1 qr.
A Piece of Wall Paper is 12 yd. long × 21 in. wide (English), and 9 yd. × 18 in. (French).
Timber and Wood
40 cubic feet rough, 50 cubic feet squared = 1 load
50 cubic feet of planks = 1 load
100 superficial feet = 1 square of flooring
120 Deals = 100
Width of Battens, 7 inches; Deals, 9 inches; Planks are 2 to 4 inches thick, and 10 or 11 inches wide. A Cord of Wood is 2 1⁄2 tons, or 128 cubic feet.
Corn
Wheat and other cereals are commonly sold by weight, the bushel being thus reckoned:
Wheat, English, 60 lb. Foreign, 62 lb.
Barley, English, 50 lb. French, 52 1⁄2 lb. Mediterranean, 50 lb. {158}
Oats, English, 39 lb. Foreign, 38 and 40 lb.
Rye and Maize, 60 lb.
Buckwheat, 52 lb.
Hay and Straw
Truss of Straw, 36 lb. of Old Hay, 56 lb. of New Hay (to September 1), 60 lb.
Load, 36 Trusses — Straw, 11 cwt. 2 qr. 8 lb.; Old Hay, 18 cwt.; New Hay, 19 cwt. 1 qr. 4 lb.
Yard Measures
Cotton and Spun Silk Count. — Thread = 1 1⁄2 yards; Lea, or Skein, skn. = 120 yards; Hank, hk = 7 Skeins, or Leas = 840 yards; Spindle, spdl. = 18 Hanks; counts = the number of Hanks in 1 lb.; Bundle Hanks, either of 5 lb. or 10 lb.; Reels of Cotton vary from 30 to 1760 yards; they must be marked correctly. Bundles of Cotton are chiefly made up for export.
Worsted Count. — Wrap, 80 yards; Hank = 560 yards = 7 Wraps. Counts or Numbers are the number of hanks in a lb.
Linen Count. — The Hank or Lea is 300 yards, and the number of these in 1 lb. is the count of the yarn. A Spindle is 48 hanks; a Bundle is 200 hanks.
West of England Count. — The Hank is 320 yards, and the number of hanks in 1 lb. is the count of the yarn. {159}
Size of Barrel Gals.
Firkin or Quarter Barrel 9
Anker (10 gallons) 10
Kilderkin, Rundlet, or 1⁄2 Barrel 18
Barrel 36
Tierce (42 gallons) 42
Hogshead of Ale (1 1⁄2 barrels) 54
Puncheon 72
Butt of Ale 108
In the British Dependencies
The Imperial weights and measures are the legal standards in the British Dominions and in India. In some Colonies the Metric system may also be used. In certain Colonies and in India, the old local measures are still employed to a considerable extent. Among these are the following:
INDIAN WEIGHTS (Bengal)
Tola, unit of postage = 180 grains
Chittak = 5 Tolas;
Seer (16 Chittaks) = 2 9⁄35 lb.
Imperial or Indian Maund = 82 2⁄7 lb. = 40 seer
Madras
Viss = 3.09 lbs.,
Maund = 25 lb.,
Candy = 500 lb.
SOUTH AFRICAN LAND MEASURES
Cape Morgen = 2.11654 English Acres
Cape Feet = 1.033 English Feet
Cape Rood = 12.396 English Feet
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European Countries
The metric system of weights and measures has been adopted in the following countries:
Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, France, Germany, Italy, Portugal, Norway, Rumania, Servia, Spain, Sweden, and Switzerland.
In Russia the standard of length is the Sachine, which is equal to seven British feet; the standard of weight is the Pound, equal to nine-tenths of the British pound. The other measures are:
1. MEASURES OF LENGTH
16 vershok = 1 archine
3 archine = 1 sachine
500 sachine = 1 verst
2. MEASURES OF WEIGHT
3 zolotnik = 1 loth
32 loth = 1 pound
40 pounds = 1 pood
10 poods = 1 berkovatz
In Turkey the weights and measures differ considerably in different parts of the Empire, but the following are those used at Constantinople and the neighborhood:
1. MEASURES OF LENGTH
2 jeras = 1 rup
8 rups = 1 pek = 26.77 British inches
2. MEASURES OF WEIGHT
16 kirats = 1 dram
400 drams = 1 oke = 2.828 British pounds
44 okes = 1 kantar
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The usual measure of capacity in Turkey is the Kileh, which is slightly larger than the British bushel.
TIME AND WATCH ON BOARD SHIP
Time. — Time is kept by means of “Bells,” although there is but one bell on the ship; and to strike the clapper properly against the bell requires some skill.
First, two strokes of the clapper at the interval of a second, then an interval of two seconds; then two more strokes with a second’s interval apart, then a rest of two seconds, thus:
Bell, one second; B., two secs.; B. s.; B. ss.; B. s.; B. ss.; B.
Watch. — For purposes of discipline, and to divide the work fairly, the crew is mustered in two divisions: the Starboard (right side, looking forward) and the Port (left). The day commences at noon, and is thus divided:
Afternoon Watch noon to 4 P.M.
First Dog Watch 4 P.M. to 6 P.M.
Second Dog Watch 6 P.M. to 8 P.M.
First Watch 8 P.M. to midnight
Middle Watch 12 A.M. to 4 A.M.
Morning Watch 4 A.M. to 8 A.M.
Forenoon Watch 8 A.M. to noon
This makes seven Watches, which enables the crew to keep them alternately, as the Watch which is on duty in the forenoon one {162} day has the afternoon the next day, and the men who have only four hours’ rest one night have eight hours the next. This is the reason for having Dog Watches, which are made by dividing the hours between 4 P.M. and 8 P.M. into two Watches.
PARCEL POST — TABLE OF RATES
Weight of Parcel Local Rate 1st zone up to 50 miles 2d zone 50 to 150 miles 3d zone 150 to 300 miles 4th zone 300 to 600 miles
1 lb. 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08
2 lbs. 0.06 .08 .10 .12 .14
3 lbs. 0.07 .11 .14 .17 .20
4 lbs. .08 .14 .18 .22 .26
5 lbs. .09 .17 .22 .27 .32
6 lbs. .10 .20 .26 .32 .38
7 lbs. .11 .23 .30 .37 .44
8 lbs. .12 .26 .34 .42 .50
9 lbs. .13 .29 .38 .47 .56
10 lbs. .14 .32 .42 .52 .62
11 lbs. .15 .35 .46 .57 .68
Weight of Parcel 5th zone 600 to 1000 miles 6th zone 1000 to 1400 miles 7th zone 1400 to 1800 miles 8th zone all over 1800 miles
1 lb. 0.09 0.10 0.11 0.12
2 lbs. .16 .19 .21 .24
3 lbs. .23 .28 .31 .36
4 lbs. .30 .37 .41 .48
5 lbs. .37 .46 .51 .60
6 lbs. .44 .55 .61 .72
7 lbs. .51 .64 .71 .84
8 lbs. .58 .73 .81 .96
9 lbs. .65 .82 .91 1.08
10 lbs. .72 .91 1.01 1.20
11 lbs. .79 1.00 1.11 1.32
{163} INDEX “A” and “an,” spacing of, 60. “a” (negative prefix), compounds of, 50. Abbreviations, use of period with, 12; of firms and corporations; capitalization of, 23; of degrees, capitalization of, 25; of titles and States, spacing of, 59–60; of italicized words in literary and legal references, 64; of dates and usages thereto, 65; of proper names, 66; of Christian names, 66–68; of titles, 68–75; of commercial terms, 76–77; of geographical terms, 77–81; miscellaneous, 81–89; scriptural, 90; of monetary signs, 90–91; of mathematical signs, 91–92; of medical signs, 92; not used in salutation of letters, 117. -able and -ible, spelling of words terminating in, 38–39; in division of words, 53. Abstract ideas: capitalization of personified, 23. Accents: list of symbols, 2; list of accented words, 36–37; retention of, in foreign words used in English, 36–37. “Accept,” correct use of, 101. Acts, juridical, capitalization of, 27. A.D. (anno Domini): set in small caps, 30; spacing of, 59. “Addenda,” plural of addendum, 109. Address (of letters) the: business, formal, and informal, 116. Adjectival nouns, capitalization of, 24. Adjectives: use of comma with, 4, 5, 8; capitalization of, in titles of books and essays, 26; capitalization, with proper names, 26; compound, 46; ending in -ical, how to divide, 54. ad loc., italicized, 64. “Administration,” capitalization of, 25. “Admire,” correct use of, 101. “Admit,” correct use of, 101. “Admittance,” correct use of, 99. Adverbs: use of comma with, 4, 5; ending in “-ly” not to be hyphenated with adjectives and participles, 46; compound, treatment of, 51; position of, 101. æ, rules for use of, 33. “Affable,” correct use of, 101. “Affect,” correct use of, 101. Ages, to be spelled out, 32. “Aggravate,” correct use of, 101. “Ain’t,” correct use of, 101. Alford, Dean: on use of the comma, 4. Algebraic, unknown quantities italicized, 64. Alignment, of quotation marks, 16. Alliances, political, capitalization of names of, 27. “All right,” correct use of, 101. “Alternative,” correct use of, 101. A.M. (ante meridiem): set in small capitals, 30; spacing of, 59. Ampere. See Electrical measures. Ampersand (&), the use of, 66. Analogy of language, influence in diction, 99. “And,” correct use of, 101; when to use comma before, 5. “Ante,” compounds with, 50. “Anti,” compounds with, 50. Antithetical clauses. See Clauses. “Any place,” use of, 101. Apocrypha, list of abbreviations for, 90. Apostrophe: rules for use of, 18–19; in designating the possessive case, 18; in forming plurals of numerals, 19; in forming plurals of polysyllabic proper nouns ending in a sibilant, 19; in indicating omission of letters or figures, 19; in indicating omission of letters in contracted words, 19; omission of, in words contracted in poetry, 19. Apothecaries’ weight, table of, 150. “Apparently,” correct use of, 101. “Apt,” correct use of, 102. Art, titles of works of, to be quoted, 17. Articles: definite, not to be treated as part of title of magazines and newspapers, 30; correct use of, 102. “As,” correct use of, 102. Astronomical terms: capitalization of, 23; names of stars and constellations, italicized, 64. “At,” correct use of, 102. “At length,” correct use of, 102. “Aught,” correct use of, 102. “Avail,” correct use of, 102. Avoirdupois weight, table of, 150. “Aware,” correct use of, 102. “Awful,” correct use of, 102. “Badly,” correct use of, 102. “Bank on,” use of, 102. Barrels, measures of, in gallons, 159. B.C. (before Christ): set in small caps, 30; spacing of, 59. “Beg,” correct use of, 103. Bells, use of on board ship, 161. “Bi-,” compounds with, 50. Bible: capitalization of names of books, divisions and versions of, 20; abbreviations for books of, 90. Biblical: parables, capitalization of, 20; general terms, capitalization of, 21; capitalization of names and terms of, 20–21; books, abbreviations for, 90. Blocked indention: in general, 56; of address of letters, 116. Books: capitalization of titles, 26; italicizing of titles, 62; biblical abbreviations of, 90. Botanical terms: capitalization of, 23; names of genera and species, italicized, 64. Box-heads, omission of period after, 12. Brackets, rules for use of, 18. Break, or sudden change in sentence, indicated by dash, 13. Briefness of form preferred, 99. “Bring,” use of, 103. British Dependencies, weights and measures of, 159. British weights and measures, 153. “Brother,” compounds with, 47. Builders’ measures, table of, 157. Buildings, capitalization of names of, 23. Business letter. See Letter. “But,” correct use of, 103. “By,” compounds with, 48. C, soft, do not divide on, 53. “Cabinet,” capitalization of, 25. Campbell, Dr. Thomas, canons of, 99–100. “Can,” distinguished from may, 103. Canada, postal rates to, 135. “Cannot but,” correct use of, 103. “Can’t seem,” correct use of, 103. Capitalization: of religious terms, 20–22; of proper names, 22–24; of titles, 24–26; of institutional terms, 26–28; of references, 28; of ordinals, 29; in general, 29–30; of abbreviation of academic degrees, 25; of abstract ideas personified, 23; of acts juridical, 27; of adjectives derived from proper nouns, 22; of adjectives and nouns designating definite geographical regions, 22; of astronomical terms, 23; of political alliances, 27; of books of the Bible, 20; of titles of books, 26; of botanical terms, 23; of buildings, 23; of “church,” 20; of civic titles, 25; of word following a colon, 26; of compound titles, 21; of hyphenated compounds, 29; of sessions of Congress, 29; of conventions, 25; of corporations — names and abbreviations, 23; of names of dynasties, 29; of ecclesiastical appellations, 26; of epithets used as proper names, 22; of titles of essays, 26; of “father,” 22; of “Fathers” — early church, 22; of foreign titles, as prefixes, 25–26; of geographical terms, 22–23; of geological terms, 23; of “gospel,” 20–21; of “government,” 25; of historical epochs, 22; of holidays, 26–27; of judiciary bodies, 28; of names of laws, 27; of names of legislative bodies, 28; of letters (correspondence), 29; of units of measurement, 29–30; of medical terms, 23; of military terms, 25; of monastic orders, 20; of “mother,” 24; of months of year, 23; of names for the Evil One, 21; names of political parties, 27; names of races, tribes, etc., 27; names of regiments, 29; of names of societies, 25; of popular names for the solar system, 23; of streets, parks, etc., 23; of titles of parables (biblical), 20; of titles of periodicals, 30; of “Pilgrim Fathers,” 22; of poetry, 29; of political alliances, 27; of political divisions, 28; of pronouns referring to the Deity, 21; of quotations, 29–30; of “revolutionary,” 22; of scientific terms, 23; of social organizations, 25; of side-heads, 29; of “State,” 24–25; of words on title-pages, 30; of names of treaties, 27; of “van” and “von” as prefixes, 25–26; of words with special meanings, 29; of zoölogical terms, 23; rules for, 20–30. Capitalized words, list of: religious, 21; proper, 24. Capitals: original use of, 20; rules for use of, 20–30; and small capitals, rules for use of, 28–30; how indicated in MS., 30. Cases: confusion of, 103. Caxton: his influence on punctuation, 9. Centered head-lines, omission of period after, 12. Centigrade. See Thermometers. Centuries, numbers of, to be spelled out, 32. cf., to be set in roman, 64. “Cherubim,” plural of cherub, 109. “Childlike,” correct use of, 103. Christ, pronouns referring to, how capitalized, 21. Christian names, abbreviation of, 66–68. “Church,” when capitalized, 20. Circa (ca.), italicized, 64. Circular measure, table of, 151. Circulars, postal rates and regulations for, 130. Citation of legal causes: names of, italicized, 64; of author’s own words, quotation marks used, 16; of different works by same author or by different authors without intervening original matter, to be quoted, 16. Civil titles, capitalization of, 25. Classes of mail, rates, etc., 129–132. Clauses, use of comma with: inverted, 5; independent, 6; relative, 6; dependent, 6; parenthetical, 5; co-ordinate, 6; antithetical, 7; Use of dash before concluding clause, 13. Cloth measure, table of, 151. “Co-,” compounds with, 47–48. Coins, foreign: list of, showing comparative values, 145–147. “College,” capitalization of, 27. Colon: definition and use of, 10–11; capitalization, following use of, 26, 29, 30; use of in formal salutatory phrases beginning letters, 11, 117; in titles of literary references, 11; of names of publishers, 11; first word following, in quotation, capitalized, 11; use of, with quotation-marks, 11; before formal quotations, 11; separating chapter and verse in scriptural references, 11; in separating divisions of time, 11; use of hair-space before, 59; separating city of publication and publisher’s name, 11. “Colonel,” when spelled in full, and when abbreviated, 68–69. “Color,” hyphenization of compounds of, 46. “Come,” correct use of, 103. Comma: definition and use of, 4; when omitted, 7–8; omitted between two adjectives, 4; use of, with adverbs, 4, 5; with adjectives, 4, 5; before “but,” 6. With clauses: antithetical, 7; co-ordinate, 6, 7; dependent, 6; parenthetical, 5; and relative, 6. Use of: with conjunctions, 4–7; separating degrees from names of persons, 7; indicating ellipses, 7; separating numbers, 7; with quotation-marks, 4; with phrases, inverted and in opposition, 5–6; before “of” in connection with residence, 7; in salutatory phrase, 7, 117; in inverted sentences, 5; separating titles from names, 6; separating vocative words, 7; substitution of dashes for, 14; use of with exclamation point, 15; rules for use of, 4–8; omitted with pronouns used with nouns for emphasis, 8. Comments, notes of, inclosed in brackets, 18. Commercial terms, abbreviation of, 76–77. “Common,” correct use of, 103. “Company”: capitalization of, 23; abbreviation of, 66; use of (&) with, 66. Compass: capitalization of points of, 22, 23, 24; hyphenization of points of, 49. Complimentary close, of letters, 121. Compound: adjectives, 46; adverbs, 51. Compound titles, spelling, abbreviation, and capitalization of, 68–96. Compound words: general theory of and rules for, 45–51; list of, 49; division of, to be avoided, 54. Compounds, hyphenated: capitalization of, 29. Compounds, with: “a-” (negative prefix), 50; “ante,” 50; “anti,” 50; “bi,” 50; “brother,” 47; “by,” 48; “co,” 47–48; “daughter,” 47; “demi,” 50; “deutero,” 51; “elect,” 47; “electro,” 51; “ex,” 47; “extra,” 48; “eye,” 51; “father,” 47; “fellow,” 47; “foster,” 47; “general,” 47; “god,” 47; “half,” 47; “holder,” 51; “in,” 50; “infra,” 48; “inter,” 50; “intra,” 50; (negative prefix), 50; “life,” 47; “like,” 49; “man,” 49; “master,” 47; “mid,” 46; “monger,” 51; “mother,” 47; “non-,” 50; “over,” 50; “parent,” 47; “post,” 50; “pre,” 47–48; “pseudo,” 51; “quarter,” 47; “quasi,” 48; “re,” 47–48; “school,” 51; “self,” 47; “semi,” 48, 50; “sister,” 47; “sub,” 50; “sulpho,” 51; “super,” 50; “supra,” 48; “thermo,” 51; “to,” 50; “tree,” 49; “tri,” 50; “ultra,” 48; “un” (negative prefix), 50; “under,” 50; “vice,” 46; “woman,” 49; “world,” 47. Concealed mail matter, law concerning, 133. “Confess,” use of, 103. Congress: sessions of, capitalization, 29; numbers of, spelled out, 32. Conjunctions: use of comma with, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8; capitalization of, in titles of books and essays, 26. “Conscious,” correct use of, 103. Consonants, construction of, rules for division of words, 52–53. Constellations, names of, italicized, 64. “Constitution,” capitalization of, 25. “Continual,” correct use of, 103. Contraction of word, use of apostrophe, 19. Conventions, capitalization of names of, 25. Co-ordinate clauses. See Clauses. Corporations, capitalization of names, of abbreviations, and of “Co.,” 23. Corrections, indicated by use of brackets, 18. Correctness, a requisite of discourse, 99. Credits, italicizing of, 62. Criticisms, indicated by use of brackets, 18. Cuba, postal rates to, 135. Cubic measure, table of, 152. Cut-in side notes, omission of period after, 12. Dashes: use of, with changed construction, dates, abrupt terminations, rhetorical emphasis, verse and page references, short, snappy sentences, omitted letters, concluding clauses, 13; for separating subject-matter from its authority, 13; to precede addition to completed sentence, 14; substitution of, for commas or parenthesis, 14; with colon, to mark long quotation, 14; substitution of, for quotation-marks, 14; misuse of, 12; rules for, 13–14; use in France, 14; use of hair-space with, 59; examples of, 60; use of in salutatory phrases of letters, 117. “Data,” plural of datum, 109. Date-lines, omission of period after, 12. Dates: use of dash to connect, 13; abbreviation of, 65–66; st, d, rd, and th, to be omitted, 65; of letters, where placed, when capitalized and italicized, 30; ult., inst., and prox., not used, 65; the Dewey, 66; of letters, 115. “Daughter,” compounds with, 47. Days of week: capitalization of, 23; abbreviation of, 65–66. “Deadly,” correct use of, 103. Decades, specific references to, spelled out, 32. “Decided,” correct use of, 104. “Definite,” correct use of, 104. Degrees: capitalization and abbreviations of, 25; use of comma separating, from name of person, 6. “Demean,” correct use of, 104. “Demi,” compounds with, 50. Dependent clauses, use of comma, 6. Derivation, influence of, in division, 52, 53. “Deutero,” compounds with, 51. Devil. See Evil One. Dewey abbreviations of dates, the, 66. Diction, correct and faulty, 99–113; Dr. Campbell’s canons, 99; use of standard authors, 100; list of words and phrases, 101–113. Dictionary, the function of, 100. “Different,” correct use of, 104. Diphthongs, general rules for, 33. Directions, use of brackets in indicating, 18. “Directly,” use of, 104. Disbelief, in statement, indicated by use of exclamation-point, 15. “Discover,” correct use of, 104. Display composition, use of period after, 12. Division of words: rules for, 52–54; avoid unnecessary, 52; on two letters to be avoided, 53. Divisional mark, avoid separating from matter it pertains to, 54. Dollars ($), no space between symbol and following figures, 60; table of monetary signs, 90–91. Domestic postal rates, 134. “Donne,” plural of donna, 109. “Don’t,” correct use of, 104. Drop-folios, enclosed by brackets, 18. Dry measure, table of, 150. Dynasties: capitalization of names, 29; numbers of, to be spelled out, 32. “Each other,” correct use of, 104. Ecclesiastical appellations, capitalization of, 26. “Effect,” correct use of, 104. e.g., set in roman, 64. “Egoists,” correct use of, 104. “Either,” correct use of, 104. “Elect,” compounds with, 47. Electrical measures, 155–156. “Electro,” compounds with, 51. Ellipses: comma indicating, 7; period indicating, 12; to be treated as part of quotation, 17. Emphasis, rhetorical: use of dash to secure, 13; of exclamation-point, 15; of paragraph, 57–58; of italics, 62. En échelon indention: described, 56; use of in addressing letters, 116; “Enormity,” correct use of, 104. “Enthuse,” (verb) correct use of, 104. Enumerations, use of parentheses in connection with letters or figures used to express subdivisions in, 18. Envelopes, rules for addressing, 123–124. Epithets: capitalized when used as proper names, 22; hyphenization of compound personal, 49. Essays, capitalization of titles, 26. etc., quotation-marks to include, 17. Euphony, authority of, 100. European countries, weights and measures of, 159–160. “Every place,” written everywhere, 104. Evil One, the capitalization of names for, 21. “ex-,” prefixed to titles, 47. “Excellent,” never qualified, 104. “Except” (verb), correct use of, 104. “Exceptional,” correct use of, 105. Exclamation-point: proper use of, 14–15; with quotation-marks, 14–15; origin, 15; expressing strong emotion, 15; sarcasm or doubt, 15; use of, with comma, 15; as distinguished from vocative, 15; use of hair-space preceding, 59. “Expect,” correct use of, 105. Expositions, capitalization of names of, 25. “Extra,” compounds with, 48. “Eye,” compounds with, 51. Fahrenheit. See Thermometers. “Falseness,” correct use of, 105. Family names, capitalization of, 24. “Fathers”: capitalization of, 24; use of compounds with, 47. “Federal,” capitalization of, 25. “Fellow,” compounds of, 47. Figures: rules for use of, 31–33; use of apostrophe to indicate omission of, 19; used to mark divisions in enumerations, to be placed in parentheses, 18; percentage, figures always to be used, 31; use of, in statistics, 32; spacing of, 59; spacing between, and $, £, 60. “Fix,” correct use of, 105. Foreign languages: capitalization of titles, as von, le, da, etc., 25–26; spelling of words ending in re (French), 36; words and phrases, when italicized, 62–63; list of italicized and not italicized words, 63; use of accents, 36–37. Foreign titles, capitalization of, 25–26. Foreign words, plurals of. See Plurals. Formal letter. See Letter. “Former,” correct use of, 105. Forwarding of mail matter, 132. “Foster,” compounds with, 47. Fractions, use of hyphens in spelling, 48. France, use of dash in, 14. French endings in re, not to be used, 36. G, soft, do not divide on, 53. “General,” compounds with, 47. “Gentleman,” correct use of, 105. “Gentleman friend,” to be avoided, 105. Geographical terms: capitalization of, 22; abbreviations of, 77–81. Geological terms: capitalization of, 23; italicized, 64. Geometric symbols, as unknown quantities, italics, 64. “Go,” correct use of, 105. God: pronouns referring to, capitalization of, 21; compounds with, 47. “Gospel,” when capitalized, 20–21. “Got,” correct use of, 105. “Gotten”: obsolete, 105; improper use of, 105. “Government,” capitalization of, 25. Governmental terms, capitalization of, 25. Grain and Hay, measures of, 157–158. “Guess,” correct use of, 105. Hair-space, use of, 59–61. “Half,” compounds with, 47. Half-diamond indention, 56. “Hanged,” distinguished from hung, 105. Hanging indention, described, 56. “Hardly,” never preceded by not, 105. “He,” correct use of, 105. Headings: capitalization of certain words, 30; of letters (correspondence), 115. Head-lines, omission of period after, 12. “Healthful,” correct use of, 105. “Her,” correct use of, 106. “Him,” correct use of, 106. Historical epochs, capitalization of appellation for, 24. “Hoi polloi,” never preceded by the, 106. “Holder,” compounds with, 51. Holidays, capitalization of names of, 26–27. “Holy,” capitalization of, 21. “Honorable,” correct use of, 106. Honorary titles, capitalization of, 25. “Hung,” distinguished from hanged, 106. Hyphenated compounds: capitalization of, 29; avoid division of, 54. Hyphenization, rules for, 45–51. Hyphens: list of hyphenated words, 49; rules for use of, 45–51; purpose of, 19; use of hair-space with, 59. See Compounds. “I”: capitalization of word, 29. See under Me. Ibid., italicized, 64. -ible and -able. See -able. -ical, in divisions, 54. Idem, italicized, 64. i.e., set in roman, 64. “If,” correct use of, 106. Illustrations, legends beneath, omission of period, 12. “In,” correct use of, 106. “In-” (negative prefix), compounds with, 50. Indention: rules for, 55–56; prose, each paragraph indented, 55; numbered paragraphs, treatment of, 55; of poetry, reverse indention, 55; of quotations, 55; different forms of, viz.: En échelon, Hanging, Half-diamond, Lozenge, Blocked, and Irregular, 55–56; use of in addressing letters, 116. Independent sentences, first word capitalized after colon, 29. Infinitive, the, never separated from to, 106. Informal letter. See Letter. “Infra,” compounds with, 48; italicization of, 64. -ing: verbal nouns (ending in) distinguished from participles, 106. Initials, not to be divided, 54. “Inside of,” distinguished from within, 106. Inst., not used, 65. Institutional terms, capitalization of, 26–28. “Inter,” compounds with, 50. International money orders, fees for, 137. Interrogation-point: origin of, 15; use of, with quotations, 16; after direct questions, 16; to express doubt, 16; omission in indirect questions, 16; use of hair-space preceding, 59. “Intra,” compounds with, 50. “Invent,” distinguished from discover, 106. Ironical word or phrase, use of quotation marks for, 17. Irregular indention, described, 55. -ise and -ize, spelling of words terminating in, 37–38. Italicizing: of abbreviations in literary and legal references, 64; of ad loc., 64; of algebraic unknown quantities, 64; of astronomical names, 64; of titles of books, 62; of names of botanical genera and species, 64; of names in citations of legal causes, 64; of circa (ca.), 64; of names of constellations, 64; of credits, at end of article, 62; for purpose of emphasis, 62; of names of geological subjects, 64; of geometric unknown quantities, 64; of ibid., 64; of idem, 64; of infra, 64; of loc. cit., 64; of literary references, 64; of names of scientific genera and species, 64; of stars, 64; of titles of newspapers and periodicals, 64; of op. cit., 64; of passim, 64; of poetry, 62; in prefaces, 62; of word “Resolved,” 64; in running heads, 62; of abbreviations of “shillings,” “pence,” 64; of names of ships, 62; of side-heads, 62; of signatures, 62; of supra, 64; of s.v., 64; of vide, 64; of zoölogical genera, 64; rules for, 62–64; lists of foreign words, italicized and not, 62–64; of dates in letters, 30. Italics: origin of, 62; rules for, 62–64; list of foreign words and phrases not italicized, 63; list of italicized words, 63; how to indicate in MS., 64; italic punctuation marks, following, 64. J, do not divide on, 53. Journals. See Periodicals. Judiciary bodies, capitalization of names of, 28. Juridical acts, treaties, etc., capitalization of names of, 27. Kerned letters, spacing of, 60. “Kind,” correct use of, 106. “Kind of,” not followed by a or an, 106. “Lady.” See under Gentleman. “Lady friend.” See under Gentleman friend. Language, must convey writer’s meaning, 99. “Last,” distinguished from latest, 107. “Latter,” correct use of, 107. Laws, capitalization of names of, 27. “Lay,” distinguished from lie, 107. Legal references, words, phrases, and abbreviations italicized, 64. Legends, omission of period after, 12. Legislative bodies, capitalization of names of, 28. “Less,” distinguished from fewer, 107. Letter, Business: heading, 115; address, 116; salutation, 116; text of, 118; complimentary close, 121; signature, 122; envelope, 123; correct example of, 126. Letter, Formal: heading, 115; address, 116; salutation, 117–118; text of, 120; complimentary close, 122; signature, 122; envelope, 123; correct examples of, 126–128. Letter, Informal: heading, 115; address, 116; salutation, 117; text of, 120; complimentary close, 121–122; signature, 122; envelope, 123; correct examples of, 126–128. Letter writing: introductory remarks on, 114; rules for, 115–125; examples of correct, 126–128; the signature, 122–123; envelope, 123–124; postal cards, 125; in general, 125; business, formal, informal, treatment of, 115–122. Letters (correspondence): capitalization, punctuation, etc., rules for, 11, 12, 29; dates, where placed and when capitalized, 30; postal regulations, 129–141. Letters: use of dash to indicate omission of, 13; use of apostrophe to indicate omission of, 19; used to mark divisions in enumerations, to be set in parentheses, 18; spacing of superior and inferior, 59. “Liable,” distinguished from likely, 107. “Life,” compounds with, 47. “Like,” compounds with, 49. “Likely,” correct use of, 107. Linear measure, table of, 150. Liquid measure, table of, 150. Literary references: minor subdivisions, not capitalized, 28. “Loan,” not used as a verb, 107. “Locate,” distinguished from settle, 107. Loc. cit., italicized, 64. “Love,” distinguished from like, 107. Lozenge indention, described, 56. “Luxuriant,” distinguished from luxurious, 107. “Mad,” distinguished from angry, 107. Magazines. See Periodicals. Mail matter: first class, defined, 129; second class, 129; third class, 130; fourth class, 131; wrapping of, 132; forwarding of, 132; what cannot be mailed, 132; concealed matter, 133; domestic rates, 134; foreign rates, 134; rates for Cuba, Mexico, Canada, and Panama, 135; foreign parcels post, 136; money orders, 137; international money orders, 137; registered, domestic, and foreign, 138; special delivery, 139; postal distances and time from New York, 140. “Major,” when spelled in full, 68. “Man,” compounds with, 49. See under Gentleman. Manuscript: how to indicate capitals in, 30; italics in, 64. Manutius, Aldus: relation to punctuation of, 3; designer of italic types, 62. Mariners’ measure, table of, 151. “Master,” compounds with, 47. Mathematical signs, list of, 91–92. “May.” See under Can. “Me,” correct use of, 107. “Means,” either singular or plural, 107. Measures: tables of, and general rules for, 149–160; linear, 150; square, 150; dry, 150; liquid, 150; paper, 151; time, 151; circular, 151; cloth, 151; mariners’, 151; surveyors’, 151; cubic, 152; British, 152; electrical, 155; builders’, 157; of timber and wood, 157; grain, 157; hay, 158; yard, 158; of barrels, 159; in the British Dependencies, 159; in European countries, 159–160. Medical: signs, list of, 92; capitalization of, terms, 23. “Memoranda,” plural of memorandum, 109. Metric system: of weights and measures, 149; of equivalents, 152. Mexico, postal rates to, 135. “Mid,” compounds with, 46. Military bodies, numbers of, spelled out, 32. Miscellaneous measures, table of, 151. Miscellaneous terms, abbreviations of, 81–89. Monastic orders, capitalization of, 20. Monetary signs, abbreviations of, 90–91; spacing of, 60. Money order fees, 137. “Monger,” compounds with, 51. Months of year: capitalization of, 23; numbers preceding spelled out, 32; abbreviations of, 65–66. “Most,” avoid using for almost, 107. “Mother”: capitalization of, 24; compounds with, 47. “Must,” correct use of, 107. “Mutual,” distinguished from common, 108. Names: capitalization of proper, 22–24; of publishers, in literary references, use of colon, 11; of societies, expositions, and conventions, capitalization of, 25; of races, tribes, etc., capitalization of, 27; abbreviation of proper, 66; Christian, 66–68; of scientific genera and species, italicized, 64; of stars, italicized, 64. “Negligence,” distinguished from neglect, 108. “Neither,” correct use of, 108. “News,” is singular, 108. Newspapers: titles of, article not treated as part of, 30; titles of, italicized, 62; postal rates and regulations for, 129. New Testament, list of abbreviations for, 90. “Nice,” correct use of, 108. Nobility, capitalization of titles of, 25. “No place,” written nowhere, 108. “Non-,” compounds with, 50. “Nor.” See under Or. “Not . . . but,” double negative, 108. Notes, use of brackets in enclosing, 18. “Notorious,” correct use of, 108. Nouns: capitalization of geographical, simple and compounded, 22; capitalization of, followed by capitalized roman numeral, 28; hyphenization of, standing in objective relation to each other, 46–47; formation of possessive case of common and proper, 18–19; plural of polysyllabic proper ending in sibilant, how formed, 19; verbal, ending in -ing, distinguished from participles, 106. “Nowhere near,” vulgarism for not nearly, 108. Number: pronouns must agree with their antecedents, 108; of nouns and verbs must agree, 108. Numbers: use of comma with, 7; when to spell out, 31–33; use of apostrophe to indicate omission of, 19; percentage, figures always used, 31; in statistics, figures used, 32; in ordinary matter, of less than three digits, to be spelled out, 32; in groups, varying in digits use figures, 32; round, treatment of, 32; commencing a sentence, spelled out, 32; expressed in figures, not to be divided, 54. Numerals: use of period, following roman, 12; of apostrophe in forming plural, 19; roman, origin and early use of, 93–96; list of roman and arabic, 96–97; rules for use of roman, 98. “O,” capitalization of word, 29. œ, rules for use of 33. “Of”: correct use of, 108; use of comma before, in connection with proper name, 7. Ohm. See Electrical measures. Op. cit., italicized, 64. “Open punctuation,” favored by best usage, 3–4; and “close punctuation,” 3–4. “Or,” correct use of, 108. Orders, monastic, capitalization of, 20. Ordinals, capitalization of, 29. Orthography: rules of, 33–36; final f, l, or s, 33; final consonant following diphthong, 33; added terminations after final accented syllable, 33–34; after diphthong or two vowels, 34; after final syllable ending in two consonants, 34; after final silent e, 34–35; after ce or ge, 35; after final e in participles, 35; after final ie, 35; after final y, 35–36; of French endings in -re, 36; of possessives of proper nouns, 36; of -sion and -tion, 36; of -or and -our, 34. “Ought,” never combined with had, 109 -our, words ending in, 34. “Out loud,” never used for aloud, 109. “Over” compounds with, 50. Panama, postal rates to, 135. Paper measure, table of, 151. Parables, biblical, capitalization of titles, 20. Paragraphs, explanation of, 57; rules for, 55–58; unity, 57; emphasis, 57, 58; length, 57; coherence, 57; connective words between related sentences, 58; space used proportional to importance, 58; length, 58; indention of, 55, 57, 58, 60. Parcel post, domestic, 131, 162; foreign, 136. “Parent,” compounds of, 47. Parentheses: substitution of dashes for, 14; use of, with interrogation-point, 16; placing of period with, 11; defined, 18; use of, in figures or letters to mark divisions in enumerations, 18; subdivided by brackets, 18. Parenthetical clauses. See Clauses. Parks, capitalization of names of, 23. “Partake of,” never used for eat, 109. Participles: list of, how spelled, 37; not to be hyphenated with adverbs ending in “-ly,” 46; ending in -ing, distinguished from verbal nouns, 106. Particles, in French, German, Italian, and Dutch, capitalization of, 25–26. Parties, political, capitalization of names of, 27. “Party,” never used for person, 109. Passim, italicized, 64. Pence. See Shillings. Peoples, capitalization of names or epithets of, 27. “Per,” correct use of, 109. Percentage, use of figures in, 31. “Perception,” correct use of, 109. Periodicals: titles of, definite article not to be treated as part of, 30; use of italics for, 62; postal rates, etc., 129. Periods: placing of, in connection with quotation-marks, 11; rules for use of, 11–12; omitted after running-heads, 12; after box-heads in tables, 12; after cut-in side notes, 12; after centered head-lines, 12; after legends, 12; after subheads, 12; after date-lines, 12; after signatures, 12; after titles, blocked headings, etc., 12; after roman numerals, 12; use of, after abbreviations, 12; after a complete sentence, 12; to indicate an ellipsis, 12. Personifications: abstract ideas, capitalization of, 23. Phrases: inverted, use of comma, 5; in apposition, use of comma, 6; salutatory, use of comma, 7; foreign, italicization of, 62–63. “Pilgrim Fathers,” capitalization of, 22. Plays, rule for references to, 66. Plurals, of foreign words: cherub, memorandum, datum, donna, stratum, addendum, and rubai, 109. P.M. (post meridiem): set in small capitals, 30; spacing of, 59. Poetry: rules for quotation alignment, in setting, 17; titles of poems, to be quoted, 17; omission of apostrophe in poems when word is contracted for meter, 19; capitalization of first word of each line, 29; indention of, 55; italicizing of, 62. Points of compass: capitalization of, 22, 23, 24; hyphenization, 49. Political alliances, parties, divisions, capitalization of names of, 27, 28. Political divisions, capitalization of, 28. Possessive case, how designated, 19. Possessives of proper nouns ending in s, how formed, 36. “Post,” compounds with, 50. Postal cards, use of, 125. Postal regulations, 129–141. Pounds (£), no space between symbol and preceding figures, 60. “Pre-,” compounds with, 47–48. Preface, use of italic in, 62. Prefixes, “co-,” “pre-,” and “re-,” hyphenization of, 47–48. Prepositions, capitalization of, in titles of books and essays, 26. “President,” capitalization of, 25; when spelled in full, 68. “Pretty,” correct use of, 109. “Professor,” when spelled in full, 68. Pronouns: used with noun for emphasis, comma omitted, 8; referring to Deity, capitalization of, 21. Pronunciation, correct, influence of, in division of words, 52–54. Proper names: capitalization, of, 22–24; abbreviation of, 66; derivatives from, familiarly used, not capitalized, 24. Proper nouns: formation of possessive, 36. “Propose,” distinguished from purpose, 109. Prox., not used, 65. Psalms: capitalization of titles of, 21; capitalization of, 22. “Pseudo,” compounds with, 51. Publications: use of colon in titles of literary references, 11; use of italics for, 62. Publishers: use of colon separating city of publication and name of, in literary references, 11. Punctuation: origin and purpose of, 3; rules for, 3–19; of headings of letters, 115; “open” and “close,” 3–4. Punctuation marks: list of, 2; after italics to be italic, 64. Q, inseparable from u, 53. “Quarter,” compounds with, 47. “Quasi,” compounds with, 48. Queries, when bracketed, 18. Question-mark. See Interrogation-point. “Quite,” correct use of, 109. Quotation-marks: use of, 16–17; double and single, 16–17; in poetry, 16; in ellipses, 17; repetition in paragraph beginnings, 17; in titles of poems, books, etc., 17; serial titles, 17; names of ships, 17; titles of works of art, 17; words and phrases accompanied by definitions and specially emphasized, or intended to possess unusual, technical, or ironical meanings, 17; use of colon with, 10; substitution of dash for, 14; use of comma with, 7; use of colon and dash before, 14; use of exclamation-point with, 15; capitalization of first word in, 29; following colon, 30; use of hair-space inside, 59. Quotations: indention of, 55. Races, capitalization of names of, 27. “Railroad,” to be spelled out, 66. “Raise,” never used as noun, 109. “Rarely ever,” vulgarism for rarely, 109. Rates, postal, 129–132. “Re-,” compounds with, 47–48. -re, French ending not used, 36. Réaumur. See Thermometers. “Reference,” used with with not in, 109. References, capitalization of, nouns, 28; literary references, 28; use of colon in scriptural, 11; italics used in words, phrases, and abbreviations of literary and legal, 64. “Regard.” See under Reference. Regiments, capitalization of names of, 29. Regions, or parts of the world, proper capitalization of, 22–23. Registered mail, domestic and foreign, regulations for, 138. “Relative,” use of the word, 99. Relative clauses, use of comma with, 6. Religious terms, capitalization of, 20–22, 26. Residence, use of comma before “of” in connection with, 7. Resolutions: word “Resolved” in, italicized, 64; word “Whereas,” 26. “Resolved,” in resolutions, word following, to be capitalized, 26; italicization of, 64. Respect, capitalization of titles of, 25. “Respect.” See under Reference. “Reverend,” always preceded by the, 110. Reverse indention, 55. “Revolutionary,” capitalization of, 22. Roman: used in medical terms, 64; in certain words and phrases, literary and legal, 64. Roman numerals: use of period after, 12. See Numerals. “Rubaiyat,” plural of rubai, 109. Running-heads, period not used following, 12. Salutatory phrase: of letters, business, formal and informal, 116–118; use of comma, 7. See Phrase. “Same,” not used as pronoun, 110. “Same as,” distinguished from just as, 110. Sarcasm, indicated by use of exclamation-point, 15. “Scarcely.” See under Hardly. “School,” compounds with, 51. Scientific terms, capitalization of, 23; italicizing of, 64. Scriptural terms, abbreviations of, 90. Scripture, punctuation of: comma, 9; colon, 11; dash, 13; spacing of, references, 60. Seasons, capitalization of, 23. “Seldom ever.” See under Rarely ever. “Self,” compounds with, 47. “Semi,” compounds with, 48, 50. Semicolon: defined, 8, 9; compared with comma, 9; placing of, in connection with quotation-marks, 9; rules for use of, 9; dividing compound sentences, 9; separating passages in Scripture references containing chapters, 9; use of hair-space preceding, 59. “Sensible of,” distinguished from sensitive to, 110. Sentences: first word of, capitalized, 29; first word after colon capitalized in independent, 29; connection of, in paragraph, 58. Serial titles, to be quoted, 17. “Set,” distinguished from sit, 110. “Sewage,” correct use of, 110. “Shall,” correct use of, 110. “She.” See under Her. Shillings and pence, abbreviations, s. and d., italics, 64. Ships: names of, quoted, 17; names of, italicized, 62; time and watch on board, 161. “Should,” correct use of, 111. “Show,” correct use of, 111. “Show up,” vulgarism for expose, 111. Side-heads: capitalization of, 29; italicizing of, 62. Signatures, omission of period after, 12; italicizing of, 62; general rules for, 122. “Since,” correct use of, 111. -sion and -tion, spelling of words terminating in, 39–40. “Sister,” compounds with, 47. “Size up,” vulgarism for estimate, 111. Small capitals: how indicated in MS., 30; rules for, 30. “So,” correct use of, 111. Social organizations, capitalization of, 25. Solar system, capitalization of popular names of, 23. “Some,” correct use of, 111. “Some one,” not a compound word, 51 “Some place,” written somewhere, 111. “Sort.” See under Kind. “Sort of,” correct use of, 111. Sovereigns, abbreviation of names of, 69. Spaces, examples of, 61. Spacing: rules for, 59–61; uniformity of, 59; hair-spaces in connection with punctuation marks, 59; of abbreviated titles, 25, 59–60; of Scripture references, 60; of A.M., P.M., etc., 59; symbols and figures, 60; at end of paragraph, 60; in regard to turn-overs, 60; kerned letters, f and j require hair-spaces, 60; wide spacing, 60; examples, dashes and spaces, 60–61; of abbreviations of railroads, 66. Special delivery, mail system, 139. Species, scientific names of: use of capitals, 23; italicizing of, 64. Spelling: rules for, 31–34; difficulties and choice of usages, 31; of decades, ages, centuries, dynasties, 32; of numbers of military bodies, streets, sessions of Congress, 32; of numbers, 31–32; of time of day, 32–33; use of diphthongs, 33; rules of orthography, 33–36, see Orthography; lists of words, — accented words, 37; participles, 37; variable endings, -ize, 37–38; ending in -ise, 38; ending in -ible and -able, 39; ending in -sion and -tion, 39–40; pronounced alike, but varying in meaning according to spelling, 40–44. “Splendid,” correct use of, 111. Square measure, table of, 150. Squares, capitalization of names of, 23. Standard time: meaning and explanation of, 142–144; table of, 144. Stars, names of, italicized, 64. “Start,” distinguished from begin, 111. “State,” capitalization of, 24–25. States: spacing of abbreviations of, 60–61; list of abbreviations of, 77–81. Statistics, treatment of numbers in, 32. “Stop,” distinguished from stay, 111. “Strata,” plural of stratum, 109. Streets: capitalization of names of, 23; numbers of, spelled out, 32. “Sub,” compounds with, 50. Subdivisions: in literary references, not capitalized, 28. Subheads, omission of period after, 12; italicizing of, 62. Subject-matter: separation of, by dash, from its authority, 13. “Sulpho,” compounds with, 51 “Super,” compounds with, 50. “Supra,” compounds with, 48; italicized, 64. Surveyors’ measure, table of, 151. s.v., italicized, 64. Symbols: monetary, 90–91; mathematical, 91–92; medical, 93; spacing of monetary, 60. Tables: box-heads in, omission of period, 12. “Take,” correct use of, 111. “Take stock in,” slang expression, 112. Technical: use of figures in, matter, 32; words or phrases, use of quotation-marks for, 17. Tense, common errors of, 112. Text of letters: business, formal, and informal, 118–120. “That.” See under Which. “The,” not part of title of magazines and papers, 30. “Them,” distinguished from they, 112. “Thermo,” compounds with, 51. Thermometers, comparative table: Réaumur, Centigrade, Fahrenheit, 148. “They.” See under Them. “This,” not used as adverb, 112. Thoroughfares: capitalization of names of, 23; numbers of, spelled out, 32. “Through,” distinguished from finished, 112. Timber and wood, measures of, 157. Time: use of colon between hours and minutes, 11; of day, when spelled out, 32; standard, explanation of, 142–144; on board ship, 161. Time measure, table of, 151. -tion and -sion. See -sion. Title-pages, capitalization of certain words, 30. Titles: capitalization of, 24–26; of poems, series, and works of art, to be quoted, 17; of parables (biblical), capitalization of, 20; of psalms, capitalization of, 20; use of colon in literary references, 10–11; capitalization of compounded, 22; use of comma separating, from names, 6; of honor, nobility, and respect, capitalization of, 25; civil and military, capitalization of, 25; foreign, capitalization of, 25–26; of books or essays, capitalization of, 26; of treaties, laws, and acts, capitalization of, 27; definite article not treated as part of, in newspapers or magazines, 30; “ex,” “vice,” “general,” “elect,” etc., use of hyphen in connecting, 47; italicizing of books, newspapers, and periodicals, 62; abbreviations of, with lists, 68–75; capitalize when used alone 68–69; of sovereigns, 69. “To,” compounds with, 50. “Too,” correct use of, 112. “Treat,” followed by of, 112. Treaties, capitalization of names of, 27. “Tree,” compounds with, 49. “Tri-,” compounds with, 50. Tribes, capitalization of names of, 27. Troy ounce, uses of the, 154–155. Troy weight, table of, 150. “Try,” followed by to, 112. Two-letter syllables, avoid division of, 53. “Ugly,” correct use of, 112. Ult., not used, 65. “Ultra,” compounds with, 48. “Un-” (negative prefix), compounds with, 50. “Under,” compounds with, 50. “United States,” when abbreviated, 66. Units of measure, not capitalized, 29–30. Unity of paragraphs, 57. “University,” capitalization of, 27. Unknown quantities: algebraic, geometric, etc., italicized, 64. v. (versus), set in roman, 64. “Van,” capitalization of, 25–26. Verbal nouns, ending in -ing, distinguished from participles, 106. Verbs, not to be omitted from sentence, 112. Versions of Bible, capitalization of, 20. “Very,” correct use of, 112. “Vice,” compounds with, 46. Vide, italicized, 64. “Visitor,” distinguished from visitant, 113. “viz.,” set in roman, 64. “Vocation,” distinguished from avocation, 113. Vocative words, comma separating, 7; “O” as distinguished from exclamatory “oh,” 15. Volt. See Electrical measures. “Von,” capitalization of, 25–26. Vowels, rules for division of words based upon, 52–53. “Want,” correct use of, 113. Watch on board ship, the, 161. Watt. See Electrical measures. “Way,” not to be used for away, 113. Week, days of: capitalization of, 23; abbreviation of, 65–66. Weights: metric system, table 149; apothecaries’, 150; avoirdupois, 150; British, 153; the Troy ounce, 155; Indian, 159; foreign, 160; and measures, tables and rules for, 149–160. “What,” distinguished from that, 113. “Whereas,” in resolutions, use of capital, 26. “Which,” correct use of, 113. “Who,” correct use of, 113. “Will.” See under Shall. “Woman,” compounds with, 49; correct use of, See Gentleman. “Womanly,” distinguished from womanish, 113. Words: accompanied by definition, to be quoted, 17; of unusual, technical, or ironical meanings, to be quoted, 17; specially desired to attract attention, to be quoted, 17; contraction of, omission indicated by apostrophe, 19; derived from proper names, capitalization of, 24; with special meaning, capitalization of, 29; accented, 37; pronounced alike, but varying in meaning, according to spelling, list of 40–44; foreign, italicizing of, 62–63. “World,” compounds with, 47. “Would.” See under Should. Wrapping, of mail matter, 132. X, do not divide on, 53. Yard measures, table of, 158. Years, numbers preceding, spelled out, 32. Zoölogical terms: capitalization of, 23; italicizing of, 64.