BOOK XVIII. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF GRAIN. (continued 3)

Between the summer solstice and the setting of the Lyre, on the sixth day before the calends of July,536 according to Cæsar’s reckoning, Orion rises, and upon the fourth537 before the nones of July, his Belt rises to the people of Assyria. Upon the morning of the same day, also, the scorching constellation of Procyon rises. This last constellation has no name with the Romans, unless, indeed, we would consider it as identical with Canicula,538 or Lesser Dog, which we find depicted among the stars; this last is productive of excessive heat, as we shall shortly have further occasion to state. On the fourth539 before the nones of July, the Crown sets in the morning to the people of Chaldæa, and in Attica, the whole of Orion has risen by that day. On the day before540 the ides of July, the rising of Orion ends to the Egyptians also; on the sixteenth541 before the calends of August, Procyon rises to the people of Assyria, and, the day but one after, of nearly all other countries as well, indicating a crisis that is universally known among all nations, and which by us is called the rising of the Dog-star; the sun at this period entering the first degree of Leo. The Dog-star rises on the twenty-third day after the summer solstice; the influence of it is felt by both ocean, and earth, and even by many of the animals as well, as stated by us elsewhere on the appropriate occasions.542 No less veneration, in fact, is paid to this star, than to those that are consecrated to certain gods; it kindles the flames of the sun, and is one great source of the heats of summer.

On the thirteenth543 day before the calends of August, the Eagle sets in the morning to the people of Egypt, and the breezes that are the precursors of the Etesian winds, begin to blow; these, according to Cæsar, are first perceived in Italy, on the tenth before544 the calends of August. The Eagle sets in the morning of that day to the people of Attica, and on the third before545 the calends of August, the Royal Star in the breast of Leo rises in the morning, according to Cæsar. On the eighth before546 the ides of August, one half of Arcturus has ceased to be visible, and on the third before547 the ides the Lyre, by its setting, opens the autumn,—according to Cæsar at least; though a more exact calculation has since shown, that this takes place on the sixth day before548 the ides of that month.

The time that intervenes between these periods is one that is of primary importance in the cultivation of the vine; as the constellation of which we have spoken, under the name of Canicula, has now to decide upon the fate of the grape. It is at this period that the grapes are said to be charred,549 a blight falling upon them which burns them away, as though red-hot coals had been applied to them. There is no hail that can be compared with this destructive malady, nor yet any of those tempests, which have been productive of such scarcity and dearth. For the evil effects of these, at the very utmost, are only felt in isolated districts, while the coal blight,550 on the other hand, extends over whole countries, far and wide. Still, however, the remedy would not be very difficult, were it not that men would much rather calumniate Nature, than help themselves. It is said that Democritus,551 who was the first to comprehend and demonstrate that close affinity which exists between the heavens and the earth, finding his laborious researches upon that subject slighted by the more opulent of his fellow-citizens, and presaging the high price of oil, which was about to result upon the rising of the Vergiliæ, (as we have already mentioned,552 and shall have to explain more fully hereafter), bought up all the oil in the country, which was then at a very low figure, from the universal expectation of a fine crop of olives; a proceeding which greatly surprised all who knew that a life of poverty and learned repose was so entirely the object of his aspirations. When, however, his motives had been fully justified by the result, and vast riches had flowed in upon him apace, he returned all his profits to the disappointed proprietors, whose avarice had now taught them to repent, thinking it quite sufficient to have thus proved how easy it was for him to acquire riches whenever he pleased. At a more recent period, again, Sextius,553 a Roman philosopher residing at Athens, made a similar application of his knowledge. Such, then, is the utility of science, the instruction provided by which it shall be my aim, as clearly and as perspicuously as possible, to apply to the various occupations of a country life.

Most writers have said that it is the dew, scorched by a burning sun, that is the cause of mildew554 in corn, and of coal blight in the vine; this, however, seems to me in a great measure incorrect, and it is my opinion that all blights result entirely from cold, and that the sun is productive of no injurious effects whatever. This, in fact, will be quite evident, if only a little attention is paid to the subject; for we find that the blight makes its appearance at first in the night time only, and before the sun has shone with any vigour. The natural inference is, that it depends entirely upon the moon, and more particularly as such a calamity as this is never known to happen except at the moon’s conjunction, or else at the full moon, periods at which the influence of that heavenly body is at its greatest height. For at both of these periods, as already555 stated by us more than once, the moon is in reality at the full; though during her conjunction she throws back to the heavens all the light which she has received from the sun. The difference in the effects produced by the moon at these two periods is very great, though at the same time equally apparent; for at the conjunction, that body is extremely hot in summer, but cold in winter; while, on the other hand, at the full moon, the nights are cold in summer, but warm in winter. The reason of this, although Fabianus and the Greek writers adopt another method of explaining it, is quite evident. During the moon’s conjunction in summer, she must of necessity move along with the sun in an orbit nearer to the earth, and so become warmed by the heat which she receives by reason of her closer vicinity to the sun. In winter, again, at the time of the conjunction, she is farther off from us, the sun being also removed to a greater distance. On the other hand, again, when the moon is at the full in summer, she is more remote from the earth, and in opposition with the sun; while, in winter, she approaches nearer to us at that period, by adopting the same orbit as at her conjunction in summer. Naturally humid herself, as often as from her position she is cold, she congeals to an unlimited extent the dews which fall at that period of the year.

CHAP. 69.—CAUSES OF STERILITY.

But we ought always to bear in mind, more particularly, that there are two varieties of evils that are inflicted upon the earth by the heavens. The first of these, known by us under the name of “tempests,” comprehends hail-storms, hurricanes and other calamities of a similar nature; when these take place at the full moon, they come upon us with additional intensity. These tempests take their rise in certain noxious constellations, as already stated by us on several occasions, Arcturus, for instance, Orion, and the Kids.

The other evils that are thus inflicted upon us, supervene with a bright, clear sky, and amid the silence of the night, no one being sensible of them until we have perceived their effects. These dispensations are universal and of a totally different character from those previously mentioned, and have various names given to them, sometimes mildew, sometimes blast, and sometimes coal blight; but in all cases sterility is the infallible result. It is of these last that we have now to speak, entering into details which have not hitherto been treated of by any writer; and first of all we will explain the causes of them.

(29.) Independently of the moon, there are two principal causes of these calamities, which emanate more particularly from two quarters of the heavens of but limited extent. On the one hand, the Vergiliæ exercise an especial influence on our harvests, as it is with their rising that the summer begins, and with their setting, the winter; thus embracing, in the space of six months, the harvest, the vintage, and the ripening of all the vegetable productions. In addition to this, there is a circular tract in the heavens, quite visible to the human eye even, known as the Milky Way. It is the emanations from this, flowing as it were from the breast, that supply their milky556 nutriment to all branches of the vegetable world. Two constellations more particularly mark this circular tract, the Eagle in the north, and Canicula in the south; of this last, we have already made mention557 in its appropriate place. This circle traverses also Sagittarius and Gemini, and passing through the centre of the sun, cuts the equinoctial line below, the constellation of the Eagle making its appearance at the point of intersection on the one side, and Canicula on the other. Hence it is that the influences of both these constellations develope themselves upon all cultivated lands; it being at these points only that the centre of the sun is brought to correspond with that of the earth. If, then, at the moments of the rising and the setting of these constellations, the air, soft and pure, transmits these genial and milky emanations to the earth, the crops will thrive and ripen apace; but if, on the other hand, the moon, as already558 mentioned, sheds her chilling dews, the bitterness thereof infuses itself into these milky secretions, and so kills the vegetation in its birth. The measure of the injury so inflicted on the earth depends, in each climate, upon the combination of the one or other of these causes; and hence it is that it is not felt in equal intensity throughout the whole earth, nor even precisely at the same moment of time. We have already559 said that the Eagle rises in Italy on the thirteenth day560 before the calends of January, and the ordinary course of Nature does not permit us before that period to reckon with any degree of certainty upon the fruits of the earth; for if the moon should happen to be in conjunction at that time, it will be a necessary consequence, that all the winter fruits, as well as the early ones, will receive injury more or less.

The life led by the ancients was rude and illiterate; still, as will be readily seen, the observations they made were not less remarkable for ingenuity than are the theories of the present day. With them there were three set periods for gathering in the produce of the earth, and it was in honour of these periods that they instituted the festive days, known as the Robigalia,561 the Floralia, and the Vinalia. The Robigalia were established by Numa in the fortieth year of his reign, and are still celebrated on the seventh day before the calends of May, as it is at this period that mildew562 mostly makes its first attacks upon the growing corn. Varro fixes this crisis at the moment at which the sun enters the tenth degree of Taurus, in accordance with the notions that prevailed in his day: but the real cause is the fact, that thirty-one563 days after the vernal equinox, according to the observations of various nations, the Dog-star sets between the seventh and fourth before the calends of May, a constellation baneful in itself, and to appease which a young dog should first be sacrificed.564 The same people also, in the year of the City 513, instituted the Floralia, a festival held upon the fourth before565 the calends of May, in accordance with the oracular injunctions of the Sibyl, to secure a favourable season for the blossoms and flowers. Varro fixes this day as the time at which the sun enters the fourteenth degree of Taurus. If there should happen to be a full moon during the four days at this period, injury to the corn and all the plants that are in blossom, will be the necessary result. The First Vinalia, which in ancient times were established on the ninth before566 the calends of May, for the purpose of tasting567 the wines, have no signification whatever in reference to the fruits of the earth, any more than the festivals already mentioned have in reference to the vine and the olive; the germination of these last not commencing, in fact, till the rising of the Vergiliæ, on the Sixth day before568 the ides of May, as already mentioned on previous occasions.569 This, again, is another period of four days, which should never be blemished by dews, as the chilling constellation of Arcturus, which sets on the following day, will be sure to nip the vegetation; still less ought there to be a full moon at this period.

On the fourth before570 the nones of June, the Eagle rises again in the evening, a critical day for the olives and vines in blossom, if there should happen to be a full moon. For my part, I am of opinion that the eighth571 before the calends of July, the day of the summer solstice, must be a critical day, for a similar reason; and that the rising of the Dog-star, twenty-three days after the summer solstice, must be so too, in case the moon is then in conjunction; for the excessive heat is productive of injurious effects, and the grape becomes prematurely ripened, shrivelled, and tough. Again, if there is a full moon on the fourth before572 the nones of July, when Canicula rises to the people of Egypt, or at least on the sixteenth before573 the calends of August, when it rises in Italy, it is productive of injurious results. The same is the case, too, from the thirteenth day before574 the calends of August, when the Eagle sets, to the tenth before575 the calends of that month. The Second Vinalia, which are celebrated on the fourteenth576 before the calends of September, bear no reference to these influences. Varro fixes them at the period at which the Lyre begins its morning setting, and says that this indicates the beginning of autumn, the day having been set apart for the purpose of propitiating the weather: at the present day, however, it is observed that the Lyre sets on the sixth before577 the ides of August.

Within these periods there are exerted the sterilizing influences of the heavens, though I am far from denying that they may be considerably modified by the nature of the locality, according as it is cold or hot. Still, however, it is sufficient for me to have demonstrated the theory; the modifications of its results depending, in a great degree, upon attentive observation. It is beyond all question too, that either one of these two causes will be always productive of its own peculiar effects, the full moon, I mean, or else the moon’s conjunction. And here it suggests itself how greatly we ought to admire the bounteous provisions made for us by Nature; for, in the first place, these calamitous results cannot by any possibility befall us every year, in consequence of the fixed revolutions of the stars; nor indeed, when they do happen, beyond a few nights in the year, and it may be easily known beforehand which nights those are likely to be. In order, too, that we might not have to apprehend these injuries to vegetation in all the months, Nature has so ordained that the times of the moon’s conjunction in summer, and of the full moon in winter, with the exception of two days only at those respective periods, are well ascertained, and that there is no danger to be apprehended on any but the nights of summer, and those nights the shortest of all; in the day-time, on the other hand, there is nothing to fear. And then, besides, these phænomena may be so easily understood, that the ant even, that most diminutive of insects, takes its rest during the moon’s conjunction, but toils on, and that during the night as well, when the moon is at the full; the bird, too, called the “parra”578 disappears upon the day on which Sirius rises, and never reappears until that star has set; while the witwall,579 on the other hand, makes its appearance on the day of the summer solstice. The moon, however, is productive of no noxious effects at either of these periods, except when the nights are clear, and every movement of the air is lulled; for so long as clouds prevail, or the wind is blowing, the night dews never fall. And then, besides, there are certain remedies to counteract these noxious influences.

CHAP. 70.—REMEDIES AGAINST THESE NOXIOUS INFLUENCES.

When you have reason to fear these influences, make bonfires in the fields and vineyards of cuttings or heaps of chaff, or else of the weeds that have been rooted up; the smoke580 will act as a good preservative. The smoke, too, of burning chaff will be an effectual protection against the effects of fogs, when likely to be injurious. Some persons recommend that three crabs should be burnt581 alive among the trees on which the vines are trained, to prevent these from being attacked by coal blight; while others say that the flesh of the silurus582 should be burnt in a slow fire, in such a way that the smoke may be dispersed by the wind throughout the vineyard.

Varro informs us, that if at the setting of the Lyre, which is the beginning of autumn, a painted grape583 is consecrated in the midst of the vineyard, the bad weather will not be productive of such disastrous results as it otherwise would. Archibius584 has stated, in a letter to Antiochus, king of Syria, that if a bramble-frog585 is buried in a new earthen vessel, in the middle of a corn-field, there will be no storms to cause injury.

CHAP. 71.—WORK TO BE DONE AFTER THE SUMMER SOLSTICE.

The following are the rural occupations for this interval of time—the ground must have another turning up, and the trees must be cleared about the roots and moulded up, where the heat of the locality requires it. Those plants, however, which are in bud must not be spaded at the roots, except where the soil is particularly rich. The seed-plots, too, must be well cleared with the hoe, the barley-harvest got in, and the threshing-floor prepared for the harvest with chalk, as Cato586 tells us, slackened with amurca of olives; Virgil587 makes mention of a method still more laborious even. In general, however, it is considered sufficient to make it perfectly level, and then to cover it with a solution of cow-dung588 and water; this being thought sufficient to prevent the dust from rising.

CHAP. 72. (30.)—THE HARVEST.

The mode of getting in the harvest varies considerably. In the vast domains of the provinces of Gaul a large hollow frame,589 armed with teeth and supported on two wheels, is driven through the standing corn, the beasts being yoked590 behind it; the result being, that the ears are torn off and fall within the frame. In other countries the stalks are cut with the sickle in the middle, and the ears are separated by the aid of paddle-forks.591 In some places, again, the corn is torn up by the roots; and it is asserted by those who adopt this plan, that it is as good as a light turning up for the ground, whereas, in reality, they deprive it of its juices.592 There are differences in other respects also: in places where they thatch their houses with straw, they keep the longest haulms for that purpose; and where hay is scarce, they employ the straw for litter. The straw of panic is never used for thatching, and that of millet is mostly burnt; barley-straw, however, is always preserved, as being the most agreeable of all as a food for oxen. In the Gallic provinces panic and millet are gathered, ear by ear, with the aid of a comb carried in the hand.

In some places the corn is beaten out by machines593 upon the threshing-floor, in others by the feet of mares, and in others with flails. The later wheat is cut, the more prolific594 it is; but if it is got in early, the grain is finer and stronger. The best rule is to cut it before the grain hardens, and just as it is changing colour:595 though the oracles on husbandry say that it is better to begin the harvest two days too soon than two days too late. Winter and other wheat must be treated exactly the same way both on the threshing-floor and in the granary. Spelt, as it is difficult to be threshed, should be stored with the chaff on, being only disengaged of the straw and the beard.

Many countries make use of chaff596 for hay; the smoother and thinner it is, and the more nearly resembling dust, the better; hence it is that the chaff597 of millet is considered the best, that of barley being the next best, and that of wheat the worst of all, except for beasts that are hard worked. In stony places they break the haulms, when dry, with staves, for the cattle to lie upon: if there is a deficiency of chaff, the straw as well is ground for food. The following is the method employed in preparing it: it is cut early and sprinkled with bay salt,598 after which it is dried and rolled up in trusses, and given to the oxen as wanted, instead of hay. Some persons set fire to the stubble in the fields, a plan that has been greatly extolled by Virgil:599 the chief merit of it is that the seed of the weeds is effectually destroyed. The diversity of the methods employed in harvesting mainly depends upon the extent of the crops and the price of labour.

CHAP. 73.—THE METHODS OF STORING CORN.

Connected with this branch of our subject is the method of storing corn. Some persons recommend that granaries should be built for the purpose at considerable expense, the walls being made of brick, and not less than three600 feet thick; the corn, they say, should be let in from above, the air being carefully excluded, and no windows allowed. Others, again, say that the granary should have an aspect in no direction but the north-east or north, and that the walls should be built without lime, that substance being extremely injurious601 to corn; as to what we find recommended in reference to amurca of olives, we have already mentioned it on a former602 occasion. In some places they build their granaries of wood, and upon pillars,603 thinking it the best plan to leave access for the air on every side, and from below even. Some persons think, however, that the grain diminishes in bulk if laid on a floor above the level of the ground, and that it is liable to ferment beneath a roof of tiles. Many persons say, too, that the grain should never be stirred up to air604 it, as the weevil is never known to penetrate beyond four fingers in depth; consequently, beyond that depth there is no danger. According to Columella,605 the west wind is beneficial to grain, a thing that surprises me, as that wind is generally a very parching606 one. Some persons recommend that, before housing the corn, a bramble-frog should be hung up by one of the hind legs at the threshold of the granary. To me it appears that the most important precaution of all is to house the grain at the proper time; for if it is unripe when cut, and not sufficiently firm, or if it is got in in a heated state, it follows of necessity that noxious insects will breed in it.

There are several causes which contribute to the preservation of grain; the outer607 coats in some kinds are more numerous, as in millet, for instance; the juices are of an oleaginous nature,608 and so supply ample moisture, as in sesame, for example; while in other kinds, again, they are naturally bitter,609 as in the lupine and the chicheling vetch. It is in wheat more particularly that insects breed, as it is apt to heat from the density of its juices, and the grain is covered with a thick bran. In barley the chaff is thinner, and the same is the case with all the leguminous seeds: it is for this reason that they do not ordinarily breed insects. The bean, however, is covered with a coat of a thicker substance; and hence it is that it ferments. Some persons sprinkle wheat, in order to make it keep the longer, with amurca610 of olives, a quadrantal to a thousand modii: others, again, with powdered Chalcidian or Carian chalk, or with worm-wood.611 There is a certain earth found at Olynthus, and at Cerinthus, in Eubœa, which prevents grain from spoiling. If garnered in the ear, grain is hardly ever found to suffer any injury.

The best plan, however, of preserving grain, is to lay it up in trenches, called “siri,” as they do in Cappadocia, Thracia, Spain, and at * * * in Africa. Particular care is taken to dig these trenches in a dry soil, and a layer of chaff is then placed at the bottom; the grain, too, is always stored in the ear. In this case, if no air is allowed to penetrate to the corn, we may rest assured that no noxious insects will ever breed in it. Varro612 says, that wheat, if thus stored, will keep as long as fifty years, and millet a hundred; and he assures us that beans and other leguminous grain, if put away in oil jars with a covering of ashes, will keep for a great length of time. He makes a statement, also, to the effect that some beans were preserved in a cavern in Ambracia from the time of King Pyrrhus until the Piratical War of Pompeius Magnus, a period of about two hundred and twenty years.

The chick-pea is the only grain in which no insect will breed while in the granary. Some persons place upon the heaps of the leguminous grains pitchers full of vinegar and coated with pitch, a stratum of ashes being laid beneath; and they fancy that if this is done, no injury will happen. Some, again, store them in vessels which have held salted provisions, with a coating of plaster on the top, while other persons are in the habit of sprinkling lentils with vinegar scented with laser,613 and, when dry, giving them a covering of oil. But the most effectual method of all is to get in everything that you would preserve from injury at the time of the moon’s conjunction; and hence it is of the greatest importance to know, when getting in the harvest, whether it is for garnering or whether for immediate sale. If cut during the increase of the moon, grain will increase in size.

CHAP. 74. (31.)—THE VINTAGE, AND THE WORKS OF AUTUMN.

In accordance with the ordinary divisions of the year, we now come to autumn, a period which extends from the setting of the Lyre to the autumnal equinox, and from that to the setting of the Vergiliæ and the beginning of winter. In these intervals, the more important periods are marked by the rising of the Horse to the people of Attica, in the evening of the day before614 the ides of August; upon which day also the Dolphin sets in Egypt, and, according to Cæsar, in Italy. On the eleventh615 before the calends of September, the star called the Vintager begins to rise in the morning, according to Cæsar’s reckoning, and to the people of Assyria: it announces the ripening of the vintage, a sure sign of which is the change of colour in the grape. On the fifth616 before the calends of September, the Arrow sets in Assyria, and the Etesian winds cease to blow: on the nones617 of September, the Vintager rises in Egypt, and in the morning of that day, Arcturus rises to the people of Attica: on the same morning, too, the Arrow sets. In the fifth before618 the ides of September, according to Cæsar, the She-Goat rises in the evening; and one half of Arcturus becomes visible on the day before619 the ides of September, being portentous620 of boisterous weather for five days, both by land and sea.

The theory relative to the effects produced by Arcturus, is stated in the following terms: if showers prevail, it is said, at the setting of the Dolphin, they will not cease so long as Arcturus is visible. The departure of the swallows may be looked upon as the sign of the rising of Arcturus; for if overtaken by it, they are sure to perish.

On the sixteenth day before621 the calends of October, the Ear of Corn, which Virgo holds, rises to the people of Egypt in the morning, and by this day the Etesian winds have quite ceased to blow. According to Cæsar, this constellation rises on the fourteenth622 before the calends, and it affords its prognostics to the Assyrians on the thirteenth. On the eleventh before623 the calends of October, the point of junction624 in Pisces disappears, and upon the eighth625 is the autumnal equinox. It is a remarkable fact, and rarely the case, that Philippus, Callippus, Dositheus, Parmeniscus, Conon,626 Criton, Democritus, and Eudoxus, all agree that the She-Goat rises in the morning of the fourth before627 the calends of October, and on the third628 the Kids. On the sixth day before629 the nones of October, the Crown rises in the morning to the people of Attica, and upon the morning of the fifth,630 the Charioteer sets. On the fourth before631 the nones of October, the Crown, according to Cæsar’s reckoning, begins to rise, and on the evening of the day after is the setting of the constellation of the Kids. On the eighth before632 the ides of October, according to Cæsar, the bright star rises that shines in the Crown, and on the evening of the sixth before633 the ides the Vergiliæ, rise. Upon the ides634 of October, the Crown has wholly risen. On the seventeenth before635 the calends of November, the Suculæ rise in the evening, and on the day before the calends, according to Cæsar’s reckoning, Arcturus sets, and the Suculæ636 rise with the sun. In the evening of the fourth day before637 the nones of November, Arcturus sets. On the fifth before638 the ides of November, Orion’s Sword begins to set; and on the third639 before the ides the Vergiliæ set.

In this interval of time, the rural operations consist in sowing rape and turnips, upon the days which have been mentioned on a previous occasion.640 The people in the country are of opinion, that it is not a good plan to sow rape after the departure of the stork; but for my own part, I am of opinion that it should be sown after the Vulcanalia, and the early kind at the same time as panic. After the setting of the Lyre, vetches should be sown, kidney-beans and hay-grass: it is generally recommended that this should be done while the moon is in conjunction. This, too, is the proper time for gathering in the leaves: it is fair work for one woodman, to fill four baskets641 in the day. If the leaves are gathered while the moon is on the wane, they will not decay; they ought not to be dry, however, when gathered.

The ancients were of opinion, that the vintage is never ripe before the equinox; but at the present day I find that it is gathered in before that period; it will be as well, therefore, to give the signs and indications by which the proper moment may be exactly ascertained. The rules for getting in the vintage are to the following effect: Never gather the grape in a heated state,642 or in other words, when the weather is dry, and before the rains have fallen; nor ought it to be gathered when covered with dew,—or in other words, when dews have fallen during the night,—nor yet before the dews have been dispelled by the sun. Commence the vintage when the bearing-shoots begin to recline upon the stem, or when, after a grape is removed from the bunch, the space left empty is not filled up; this being a sure proof that the berry has ceased to increase in size. It is of the greatest consequence to the grape, that it should be gathered while the moon is on the increase. Each pressing should fill twenty culei,643 that being the fair proportion. To fill twenty culei and vats644 from twenty jugera of vineyard, a single press will be enough. In pressing the grape, some persons use a single press-board, but it is a better plan to employ two, however large the single ones may be. It is the length of them that is of the greatest consequence, and not the thickness: if wide, however, they press the fruit all the better. The ancients used to screw down the press-boards with ropes and leather thongs, worked by levers. Within the last hundred years the Greek press has been invented, with thick spiral grooves running down the645 stem. To this stem there are spokes attached, which project like the rays of a star, and by means of which the stem is made to lift a box filled with stones—a method that is very highly approved of. It is only within the last two-and-twenty years, that a plan has been discovered of employing smaller press-boards, and a less unwieldy press: to effect this, the height has been reduced, and the stem of the screw placed in the middle, the whole pressure being concentrated upon broad planks646 placed over the grapes, which are covered also with heavy weights above.

This is the proper time for gathering fruit; the best moment for doing so is when it has begun to fall through ripeness, and not from the effects of the weather. This is the season, too, for extracting the lees of wine, and for boiling defrutum:647 this last must be done on a night when there is no moon, or if it is a full moon, in the day-time. At other times of the year, it must be done either before the moon has risen, or after it has set. The grapes employed for this purpose should never be gathered from a young vine, nor yet from a tree that is grown in a marshy spot, nor should any grapes be used but those that are perfectly ripe: the liquor, too, should never be skimmed with anything but a leaf,648 for if the vessel should happen to be touched with wood, the liquor, it is generally thought, will have a burnt and smoky flavour.

The proper time for the vintage is between the equinox and the setting of the Vergiliæ, a period of forty-four days. It is a saying among the growers, that to pitch wine-vessels after that day, in consequence of the coldness of the weather, is only so much time lost. Still, however, I have seen, before now persons getting in the vintage on the calends of January649 even, in consequence of the want of wine-vessels, and putting the must into receivers,650 or else pouring the old wine out of its vessels, to make room for new liquor of a very doubtful quality. This, however, happens not so often in consequence of an over-abundant crop, as through carelessness, or else the avarice which leads people to wait for a rise in prices. The method that is adopted by the most economical managers, is to use the produce supplied by each year,651 and this, too, is found in the end the most lucrative mode of proceeding. As for the other details relative to wines, they have been discussed at sufficient length already;652 and it has been stated on a previous occasion,653 that as soon as the vintage is got in, the olives should at once be gathered, with other particulars relative to the olive after the setting of the Vergiliæ.

CHAP. 75. (32.)—THE REVOLUTIONS OF THE MOON.

I shall now proceed to add some necessary information relative to the moon, the winds, and certain signs and prognostics, in order that I may complete the observations I have to make with reference to the sidereal system. Virgil654 has even gone so far, in imitation of Democritus, as to assign certain operations to certain days655 of the moon; but my sole object shall be, as, indeed, it has been throughout this work, to consult that utility which is based upon a knowledge and appreciation of general principles.

All vegetable productions are cut, gathered, and housed to more advantage while the moon is on the wane than while it is on the increase. Manure must never be touched except when the moon is on the wane; and land must be manured more particularly while the moon is in conjunction, or else at the first quarter. Take care to geld your boars, bulls, rams, and kids, while the moon is on the wane. Put eggs under the hen at a new moon. Make your ditches in the night-time, when the moon is at full. Cover up the roots of trees, while the moon is at full. Where the soil is humid, put in seed at the moon’s conjunction, and during the four days about that period. It is generally recommended, too, to give an airing to corn and the leguminous grains, and to garner them, towards the end of the moon; to make seed-plots when the moon is above the horizon; and to tread out the grape, to fell timber, and to do many other things that have been mentioned in their respective places, when the moon is below it.

The observation of the moon, in general, as already observed in the Second Book,656 is not so very easy, but what I am about here to state even rustics will be able to comprehend: so long as the moon is seen in the west, and during the earlier hours of the night, she will be on the increase, and one half of her disk will be perceived; but when the moon is seen to rise at sunset and opposite to the sun, so that they are both perceptible at the same moment, she will be at full. Again, as often as the moon rises in the east, and does not give her light in the earlier hours of the night, but shows herself during a portion of the day, she will be on the wane, and one half of her only will again be perceptible: when the moon has ceased to be visible, she is in conjunction, a period known to us as “interlunium.”657 During the conjunction, the moon will be above the horizon the same time as the sun, for the whole of the first day; on the second, she will advance upon the night ten-twelfths of an hour and one-fourth of a twelfth;658 on the third day, the same as on the second, and * * * so on in succession up to the fifteenth day, the same proportional parts of an hour being added each day. On the fifteenth day she will be above the horizon all night, and below it all day. On the sixteenth, she will remain below the horizon ten-twelfths of an hour, and one-fourth of a twelfth, at the first hour of the night, and so on in the same proportion day after day, up to the period of her conjunction; and thus, the same time which, by remaining under the horizon, she withdraws from the first part of the night, she will add to the end of the night by remaining above the horizon. Her revolutions, too, will occupy thirty days one month, and twenty-nine the next, and so on alternately. Such is the theory of the revolutions of the moon.

CHAP. 76. (33.)—THE THEORY OF THE WINDS.

The theory of the winds659 is of a somewhat more intricate nature. After observing the quarter in which the sun rises on any given day, at the sixth660 hour of the day take your position in such a manner as to have the point of the sun’s rising on your left; you will then have the south directly facing you, and the north at your back: a line drawn through a field in this direction661 is called the “cardinal”662 line. The observer must then turn round, so as to look upon his shadow, for it will be behind him. Having thus changed his position, so as to bring the point of the sun’s rising on that day to the right, and that of his setting to the left, it will be the sixth hour of the day, at the moment when the shadow straight before him is the shortest. Through the middle of this shadow, taken lengthwise, a furrow must be traced in the ground with a hoe, or else a line drawn with ashes, some twenty feet in length, say; in the middle of this line, or, in other words, at the tenth foot in it, a small circle must then be described: to this circle we may give the name of the “umbilicus,” or “navel.” That point in the line which lies on the side of the head of the shadow will be the point from which the north wind blows. You who are engaged in pruning trees, be it your care that the incisions made in the wood do not face this point; nor should the vine-trees663 or the vines have this aspect, except in the climates of Africa,664 Cyrenæ, or Egypt. When the wind blows, too, from this point, you must never plough, nor, in fact, attempt any other of the operations of which we shall have to make mention.665

That part of the line which lies between the umbilicus and the feet of the shadow will look towards the south, and indicate the point from which the south wind666 blows, to which, as already mentioned,667 the Greeks have given the name of Notus. When the wind comes from this quarter, you, husbandman, must never fell wood or touch the vine. In Italy this wind is either humid or else of a burning heat, and in Africa it is accompanied with intense heat668 and fine clear weather. In Italy the bearing branches should be trained to face this quarter, but the incisions made in the trees or vines when pruned must never face it. Let those be on their guard against this wind upon the four669 days at the rising of the Vergiliæ, who are engaged in planting the olive, as well as those who are employed in the operations of grafting or inoculating.

It will be as well, too, here to give some advice, in reference to the climate of Italy, as to certain precautions to be observed at certain hours of the day. You, woodman, must never lop the branches in the middle of the day; and you, shepherd, when you see midday approaching in summer, and the shadow gradually decreasing, drive your flocks from out of the sun into some well-shaded spot. When you lead the flocks to pasture in summer, let them face the west before midday,670 and after that time, the east: if this precaution is not adopted, calamitous results will ensue; the same, too, if the flocks are led in winter or spring to pastures covered with dew. Nor must you let them feed with their faces to the north, as already mentioned;671 for the wind will either close their eyes or else make them bleared, and they will die of looseness. If you wish to have females,672 you should let the dams have their faces towards the north while being covered.

CHAP. 77. (34.)—THE LAYING OUT OF LANDS ACCORDING TO THE POINTS OF THE WIND.

We have already stated673 that the umbilicus should be described in the middle of the line. Let another line be drawn transversely through the middle of it, and it will be found to run from due east to due west; a trench cut through the land in accordance with this line is known by the name of “decumanus.” Two other lines must then be traced obliquely across them in the form of the letter X, in such a way as to run exactly from right and left of the northern point to left and right of the southern one. All these lines must pass through the centre of the umbilicus, and all must be of corresponding length, and at equal distances. This method should always be adopted in laying out land; or if it should be found necessary to employ it frequently, a plan674 of it may be made in wood, sticks of equal length being fixed upon the surface of a small tambour,675 but perfectly round. In the method which I am here explaining, it is necessary to point out one precaution that must always be observed by those who are unacquainted with the subject. The point that must be verified first of all is the south, as that is always the same; but the sun, it must be remembered, rises every day at a point in the heavens different to that of his rising on the day before, so that the east must never be taken as the basis for tracing the lines.

Having now ascertained the various points of the heavens, the extremity of the line that is nearest to the north, but lying to the east of it, will indicate the solstitial rising, or, in other words, the rising of the sun on the longest day, as also the point from which the wind Aquilo676 blows, known to the Greeks by the name of Boreas. You should plant all trees and vines facing this point, but take care never to plough, or sow corn, or plant in seed plots, while this wind is blowing, for it has the effect of drying up and blasting the roots of the trees while being transplanted. Be taught in time—one thing is good for grown trees, another for them while they are but young. Nor have I forgotten the fact, that it is at this point of the heavens that the Greeks place the wind, to which they give the name of Cæcias; Aristotle, a man of most extensive learning, who has assigned to Cæcias this position, explains that it is in consequence of the convexity of the earth, that Aquilo blows in an opposite direction to the wind called Africus.

The agriculturist, however, has nothing to fear from Aquilo, in respect to the operations before mentioned, all the year through; for this wind is softened by the sun in the middle of the summer, and, changing its name, is known by that of Etesias.677 When you feel the cold, then, be on your guard; for, whatever the noxious effects that are attributed to Aquilo, the more sensibly will they be felt when the wind blows from due north. In Asia, Greece, Spain, the coasts of Italy, Campania, and Apulia, the trees that support the vines, as well as the vines themselves, should have an aspect towards the north-east. If you wish to have male produce, let the flock feed in such a way, that this wind may have the opportunity of fecundating the male, whose office it is to fecundate the females. The wind Africus, known to the Greeks by the name of Libs, blows from the south-west, the opposite point to Aquilo; when animals, after coupling, turn their heads towards this quarter,678 you may be sure that female produce has been conceived.

The third679 line from the north, which we have drawn transversely through the shadow, and called by the name of “decumanus,” will point due east, and from this quarter the wind Subsolanus blows, by the Greeks called Apeliotes. It is to this point that, in healthy localities, farm-houses and vineyards are made to look. This wind is accompanied with soft, gentle showers; Favonius, however, the wind that blows from due west, the opposite quarter to it, is of a drier nature; by the Greeks it is known as Zephyrus. Cato has recommended that olive-yards should look due west. It is this wind that begins the spring, and opens the earth; it is moderately cool, but healthy. As soon as it begins to prevail, it indicates that the time has arrived for pruning the vine, weeding the corn, planting trees, grafting fruit-trees, and trimming the olive; for its breezes are productive of the most nutritious effects.

The fourth680 line from the north, and the one that lies nearest the south on the eastern side, will indicate the point of the sun’s rising at the winter solstice, and the wind Volturnus, known by the name of Eurus to the Greeks. This wind is warm and dry, and beehives and vineyards, in the climates of Italy and the Gallic provinces, should face this quarter. Directly opposite to Volturnus, the wind Corus blows; it indicates the point of the sun’s setting at the summer solstice, and lies on the western side next to the north. By the Greeks it is called Argestes, and is one of the very coldest of the winds, which, in fact, is the case with all the winds that blow from the north; this wind, too, brings hailstorms with it, for which reason it is necessary to be on our guard against it no less than the north. If Volturnus begins to blow from a clear quarter of the heavens, it will not last till night; but if it is Subsolanus, it will prevail for the greater part of the night. Whatever the wind that may happen to be blowing, if it is accompanied by heat, it will be sure to last for several days. The earth announces the approach of Aquilo, by drying on a sudden, while on the approach of Auster, the surface becomes moist without any apparent cause.

CHAP. 78. (35.)—PROGNOSTICS DERIVED FROM THE SUN.

Having now explained the theory of the winds, it seems to me the best plan, in order to avoid any repetition, to pass on to the other signs and prognostics that are indicative of a change of weather. I find, too, that this is a kind of knowledge that greatly interested Virgil,681 for he mentions the fact, that during the harvest even, he has often seen the winds engage in a combat that was absolutely ruinous to the improvident agriculturist. There is a tradition, too, to the effect that Democritus, already mentioned, when his brother Damasus was getting in his harvest in extremely hot weather, entreated him to leave the rest of the crop, and house with all haste that which had been cut; and it was only within a very few hours that his prediction was verified by a most violent storm. On the other hand, it is particularly recommended never to plant reeds except when rain is impending, and only to sow corn just before a shower; we shall therefore briefly touch upon the prognostics of this description, making enquiry more particularly into those among them that have been found the most useful.

In the first place, then, we will consider those prognostics of the weather which are derived from the sun.682 If the sun is bright at its rising, and not burning hot, it is indicative of fine weather, but if pale, it announces wintry weather accompanied with hail. If the sun is bright and clear when it sets, and if it rises with a similar appearance, the more assured of fine weather may we feel ourselves. If it is hidden in clouds at its rising, it is indicative of rain, and of wind, when the clouds are of a reddish colour just before sunrise; if black clouds are intermingled with the red ones, they betoken rain as well. When the sun’s rays at its rising or setting appear to unite, rainy weather may be looked for. When the clouds are red at sunset, they give promise683 of a fine day on the morrow; but if, at the sun’s rising, the clouds are dispersed in various quarters, some to the south, and some to the north-east, even though the heavens in the vicinity of the sun may be bright, they are significant of rain and wind. If at the sun’s rising or setting, its rays appear contracted, they announce the approach of a shower. If it rains at sunset, or if the sun’s rays attract the clouds towards them, it is portentous of stormy weather on the following day. When the sun, at its rising, does not emit vivid rays, although there are no clouds surrounding it, rain may be expected. If before sunrise the clouds collect into dense masses, they are portentous of a violent storm; but if they are repelled from the east and travel westward, they indicate fine weather. When clouds are seen surrounding the face of the sun, the less the light they leave, the more violent the tempest will be: but if they form a double circle round the sun, the storm will be a dreadful one. If this takes place at sunrise or sunset, and the clouds assume a red hue, the approach of a most violent storm is announced: and if the clouds hang over the face of the sun without surrounding it, they presage wind from the quarter from which they are drifting, and rain as well, if they come from the south.

If, at its rising, the sun is surrounded with a circle, wind may be looked for in the quarter in which the circle breaks; but if it disappears equally throughout, it is indicative of fine weather. If the sun at its rising throws out its rays afar through the clouds, and the middle of its disk is clear, there will be rain; and if its rays are seen before it rises, both rain and wind as well. If a white circle is seen round the sun at its setting, there will be a slight storm in the night; but if there is a mist around it, the storm will be more violent. If the sun is pale at sunset, there will be wind, and if there is a dark circle round it, high winds will arise in the quarter in which the circle breaks.

CHAP. 79.—PROGNOSTICS DERIVED FROM THE MOON.

The prognostics derived from the moon, assert their right to occupy our notice in the second place. In Egypt, attention is paid, more particularly, to the fourth day of the moon. If, when the moon rises, she shines with a pure bright light, it is generally supposed that we shall have fine weather; but if she is red, there will be wind, and if of a swarthy684 hue, rain. If upon the fifth day of the moon her horns are obtuse, they are always indicative of rain, but if sharp and erect, of wind, and this on the fourth day of the moon more particularly. If her northern horn is pointed and erect, it portends wind; and if it is the lower horn that presents this appearance, the wind will be from the south; if both of them are erect, there will be high winds in the night. If upon the fourth day of the moon she is surrounded by a red circle, it is portentous of wind and rain.

In Varro we find it stated to the following effect:—“If, at the fourth day of the moon, her horns are erect, there will be great storms at sea, unless, indeed, she has a circlet685 around her, and that circlet unblemished; for by that sign we are informed that there will be no stormy weather before full moon. If, at the full moon, one half of her disk is clear, it is indicative of fine weather, but if it is red, of wind, and if black, of rain. If a darkness comes over the face of the moon, covered with clouds, in whatever quarter it breaks, from that quarter wind may be expected. If a twofold circle surrounds the moon, the storm will be more violent, and even more so still, if there are three circles, or if they are black, broken, and disjointed. If the new moon at her rising has the upper horn obscured, there will be a prevalence of rainy weather, when she is on the wane; but if it is the lower horn that is obscured, there will be rain before full moon; if, again, the moon is darkened in the middle of her disk, there will be rain when she is at full. If the moon, when full, has a circle round her, it indicates wind from the quarter in the circle which is the brightest; but if at her rising the horns are obtuse, they are portentous of a frightful tempest. If, when the west wind prevails, the moon does not make her appearance before her fourth day, there will be a prevalence of stormy weather throughout the month. If on the sixteenth day the moon has a bright, flaming appearance, it is a presage of violent tempests.”

There are eight different epochs of the moon, or periods at which she makes certain angles of incidence with the sun, and most persons only notice the prognostics derived from the moon, according to the places which they occupy between these angles. The periods of these angles are the third day, the seventh, the eleventh, the fifteenth, the nineteenth, the twenty-third, the twenty-seventh, and that of the conjunction.

CHAP. 80.—PROGNOSTICS DERIVED FROM THE STARS.

In the third rank must be placed the prognostics derived from the stars. These bodies are sometimes to be seen shooting to and fro;686 when this happens, winds immediately ensue, in that part of the heavens in which the presage has been afforded. When the heavens are equally bright throughout their whole expanse, at the periods previously mentioned,687 the ensuing autumn will be fine and cool. If the spring and summer have passed not without some rain, the autumn will be fine and settled,688 and there will be but little wind: when the autumn is fine, it makes a windy winter. When the brightness of the stars is suddenly obscured, though without689 clouds or fog, violent tempests may be expected. If numerous stars are seen to shoot,690 leaving a white track behind them, they presage wind from that quarter.691 If they follow in quick succession from the same quarter, the wind will blow steadily, but if from various quarters of the heavens, the wind will shift in sudden gusts and squalls. If circles are seen to surround any of the planets, there will be rain.692 In the constellation of Cancer, there are two small stars to be seen, known as the Aselli,693 the small space that lies between them being occupied by a cloudy appearance, which is known as the Manger;694 when this cloud is not visible in a clear sky, it is a presage of a violent storm. If a fog conceals from our view the one of these stars which lies to the north-east, there will be high winds from the south; but if it is the star which lies to the south that is so obscured, then the wind will be from the north-east. The rainbow, when double, indicates the approach695 of rain; but if seen after rain, it gives promise, though by no means a certain one, of fine weather. Circular clouds around some of the stars are indicative of rain.

CHAP. 81.—PROGNOSTICS DERIVED FROM THUNDER.

When, in summer, there is more thunder than lightning, wind may be expected from that quarter; but if, on the other hand, there is not so much thunder as lightning, there will be a fall of rain. When it lightens in a clear sky, there will be rain, and if there is thunder as well, stormy weather; but if it lightens from all four quarters of the heavens, there will be a dreadful tempest. When it lightens from the north-east only, it portends rain on the following day; but when from the north, wind may be expected from that quarter. When it lightens on a clear night from the south, the west, or the north-west, there will be wind and rain from those quarters. Thunder696 in the morning is indicative of wind, and at midday of rain.

CHAP. 82.—PROGNOSTICS DERIVED FROM CLOUDS.

When clouds are seen moving in a clear sky, wind may be expected in the quarter from which they proceed; but if they accumulate in one spot, as they approach the sun they will disperse. If the clouds are dispersed by a north-east wind, it is a presage of high winds, but if by a wind from the south, of rain. If at sunset the clouds cover the heavens on either side of the sun, they are indicative of tempest; if they are black and lowering in the east, they threaten rain in the night, but if in the west, on the following day. If the clouds spread in large numbers from the east, like fleeces of wool in appearance, they indicate a continuance of rain for the next three days. When the clouds settle on the summits of the mountains,697 there will be stormy weather; but if the clouds clear away, it will be fine. When the clouds are white and lowering, a hailstorm, generally known as a “white”698 tempest, is close at hand. An isolated cloud, however small,699 though seen in a clear sky, announces wind and storm.

CHAP. 83.—PROGNOSTICS DERIVED FROM MISTS.

Mists descending from the summits of mountains, or from the heavens, or settling in the vallies,700 give promise of fine weather.

CHAP. 84.—PROGNOSTICS DERIVED FROM FIRE KINDLED BY MAN.

Next to these are the prognostics that are derived from fire kindled upon the earth.701 If the flames are pallid, and emit a murmuring noise, they are considered to presage stormy weather; and fungi upon the burning wick of the lamp are a sign of rain.702 If the flame is spiral and flickering, it is an indication of wind, and the same is the case when the lamp goes out of itself, or is lighted with difficulty. So, too, if the snuff hangs down, and sparks gather upon it, or if the burning coals adhere703 to vessels taken from off the fire, or if the fire, when covered up, sends out hot embers or emits sparks, or if the cinders gather into a mass upon the hearth, or the coals burn bright and glowing.

CHAP. 85.—PROGNOSTICS DERIVED FROM WATER.

There are certain prognostics, too, that may be derived from water. If, when the sea is calm, the water ripples in the harbour, with a hollow, murmuring noise, it is a sign of wind, and if in winter, of rain as well. If the coasts and shores re-echo while the sea is calm, a violent tempest may be expected; and the same when the sea, though calm, is heard to roar, or throws up foam and bubbling spray. If sea pulmones704 are to be seen floating on the surface, they are portentous of stormy weather for many days to come. Very frequently, too, the sea is seen to swell in silence, and more so than when ruffled by an ordinary breeze; this is an indication that the winds are at work within its bosom already.

CHAP. 86.—PROGNOSTICS DERIVED FROM TEMPESTS THEMSELVES.

The reverberations, too, of the mountains, and the roaring of the forests, are indicative of certain phænomena; and the same is the case when the leaves are seen to quiver,705 without a breath of wind, the downy filaments of the poplar or thorn to float in the air, and feathers to skim along the surface of the water.706 In champaign countries, the storm gives notice of its approach by that peculiar muttering707 which precedes it; while the murmuring that is heard in the heavens affords us no doubtful presage of what is to come.

CHAP. 87.—PROGNOSTICS DERIVED FROM AQUATIC ANIMALS, AND BIRDS.

The animals, too, afford us certain presages; dolphins, for instance, sporting in a calm sea, announce wind in the quarter from which they make their appearance.708 When they throw up the water in a billowy sea, they announce the approach of a calm. The loligo,709 springing out of the water, shell-fish adhering to various objects, sea-urchins fastening by their stickles upon the sand, or else burrowing in it, are so many indications of stormy weather: the same, too, when frogs710 croak more than usual, or coots711 make a chattering in the morning. Divers, too, and ducks, when they clean their feathers with the bill, announce high winds; which is the case also when the aquatic birds unite in flocks, cranes make for the interior, and divers712 and sea-mews forsake the sea or the creeks. Cranes when they fly aloft in silence announce fine weather, and so does the owlet,713 when it screeches during a shower; but if it is heard in fine weather, it presages a storm. Ravens, too, when they croak with a sort of gurgling noise and shake their feathers, give warning of the approach of wind, if their note is continuous: but if, on the other hand, it is smothered, and only heard at broken intervals, we may expect rain, accompanied with high winds. Jackdaws, when they return late from feeding, give notice of stormy weather, and the same with the white birds,714 when they unite in flocks, and the land birds, when they descend with cries to the water and besprinkle themselves, the crow more particularly. The swallow,715 too, when it skims along the surface of the water so near as to ripple it every now and then with its wings, and the birds that dwell in the trees, when they hide themselves in their nests, afford similar indications; geese, too, when they set up a continuous gabbling,716 at an unusual time, and the heron,717 when it stands moping in the middle of the sands.

CHAP. 88.—PROGNOSTICS DERIVED FROM QUADRUPEDS.

Nor, indeed, is it surprising that the aquatic birds, or any birds, in fact, should have a perception of the impending changes of the atmosphere. Sheep, however, when they skip and frisk with their clumsy gambols,718 afford us similar prognostics; oxen, when they snuff upwards towards the sky, and lick719 themselves against the hair; unclean swine, when they tear to pieces the trusses of hay that are put for other animals;720 bees, when, contrary to their natural habits of industry, they keep close within the hive; ants, when they hurry to and fro, or are seen carrying forth their eggs; and earthworms,721 emerging from their holes—all these indicate approaching changes in the weather.

CHAP. 89.—PROGNOSTICS DERIVED FROM PLANTS.

It is a well-known fact, that trefoil bristles up, and its leaves stand erect, upon the approach of a tempest.

CHAP. 90.—PROGNOSTICS DERIVED FROM FOOD.

At our repasts, too, and upon our tables, when we see the vessels sweat in which the viands are served, and leave marks upon the side-board,722 it is an indication that a dreadful storm is impending.

Summary.—Remarkable facts, narratives, and observations, two thousand and sixty.

Roman authors quoted.—Massurius Sabinus,723 Cassius Hemina,724 Verrius Flaccus,725 L. Piso,726 Cornelius Celsus,727 Turranius Gracilis,728 D. Silanus,729 M. Varro,730 Cato the Censor,731 Scrofa,732 the Sasernæ,733 father and son, Domitius Calvinus,734 Hyginus,735 Virgil,736 Trogus,737 Ovid,738 Græcinus,739 Columella,740 Tubero,741 L. Tarutius,742 who wrote in Greek on the Stars, Cæsar743 the Dictator, who wrote upon the Stars, Sergius Paulus,744 Sabinus Fabianus,745 M. Cicero,746 Calpurnius Bassus,747 Ateius Capito,748 Mamilius Sura,749 Attius,750 who wrote the Praxidica.

Foreign authors quoted.—Hesiod,751 Theophrastus,752 Aristotle,753 Democritus,754 King Hiero,755 King Attalus Philometor,756 King Archelaüs,757 Archytas,758 Xenophon,759 Amphilochus760 of Athens, Anaxipolis761 of Thasos, Aristophanes762 of Miletus, Apollodorus763 of Lemnos, Antigonus764 of Cymæ, Agathocles765 of Chios, Apollonius766 of Pergamus, Aristander767 of Athens, Bacchius768 of Miletus, Bion769 of Soli, Chæreas770 of Athens, Chæristus771 of Athens, Diodorus772 of Priene, Dion773 of Colophon, Epigenes774 of Rhodes, Euagon775 of Thasos, Euphronius776 of Athens, Androtiou777 who wrote on Agriculture, Æschrion778 who wrote on Agriculture, Lysimachus779 who wrote on Agriculture, Dionysius780 who translated Mago, Diophanes781 who made an Epitome from Dionysius, Thales,782 Eudoxus,783 Philippus,784 Calippus,785 Dositheus,786 Parmeniscus,787 Meton,788 Criton,789 Œnopides,790 Zenon,791 Euctemon,792 Harpalus,793 Hecatæus,794 Anaximander,795 Sosigenes,796 Hipparchus,797 Aratus,798 Zoroaster,799 Archibius.800