Little Glimpses of the 19th Century.

The Great Events in the History of the Last One Hundred Years, Assembled so as to Present a Nutshell Record.

[Continued from page 433.]

SIXTH DECADE.

1851

Revolutionary activities continue throughout the world. President Fillmore warns American and foreign adventurers against developing plots or enterprises in this country in connection with Cuba and Mexico. Notwithstanding this, Lopez projects his second expedition against Cuba, and meets with overwhelming defeat; his trial, conviction, and execution follow. Slavery agitation becomes more and more marked; the question is not yet the existence of slavery within the States, but its admission into the Territories. The Federal enforcement of the unpopular Fugitive Slave Law produces riots in the North. Work begun upon the extensive wings of the National Capitol, the laying of the foundation stone being the occasion of one of the last great patriotic orations of Daniel Webster, Secretary of State.

Webster's tilt of the preceding year with Austrian diplomats in the matter of our alleged "interference" in the struggle of Hungary for freedom had further aroused American patriotism. It had also increased sympathy for the brave people from whom success had been plucked by the intervention of Russian arms in behalf of Austria. By authority of Congress, Louis Kossuth, Hungarian patriot chief, is given an asylum on an American war vessel. He visits England and later the United States, and is received with great distinction and respect by the President and all officers of the government, acting unofficially.

Founding of the Congressional Library at Washington, and of the University of Wisconsin at Madison. United States begins soundings for an Atlantic cable. The New York Times and New York Ledger appear. Death of J.F. Cooper, American novelist, and J.J. Audubon, American naturalist.

In England, the year opens with great excitement due to the discovery of gold in Australia. The first great World's Fair is opened in London, in Hyde Park, and is a great success; exhibition building subsequently removed to Sydenham, and known as the "Crystal Palace." American yacht America wins international prize cup at the Cowes Regatta in a match around the Isle of Wight. The English colonists wage fierce warfare with Kafir and Hottentot natives in South Africa. France and England are connected by telegraphic cable. Invention of the opthalmoscope by Helmholtz. Death of Oersted, discoverer of relation between electricity and magnetism.

In France, on the night between December 2 and 3, the president, Louis Napoleon, successfully plans and executes his famous coup d'état, making himself practically a dictator. Officers of the government and leaders opposing him are quietly arrested and locked up; later many are banished, including M. Thiers. The legislative assembly is dissolved and universal suffrage proclaimed. Paris being declared in a state of siege, there are barricades and sanguinary conflicts. On the 21st an election throughout France confirms Napoleon as president of the republic for ten years. In England, Lord Palmerston is dismissed from the ministry because of official indiscretion in expressing congratulations over events in France (see 1852). Death of Thomas Moore, Irish poet; in France, of Daguerre, inventor of first photographic process.

POPULATION—Washington, D.C., 40,001; Chicago, 29,963; New York, 515,547; London, 2,362,236; United States (census of 1850), 23,191,876; Great Britain and Ireland, 27,368,736.

RULERS—United States, Millard Fillmore, President; Great Britain, Victoria; France, Louis Napoleon, President; Spain, Isabella II; Prussia, Frederick William IV; Russia, Nicholas I; Austria, Francis Joseph; Pope, Pius IX.

1852

In France, on New Year's Day, the prince-president is installed with impressive ceremony at Nôtre Dame, and takes up his official residence at the Tuileries. He exiles opponents, reorganizes the National Guard, promulgates a new constitution, and restores titles of nobility abolished in the Revolution of 1848. The birthday of Napoleon I, August 15, is proclaimed a fête day. Meanwhile public sentiment develops in favor of the restoration of the empire and the Bonaparte dynasty. In November a national election results overwhelmingly in favor of imperial government. On December 2, anniversary of his coup d'état and of the battle of Austerlitz, Napoleon is crowned Emperor of the French under the title of Napoleon III. English colonial conquest is extended in South Africa, and in India the province of Pegu is wrested from the Burmese.

Death of the Duke of Wellington and his interment in St. Paul's Cathedral; in Austria, of the premier, Prince Schwarzenberg; in America, of Daniel Webster and Henry Clay.

In England, great uneasiness develops as to Napoleon's further designs, despite his proclamation that "the empire is peace." To allay panic, the government undertakes a bill to revive the militia—local only. Palmerston proposes an amendment to constitute not a local but regular militia that may be sent anywhere in any emergency. His success in carrying his resolution to that effect is a defeat for the government. New government is formed under Lord Derby, whose offer of a place to Palmerston is declined; Disraeli becomes chancellor of the exchequer; the navy is strengthened, and militia bill passed. This government is defeated in turn on account of its protectionist principles. Lord Aberdeen forms a coalition government out of the chiefs of the Whig party and followers of Sir Robert Peel; Gladstone becomes chancellor of the exchequer, and Palmerston home secretary. Free-trade principles gain rapid ascendency. Some friction with America over the fisheries question.

In the United States, great excitement follows the publication of "Uncle Tom's Cabin"; sales reach one million copies within a year. First institution for the co-education of the sexes incorporated in Ohio (Yellow Springs). Public library at Boston founded. The United States undertakes the enterprise of breaking the historic isolation of Japan, and Commodore M.C. Perry is entrusted with the mission (see 1853). Yellow fever virulent in New Orleans, eleven thousand deaths occurring in two months. Five hundred and seventy-six thousand Englishwomen, headed by the Duchess of Sutherland, adopt an address to the "women of America" in reference to slavery. Third National Woman's Rights Convention held at Syracuse, New York; Susan B. Anthony's first public appearance.

RULERS—The same as in the previous year, except that in France the President becomes the Emperor Napoleon III.

1853

Revolution in Mexico again establishes General Santa Anna as president of the Mexican Republic (see 1855). In the United States, Franklin Pierce is inaugurated as fourteenth President, and reiterates the Monroe Doctrine. The expedition to Japan under Commodore Perry enters the Bay of Yeddo, producing wild excitement and alarm (see 1854). Second Grinnell arctic expedition, under the leadership of Dr. Kane, starts in search of Sir John Franklin (see 1855). Congress debates the feasibility of a Pacific railroad, and makes appropriation for exploration of possible routes. Territorial expansion through acquisition of remainder of Arizona from Mexico, under the Gadsden Purchase; sum paid, ten million dollars. The new Territory of Washington organized in the far Northwest. Yellow fever epidemic in Gulf States, and cholera in Europe. Controversy with Austria over case of Martin Koszta, a Hungarian refugee who had taken out initial papers of American citizenship; having been seized and imprisoned on an Austrian brig in the harbor of Smyrna, he is summarily released under menace of guns of an American war-ship. Another "foreign incident" is a duel at Madrid between Pierre Soulé, American minister to Spain, and M. Turgot; the latter crippled for life.

In France, Napoleon III marries the beautiful Countess Eugénie de Montijo, daughter of a grandee of Spain. Czar Nicholas I proclaims protectorate over the Greek Christians in Turkey; resistance of Turkey sustained by England and France. Russia promptly invades the Danubian principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia, whereupon Turkish troops move across the Danube, the allied fleets sweep through the Dardanelles, and the great Crimean War begins (1853-1855).

RULERS—The same as in the previous year, except that Franklin Pierce becomes President of the United States.

1854

Commodore Perry concludes a commercial treaty between Japan and the United States. England and other countries hasten to secure similar treaties, and Japan joins the family of nations. The United States and Great Britain effect a reciprocity treaty respecting Newfoundland fishing, international trade, etc. Passage of the Kansas-Nebraska bill, which abolishes the terms of the Missouri Compromise and gives these new Territories the option of deciding whether they will have slavery or not; alarm and dissatisfaction throughout the North; strengthening of forces opposed to slavery. Republican party formed. Astor Library opened in New York under bequest of John J. Astor.

Revolution started in Spain by O'Donnell; Espartero becomes prime minister, and O'Donnell secretary of war; Queen Isabella's sovereignty is unaffected.

A Russian army under Paskievitch crosses the Danube to invade Turkey, whereupon France and Great Britain declare war against Russia (March 28). A British and French expedition lands in the Crimea, defeats the Russians at the Alma, and moves upon Sebastopol, the Czar's chief naval port and fortress on the Black Sea. The battles of Balaklava—famous for the charge of the Light Brigade—and Inkerman are fought without decisive result, and the allies, suffering terribly from the severe climate and from their lack of supplies, settle down to the siege of Sebastopol.

Meanwhile Paskievitch, having vainly attacked Silistria, retreats across the Danube. The British and French fleets in the Baltic are equally unsuccessful, and accomplish nothing by an ineffective bombardment of Kronstadt.

In England, consent given for the establishment of the Orange River Free State in South Africa. Cholera in London. Commander McClure arrives, accomplishing the Northwest Passage after imprisonment in the ice for three years.

In Brazil, the first railway opens. In the same month, April, San Salvador is destroyed by an earthquake with property loss in one minute of four million dollars; earthquakes in Japan result in great destruction and loss of life. Slaves emancipated in Venezuela. The steamer San Francisco founders, two hundred and forty United States troops being drowned.

RULERS—The same as in the previous year.

1855

In Kansas occur great election riots and bloodshed incidental to a bitter struggle for supremacy between pro-slavery and anti-slavery partisans. War with the Sioux and other Indian tribes. The Niagara Railway Suspension Bridge is completed. Dissatisfaction over rapidly increasing immigration develops the new "American" or "Know Nothing" party; riots and disturbances occur. Relief expedition rescues Dr. Kane, the arctic explorer.

In Nicaragua, General Walker's American filibustering expedition effects a conquest, and a republic is established with Walker as president (see 1856). In Mexico, Santa Anna is finally overthrown by the party of Alvarez and Comonfort, and goes into exile; Alvarez resigns government to Comonfort. In Panama, a railway across the isthmus is opened.

In England, the mismanagement of the Crimean campaign brings a storm of indignation upon the Aberdeen ministry. Anticipating a motion for a committee of inquiry, Lord John Russell tenders his resignation, which is followed by overwhelming defeat of the government. Lord Palmerston, now over seventy years of age, is called upon to form a cabinet. Except for one brief interval, Palmerston remains prime minister through the rest of his life. Victor Emmanuel, King of Sardinia, joins in the war against Russia; notable rise and influence of his great minister, Cavour (see 1859). Fall of Sebastopol, and negotiations for peace (see 1856). Great international exhibition opened at Paris. Two attempts made upon life of Napoleon. In England, Captain McClure receives a reward of five thousand pounds and knighthood for discovering the Northwest Passage. Meanwhile, in Africa, Livingstone is pushing steadily across the Dark Continent, and discovers the Victoria Falls of the Zambesi. Severe earthquakes at Tokyo, in Japan, and at Broussa, in Asiatic Turkey.

RULERS—The same as in the previous year, except that Nicholas I is succeeded by his son, Alexander II, as Czar of all the Russias.

1856

THE Treaty of Paris terminates the Crimean War; terms, free navigation of the Danube and neutrality of the Black Sea; guarantee of independence of the Ottoman Empire; Russia renounces protectorate over the Danubian principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia (now forming Rumania), and cedes a portion of Bessarabia. Great Britain, France, and Austria form treaty guaranteeing integrity of the Turkish Empire. Turkey places Christians on equality with Moslems.

In France, great rejoicing and strengthening of Napoleonic dynasty owing to birth of an imperial prince; amnesty granted to one thousand political prisoners.

In England, Dr. Livingstone, African explorer, arrives on a visit and is enthusiastically welcomed and honored. Beginning of second war with Chinese as punishment for frequent attacks upon foreigners and persistent violation of treaties. British and French cooperate in this war; Canton is bombarded and partially destroyed. The Persians having taken Herat, the "key to Afghanistan," in violation of treaty, and Afghanistan being England's northwestern gate to India, war is declared against Persia; British prevail, and Bushire taken. Lord Canning made Governor-General of India. The annexation of Oude (northern India) completes British subjugation of the Indian peninsula from Cape Comorin to the Himalaya Mountains. Great Britain and France remonstrate against the tyrannical policy of the King of Naples, and withdraw their ministers.

Heine, famous German poet; Hugh Miller, Scottish geologist; Sir W. Hamilton, Scottish philosopher; Delaroche, French painter; Thierry, French historian; and Schumann, German composer, died.

In Spain, Espartero is superseded by O'Donnell as prime minister; insurrections occur in Madrid and Barcelona due to latter's dictatorial measures; Narvaez in turn succeeds.

In Central America, war is waged against President Walker by confederation of states led by Costa Rica; Walker defeats three thousand Costa Ricans at Rivas. In Mexico, General Comonfort is elected president. In China, a United States squadron destroys barrier forts near Canton because of an attack on an American boat.

In the United States, civil war wages in Kansas; great political struggle continues there between Free Soil and Slavery factions, and is reflected in Congress; a speech of Senator Sumner, of Massachusetts, provokes violent personal assault by Representative Brooks, of South Carolina. Nine weeks' contest for Speaker of the House of Representatives. Resolution against slave-trade passed by the House. Congress passes an act to aid in the laying of the Atlantic cable. Dispute with England on the construction of the Bulwer-Clayton Treaty and alleged violation of the neutrality laws. Mr. Crampton, the British minister, receives his passports, and the consuls at New York, Philadelphia, and Cincinnati are dismissed. Later in the year the matter is satisfactorily adjusted and articles agreed upon for settlement of Central American questions. American whalers, having brought into port the British arctic relief-ship Resolute, a derelict, Congress purchases it, refits it, and sends it to Queen Victoria as token of American good-will.

First bridge over the Mississippi is built at Minneapolis. Beginning of experiments with the Bessemer process for the production of steel. Condensed milk is patented. James Buchanan, Democrat, elected President of the United States, and J.C. Breckinridge, Vice-President; defeated candidates: John C. Fremont, Republican, and Millard Fillmore, American or "Know-Nothing."

RULERS—The same as in the previous year.

1857

In India, outbreak of mutiny among the Sepoys or native soldiers. Rebellion spreads rapidly under Nana Sahib and other hostile chiefs. Savage cruelties upon Europeans are perpetrated by Sepoys at Meerut, Delhi, and particularly at Cawnpore, where four hundred and fifty men, women, and children are massacred; all central India in revolt. Cawnpore and Delhi recovered by British; garrison at Lucknow besieged and relieved by Havelock, who in turn is besieged and relieved by Sir Colin Campbell. British defeat Persians at Khooshab, and treaty of peace ends Persian War. English, aided by French, continue punitive war against China. The Mont Cenis tunnel through the Alps is begun. Napoleon III and Empress Eugénie pay visit to Queen Victoria. Commercial panic in England.

Death of Douglas Jerrold, English novelist and dramatist; Comte, French speculative philosopher; Eugène Sue, French novelist; and Béranger, French poet.

In the United States, a great commercial panic occurs, commencing in New York with suspension of the Ohio Life & Mutual Trust Co. Panic spreads throughout the country, causing general suspension of banks; failures in the United States and Canada, five thousand one hundred and twenty-three; liabilities two hundred and ninety-nine million eight hundred thousand dollars. Completion of the Atlantic cable; messages received from London; public excitement and rejoicing in New York; cable fails after a few messages. People of Oregon Territory adopt a constitution prohibiting slavery.

The "Dred Scott" decision by the Supreme Court nullifies the terms of the Missouri Compromise and similar measures, changing the status of the negro in the free States, as well as denying him all civic rights. This excites great indignation and consternation in the free States, further increasing the feeling against slavery. In Utah Territory the Mormons rebel against Federal authority; the President despatches troops under command of Colonel A.S. Johnston to enforce authority; most of the supply-teams attacked and destroyed by Brigham Young's Rangers, leaving the Federal forces exposed to the desert winter (see 1858).

RULERS—The same as in the previous year, except that in Prussia, the Prince of Prussia (afterward William I), becomes regent during the incapacity of Frederick William IV; and in the United States James Buchanan is inaugurated as President.

1858

In the United States, the Mormons submit to Federal authority and allow Federal troops to be quartered in Utah Valley (withdrawn 1860). Minnesota is admitted to statehood (free State). Valuable commercial treaty made with China, by which travelers with passports are protected, foreign ministers recognized, new ports opened, Christianity tolerated, and missionaries protected. Discovery of gold at Pike's Peak, Colorado. Massacre of emigrants at Mountain Meadows, Utah. Rising prominence of Abraham Lincoln; he wins national reputation in struggle and debates with Douglas in Illinois in contest for the Senate. Kansas finally rejects the Lecompton Constitution, which had provided for safeguarding slavery.

In Mexico, Comonfort retires as president; the clerical and reactionary party elects General Zuloaga. Juarez, Liberal, organizes a rival provisional government (see 1859).

In France, a third attempt is made to assassinate the emperor—this time by Orsini, an Italian; it appearing that the plot had been hatched in England, great indignation prevails in France, and a remonstrance is addressed to the British government, urging it to make stricter laws against political refugees. Lord Palmerston introduces a bill for this purpose, and upon its rejection by the House of Commons he tenders his resignation. The Derby ministry is installed. The Livingstone expedition sails from England for Africa. The Princess Royal is married to the Crown Prince of Prussia, afterward Emperor Frederick III. Property qualification of members of Parliament abolished. End of the Indian Mutiny; the government of India transferred from the East India Company to the crown.

Death of Robert Owen, English philanthropist and social reformer. Launching of the Great Eastern, largest steamship constructed prior to the Celtic, 1901. John Speke, English explorer in Africa, discovers Victoria Nyanza, a vast lake of nearly the area of Scotland, and principal source of the White Nile. The Danubian principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia effect a personal union (see 1861). The Italian astronomer, Donati, discovers a comet surpassing in brilliancy all others seen since 1811. Passage of an act removing the disabilities of Jews in Great Britain.

In Italy, violent eruption of Vesuvius. In China, the treaty of Tientsin with Great Britain, France, Russia, and the United States checks the allies' advance on Peking. However, owing to Chinese violation of treaty, war is really not concluded until 1860 (see 1860). China cedes to Russia the widely extended but sparsely populated Amur country.

RULERS—The same as in the previous year.

1859

In the United States, Oregon is admitted to the Union as a free State. Petroleum oil obtained in Pennsylvania by method of boring wells. Silver discovered in Nevada. Harper's Ferry, Virginia, and United States arsenal captured by a force under leadership of John Brown, his purpose being to hold the place as a refuge for fugitive slaves. Brown is besieged by citizens, State militia, and Federal marines; makes stout defense, but is captured, tried for treason, and executed. Sympathy mingled with reprobation in the North and alarm in the South over John Brown's act; his execution arouses indignation among the abolitionists and helps to precipitate approaching national conflict over slavery.

Washington Irving, American author and diplomat, the first to win foreign recognition for American literature; Prescott, American historian; Rufus Choate, American lawyer and orator; and Horace Mann, American educator and statesman, died.

In Europe, Austria, distrustful of the rapid strengthening of the Italian kingdom of Sardinia, issues an ultimatum demanding its disarmament. Sardinia promptly replies with a formal declaration of war; following this, Austria receives a declaration of war from Napoleon III, who has been secretly cooperating with Sardinia. Austrians defeated in battles of Montebello, Palestro, Magenta, and Melegnano. The entry of Napoleon and Victor Emmanuel into Milan is followed by the battle of Solferino, in which the Austrians, being again defeated, are compelled to sue for peace. Lombardy restored to Sardinia. Later in the year the Treaty of Zürich was signed by Sardinia, France, and Austria. In this war splendid service is rendered by the patriot Garibaldi and his "Chasseurs of the Alps." In Naples, Ferdinand II ("Bomba"), notorious for his abuses, dies and is succeeded by his son, Francis II. Death of the Austrian diplomatist and statesman, Prince Metternich, and of Alexander von Humboldt, German philosopher and traveler.

In England, the second Derby ministry resigns, and Lord Palmerston again succeeds as prime minister, holding position during remainder of life. Henry Hallam, historian and essayist; Leigh Hunt, poet, essayist, and critic; Brunel and Stephenson, civil engineers; De Quincy, essayist; and Lord Macaulay, historian, essayist, and poet, died. Publication of Darwin's "Origin of Species."

In Spain, war is declared and waged successfully against Morocco for attacking Spanish possessions on northern coast of Africa (see 1860). Death of Ludwig Spohr, German musician. In Africa, Livingstone explores Lake Nyassa. In Mexico, General Miramon defeats the Liberal party of Juarez and assumes presidency. Miramon government borrows large sums in France. Juarez declares confiscation of church property. In China, during a river engagement between English and Chinese, the American Commodore Tatnall assists the English, declaring that "blood is thicker than water."

Severe earthquakes at Quito, Ecuador, and at Erzeroum, Asia Minor.

RULERS—The same as in the previous year.

1860

In the United States, the year opens with great apprehension and tension, owing to approaching Presidential nominations, campaign, and election. The Prince of Wales, aged nineteen (afterward King Edward VII), visits the United States. Central Park, in New York City, opened to the public. The Great Eastern reaches New York on her maiden voyage.

Democratic convention in Charlestown develops irreconcilable conflict in party; pro-slavery platform rejected; Southern delegations secede; regular convention convenes in Baltimore, and after further secessions from ranks nominates Stephen A. Douglas for Presidency. The seceding groups of Democrats nominate John C. Breckinridge; the Constitutional Union party—avoiding discussion of slavery and standing simply for preservation of Union under the Constitution—meets at Baltimore, and nominates John Bell. The Republican party convention at Chicago, while disavowing intention to interfere with institutions in any State, renounces "new dogma" in the Dred Scott decision, and demands immediate admission of Kansas as a free State and the adoption of a protective tariff; Abraham Lincoln, of Illinois, nominated on third ballot over William H. Seward and Salmon P. Chase.

Election in November, with four Presidential candidates in the field; every Northern State is carried by the Republicans except New Jersey, from which, however, they gain four out of seven electoral votes. Douglas secures only the electoral votes of Missouri and three from New Jersey; Breckinridge carries the entire South, and Bell the Border States of Kentucky, Tennessee, and Virginia. Lincoln's electoral votes 180 to 103 for all other candidates. State Legislative Convention meets in Charlestown, South Carolina, December 20, and adopts articles of secession. Year drawn to close with breach widening between North and South and sectional hostility straining the ties of political union.

In Italy, revolution occurs in Tuscany, Parma, Modena, Sicily, Naples, and the Papal States, and the people declare for annexation to Sardinia. With exception of Venice (reserved to Austria by treaty of Zürich) and a small territory around Rome still retained by the Pope, the King of Sardinia becomes supreme over Italy. Garibaldi directs revolution of the Two Sicilies, and defeats and deposes Francis II, the last King of Naples. Victor Emmanuel and Garibaldi enter Naples November 7. The kingdom of Italy is proclaimed, with Cavour president of the council. Savoy and Nice ceded to France in accordance with former treaty.

The Chinese having violated the late Treaty of Tientsin, France and England send new expedition, which reduces the Taku forts and advances on Peking. Chinese emperor's summer palace sacked and burned and the capital invested. Chinese sue for peace, and Treaty of Peking ends war. In Mexico, the Liberal party under Degollado triumphs; Miramon defeated.

Earthquake at Mendoza, Argentine Republic, destroys seven thousand lives. Spectrum analysis established by Bunsen and Kirchoff. Theodore Parker, noted American preacher and abolitionist; Sir William Napier, English historian and soldier; Baron von Bunsen, German diplomatist, theologian, and philologist; and Schopenhauer, German philosopher, died.

RULERS—The same as in the previous year.