OUR CURIOSITY SHOP. (continued 2)

WHEN THE FOUR GOSPELS WERE WRITTEN.

Exira, Iowa.

When were the four gospels written?

J. A. Hallock.

Answer.—The time when each of the gospels was written is not positively known. Matthew and Luke are generally conceded to have been written between A. D. 58 and A. D. 60. Mark was written after A. D. 62. It is thought that John was written about A. D. 78; but Biblical critics are not agreed on these matters.

A RAILROAD COMPROMISE.

Lockport, N.Y.

Is it true, as reported, that the Northern Pacific Railroad has secured control of the St. Paul, Minneapolis and Manitoba Railroad by the purchase of the latter’s stock?

W. T. Ransom.

Answer.—No. The two roads recently came to an agreement not to encroach on what they are pleased to call each other’s territory. They also purchased of each other such branch lines as they had begun which seemed to be at variance with this understanding as to territory.

ORIGIN OF THE TEMPERANCE MOVEMENT.

Marion, Ind.

Please give a brief history of the temperance movements in this country.

Samuel C. Zombro.

Answer.—The total abstinence societies of to-day are the outgrowth of the old temperate or moderate drinking societies of England and America. About 400 years ago an association was formed, the members of which pledged themselves not to drink more than a specified quantity of alcoholic liquors each day. A society somewhat similar was inaugurated in Germany in 1600 called “The Order of Temperance,” whose members were pledged never to become intoxicated and to that end never to imbibe more than fourteen cups of wine per day. In America, also, there were moderate drinkers’ organizations. In 1820 a society was formed in New Jersey, the members of which agreed never to drink more than one-half pint of rum or whisky per day. The first total abstinence movement of any importance in this country began in Saratoga County, New York, prompted by the Temperance Society of Moreau and Northumberland.

Forty-three persons signed an agreement not to drink “rum, gin, whisky, wine, or any distilled spirits or compositions of the same, or any of them, except by the advice of a physician, or in case of actual disease, also excepting wine at public dinners, under penalty of 25 cents.” In 1813, The Massachusetts Society for the Suppression of Intemperance was formed, but owing to the laxity of its rules it was not very efficient. The American Society for the Promotion of Temperance was inaugurated in Boston in February, 1826, and rapidly grew into an extensive organization, having increased in three years to 11 State associations and 1,000 local societies. About this time the name tee-total came into use, having originated from the vain attempt of a stuttering reformed Englishman to pronounce the word “total.” In 1840 the Washingtonian Society was formed by six drunkards in the city of Baltimore, who resolved to avoid their cups and reform their associates. In five years its pledge had been signed by 650,000 persons, most of whom had been tipplers or downright drunkards. Other societies were soon formed; the Sons of Temperance in New York, in 1842; the Order of Templars of Honor and Temperance in 1845; and the Good Templars in 1851. Since the war many local societies have been formed, and the Murphy movement has extended all over the country.

NEW YORK ELEVATED RAILWAYS.

Taopi, Minn.

Please give a short description of the New York elevated railroads.

M. H. Miller.

Answer.—The demand of the people living in the outskirts of New York City for more rapid transit than that furnished by the horse cars began to be answered in 1868, when an elevated railway extending a half-mile was constructed on Greenwich street as an experiment. Three years later the West Side Elevated Railroad Company obtained a charter, but before much could be accomplished it sold its rights to the New York Elevated Railroad Company, in 1872. The new organization proceeded rapidly to erect its roads, extending from the heart of the city to the suburbs. In December, 1879, its rolling stock consisted of 131 locomotives, 292 passenger cars, and 8 service cars. The road was leased to the Manhattan Railway Company in May, 1879. The Metropolitan Elevated Railroad was first called the Gilbert Elevated Railroad, in honor of its projector, Dr. Rufus H. Gilbert. Although the company obtained its charter in 1872, work was not commenced until March, 1876. In two years it expended $10.-300,000 in constructing its lines. In 1879 the road with its rolling stock, consisting of fifty-six locomotives, 180 passenger cars, and two freight cars, was leased to the Manhattan Elevated Railroad Company, which now has a complete monopoly of the elevated railroads of New York. The tracks of the Metropolitan are supported on two rows of columns connected with each other at the top by strong lattice-girders. The rails weigh fifty-six pounds per yard, and rest upon yellow-pine cross-ties, 6 x 7 inches by 8⅜ feet long, separated two feet apart. The engines weigh fifteen tons, and are capable of a speed of forty miles an hour. The stations are about one-half mile apart. The New York Elevated Railroad consists of a single row of columns, supporting a lighter tramway than the Metropolitan. Although at first this system of railways met with considerable opposition, the people of New York now recognize that its convenience far outbalances its unsightliness, noise, and other disagreeable concomitants.

PAUL PRY.

Chicago, Ill.

Who was the author of Paul Pry and who was the original of the character?

Inquirer.

Answer.—The author was John Poole, an English dramatist, born in 1785. He was remarkably successful in the production of light drama, including some roaring farces, of which the most conspicuous was “Paul Pry;” “Hamlet Travestie,” with burlesque annotations; “Deaf as a Post;” “Turning the Tables,” and “The Wife’s Stratagem,” adapted from Shirley. It was long believed that Thomas Hill, the eccentric editor of the Dramatic Mirror, was the original of Poole’s Paul Pry, but Poole himself contradicts this notion in a biographical sketch of himself that appeared a few years before his death, which occurred in London, Feb. 5, 1872. In this sketch he says: “The character of Paul Pry was suggested by the following anecdote, related to me several years ago by a beloved friend: An idle old lady, living in a narrow street, had passed so much of her time in watching the affairs of her neighbors that she at length knew the sound of each particular knocker within hearing, and could tell to which house it belonged. It happened that she fell ill, and was for several days confined to her bed. Unable to observe in person what was going on outside, she stationed her maid at the window as her substitute for the performance of that task. But Betty soon grew weary of the occupation; she became careless in her reports, impatient and tetchy when reprimanded for her negligence. ‘Betty, what are you thinking about? Don’t you hear a double knock at No. 9? Who is it?’ ‘The first floor lodger, ma’am.’ ‘Betty! Betty! I declare I must give you warning. Why don’t you tell me what that knock is at No. 24?’ ‘Why, Lord, ma’am, it is only the baker with pies.’ ‘Pies! Betty? What can they want with pies at No. 24? They had pies yesterday!’ Of this very point I have availed myself. Let me add that Paul Pry was never intended as the representative of any one individual, but of a class. Like the melancholy of Jacques, he ‘is compounded of many samples,’ and I could mention five or six who were unconscious contributors to the character. That it should have been so often, though erroneously, supposed to have been drawn after some particular person is perhaps complimentary to the general truth of the delineation. With respect to the play generally, I may say that it is original; it is original in structure, plot, character, and dialogue—such as they are. The only imitation I am aware of is to be found in part of the business in which Mrs. Subtle is engaged; while writing those scenes I had strongly in my recollection Collin d’Harleville’s ‘Vieux Celibataire.’ But even the little I have adopted is considerably altered and modified by the necessity of adapting it to the exigencies of a different plot.”

THE VOTE LAST NOVEMBER.

Beloit, Wis.

What was the number of votes cast for the different parties in each of the States in the November election?

W. W. Lloyd.

Answer.—The following table, though liable to a few changes, is substantially correct:

Rep. Dem. Gbk. Scat’g.

California 67,173 90,695

Colorado 27,552 29,897

Connecticut 54,853 59,014 697 [1]1,034

Delaware 10,098 12,053

Florida 20,139 24,067 [5]3,553

Illinois 254,551 249,067 15,520 [1]16,344

Indiana 210,234 220,918 13,520

Iowa 149,051 112,180 30,817

Kansas 75,158 83,237 20,933

Louisiana 33,953 49,892

Maryland 74,515 80,725 1,833

Massachusetts 119,997 133,946 [1]2,137

Michigan 149,697 154,259 5,854 [1]1,114

Minnesota 92,802 46,653 3,781 [1]1,545

Mississippi 20,553 48,159 [5]9,729

Missouri 128,239 198,620 33,407

Nebraska 43,495 28,562 16,991

Nevada 6,462 7,720

New Hampshire 41,111 36,091

New Jersey 97,869 99,962 6,063 [1]943

New York 342,464 535,318 11,974 [1]25,783

North Carolina 111,763 [2]111,320

Pennsylvania 315,589 355,791 23,996 [3]43,743

South Carolina 67,158 17,719

Tennessee 91,693 119,297 9,538 [4]4,632

Texas 27,625 164,087 41,126 [5]12,160

Virginia 4,342 94,184 [6]99,992

Wisconsin 94,606 103,630 2,496 [1]13,800

Total 2,553,821 3,315,955 256,265

FOOTNOTES:

To obtain a correct estimate of the Prohibition vote there should be added to the above amounts the Republican vote of Kansas, 4,398 votes cast in favor of a prohibition amendment in North Carolina, and 5,196 votes for prohibition candidates in Pennsylvania, which would swell the number to 141,328.

NATIVITIES OF CHICAGOANS AND NEW YORKERS.

Rockford, Ill.

Which has the larger ratio of foreign population, Chicago or New York, and of what elements is the foreign population of these cities composed?

An Old Subscriber.

Answer.—The foreign population of New York City, according to the last census, constituted a little over 38 per cent of the whole; the foreign population of Chicago was 40 per cent of the whole. Of the foreign population of New York 198,595 were natives of Ireland, 153,482 of Germany, 23,767 of England, 8,683 of Scotland, and 929 of Wales, 12,223 of Italy, 9,910 of France, 9,020 of Poland. 8,093 of Bohemia, 7,024 of British America, 4,743 of Austria, 4,551 of Russia, 4,545 of Switzerland, 4,101 of Hungary, 3,194 of Sweden, 1,860 of Holland, 1,644 of Cuba, 87 of Africa, 119 of Asia, 175 of Australia, 556 of Belgium, 747 of China. 1,096 of Denmark, 69 of Greece, 7 of Greenland, 20 of Japan, 100, of Luxemburg, 132 of Mexico, 893 of Norway, 66 of Portugal, 59 of Sandwich Islands, 427 of South American Islands, 667 of Spain, 77 of Turkey, 814 of West Indies, exclusive of Cuba; 17 of Central America, 35 of Atlantic Islands, 62 of Europe, nationality not given; 93 born at sea. Of the foreign population of Chicago, 44,411 were natives of Ireland, 32,919 of Prussia, 29,249 of other German States, 13,265 of Canada, 13,045 of England, 12,930 of Sweden, 11,887 of Bohemia, 9,783 of Norway, 5,536 of Poland, 4,152 of Scotland, 2,626 of Bavaria, 2,556 of Denmark, 2,145 of Baden, 2,045 of Holland, 1,356 of Austria, 1,590 of France, 1,919 of Hanover, 1,357 of Italy, 1,923 of Mechlenburg, 1,612 of Saxony, 1,459 of Switzerland, 1,408 of Wurtemburg, 484 of Belgium, 408 of Hamburg, 739 of Hessen, 300 of Hungary, 358 of Luxemburg, 235 of New Brunswick, 243 of Nova Scotia, 722 of Wales, 921 of Russia, 110 of Nassau, 258 of China, 107 of Australasia, 48 born at sea, 41 of South America, 61 of Spain, 59 of West Indies, 87 of Newfoundland, 81 of Oldenburg, 44 of Brunswick, 44 of Great Britain, what part not stated; 330 of countries not specified.

SLAVERY IN CUBA.

Grapeland, Texas.

What is the condition of slavery in Cuba, and in what time will emancipation be complete?

Subscriber.

Answer.—According to a Cuban law, passed by the Spanish Cortes in 1870, all persons who should be born after June 23, 1870, and all who should attain the age of 60, should be free after June 23, 1870. This enactment, however, was evaded to a considerable extent. The plantations were supplied not only with negro but also with Chinese coolies, who were subjected to even greater servitude. In November, 1879, a new bill was passed by the Spanish Cortes, which provided that all slaves from 55 upward should become free; that slaves from 50 to 55 should be liberated Sept. 17, 1880; from 45 to 50, September, 1882; from 40 to 45, in 1884; from 35 to 40, in 1886; from 30 to 35, in 1888, and those under 30 in 1890. The bill also provided that the sum of 100,000 piastres should be set apart annually for defraying the expenses of the emancipation, the owner to receive 350 piastres for each slave. This bill has gone into effect and is being generally observed, although there is still some complaint of its violation.

WASHINGTON TERRITORY.

Manson, Iowa.

Please give a few facts concerning the climate, soil, and products of Washington Territory.

W. Cleveland.

Answer.—The Cascade range of mountains extends north and south through Washington Territory, dividing it into two unequal parts, which differ somewhat as to their climate and soil. West of the mountains the climate is very moderate. The inhabitants do not suffer either from extreme heat or extreme cold, the annual range of the thermometer being from zero to 85 degrees. The rainy season lasts three months in winter, during which the inhabitants suffer no great discomfort. The soil on the river bottoms is a very rich alluvium. The uplands have a clay loam, but considerable tracts are sandy soil. About Puget Sound forests of fir and cedar extend up to the summits of the mountains, while in the river bottoms may be found the vine-maple, alder, and crab tree. Grain of all kinds, nutritious grasses, hops, fruit, and vegetables grow abundantly. East of the Cascades the climate is a little drier, and the summer and winter heat a little more extreme. The soil is whiter than that of the Mississippi Valley, being highly charged with alkaline deposits. Herding now is the chief occupation of the settlers, though it is expected that when the Northern Pacific Railway is completed agriculture will become more prominent. Fruitful orchards, surrounded by fields of wheat, oats, barley, and rye are not at all uncommon.

SACRAMENTO AND SAN JOAQUIN VALLEYS.

Edgington, Ill.

Please give a description of the Sacramento and San Joaquin Valleys of California.

A Reader.

Answer.—Between the Coast Ranges and the Sierra Nevada lie the beautiful valleys of the Sacramento and San Joaquin, named from the rivers which drain them. The climate of the country is very uniform, the mean summer temperature of San Francisco, on the bay into which these rivers empty, being 60 degrees, and that of winter 51 degrees. The rainy season commences in November and continues until April, during which period, however, but little inconvenience is occasioned. The dry season is such that crops readily mature and may be harvested, threshed, and sent to market without being placed under shelter. The soil is very productive, and, unless the rain fails in its season, yields abundantly. The grasses are numerous and nutritious. Wheat, oats, corn, and other cereals are grown quite extensively. But in many portions of the valley the most lucrative business is the cultivation of orchards and vineyards. Grapes, apples, pears, plums, and in the southern part apricots, oranges, and other tropical fruits grow in abundance. On the verdant slopes of the mountains sheep-grazing is carried on on a large scale. Although these valleys offer many inducements to settlers, land may still be obtained in some places at moderate prices.

EX-GOVERNOR THROOP, OF NEW YORK.

Bucklin, Mo.

Please give a sketch of the late ex-Governor Throop, of New York.

F. M. Beers.

Answer.—Enos Thompson Throop, at one time very prominent in politics, was born at Johnstown, N. Y., Aug. 21, 1784. Choosing law as his profession, he was admitted to the bar in 1806 and began practice at Auburn. He early established an enviable reputation, and in 1814 was chosen to represent his district in Congress. He was afterward appointed by Governor Yates Circuit Judge of the Seventh District. In 1828 he was elected Lieutenant Governor, along with Governor Van Buren, and when the latter accepted a position in Jackson’s Cabinet he succeeded him. In 1830 he was re-elected, but in 1832 declined a third term. He soon after removed to Michigan, where he again became prominent in political affairs. As age, however, came upon him his health failed and he returned again to his native State. He died in his 91st year at Willow Brook, N.Y., on the shore of Owasco Lake.

CLOCKS AND NOON-MARKS.

Danvers, Ill.

How many correct noon-marks can be made during a year?

H. M. Valentine.

Answer.—Four correct “noon-marks” are made in a year, on the following days: Dec. 24, April 15, June 14, and Sept. 1. Owing to the inclination of the earth’s axis and its unequal movement in its orbit, solar days vary in their length. The average solar day corresponds to the twenty-four hours of our clocks, which keep what is called mean time. If a clock were so constructed as to give the real solar time for all periods of the year, it would be observed that sometimes when the solar clock pointed at noon, the ordinary clock, keeping mean time, would be pointing at figures between 11:45 and 12, or at other times between 12 and 12:15. Four times each year, however, upon the days mentioned, the two clocks would coincide, and the shadow of a dial, or noon-mark, would point due south at noon by the clock.

THE FATHER OF THE HUMANE SOCIETY.

Bedford, Iowa.

Please give a short sketch of Henry Bergh, so long the President of the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals.

Frank Atkinson.

Answer.—Henry Bergh, the philanthropist, was born in New York, in 1823. He received his education at Columbia College, where he manifested a considerable love for literature. He afterward obtained some notoriety as an author by writing a drama entitled “Love’s Attractions,” a poem entitled “Married Off,” and several tales and sketches. In 1863 he was made Secretary of the United States Legation to Russia, and subsequently Vice Consul. Returning to this country, he founded the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, which was incorporated in 1866. This association has grown into considerable magnitude, having branches in most of the States and receiving the support of the best citizens. The society endeavors to prevent cruelty to all kinds of animals by securing the passage and enforcement of laws to accomplish that object. It also takes into consideration things which pertain to the health of the people, such as purity of meat, milk, etc. As a minor illustration of its good work, a few years ago sportsmen were accustomed to shoot pigeons at shooting matches; but by an effort of the Humane Society glass balls have been substituted. Mr. Bergh continues to preside over the association.

WEATHER SIGNS.

Aurora, Ill.

Now that Vennor and the Signal Service, or “Old Probabilities,” are engrossing so much of the public attention, we are in danger of forgetting the old weather proverbs. Cannot Our Curiosity Shop call to mind a few of these, and let its readers test them alongside of the prognostications of Tice, Vennor & Co.

Constant Reader.

Answer.—The editor of Our Curiosity Shop is neither a prophet nor the son of a prophet. The best he can do to meet this demand is to give the following quotations from a lecture on “Weather Prognostics”, delivered by Mr. William Marriott, before the Meteorological Society of England:

If larks fly high and sing long, expect fine weather.

When sea-birds fly out early and far to seaward, moderate winds and fair weather may be expected.

If rooks go far abroad, it will be fine.

Cranes soaring along and quietly in the air foreshow fair weather.

If kites fly high, fine weather is at hand.

When owls whoop much at night, expect fair weather.

Bats or flying mice, coming out of their holes quickly after sunset, and sporting themselves in the open air, premonstrate fair and calm weather.

Chickweed expands its leaves boldly and fully when fine weather is to follow.

White mist in winter indicates frost.

When fires burn faster than usual and with a blue flame, frosty weather may be expected.

In winter, when the sound of the breakers on the shore is unusually distinct, frost is indicated.

Clear moon,

Frost soon.

In winter, when the moon’s horns are sharp and well-defined, frost is expected.

If wind follow sun’s course, expect fair weather.

All the above prognostics, it may be remarked, are in strict accordance with scientific observation.

FIRST MICHIGAN STATE ELECTION.

Greenville, Wis.

When did the first State election occur in Michigan?

J. H. Stanley.

Answer.—In the year 1835 Michigan adopted a State constitution and chose Stevens T. Mason, the Territorial Governor, as its first State Governor. It then demanded of Congress a recognition as a State and the rights of representation. This request Congress agreed to grant, providing the petitioning State would accept the boundary line claimed by Ohio. Not until January, 1837, would Michigan accept such terms, and then only on condition that it should receive, in lieu of the disputed strip on the south, the territory on Lake Superior now known as the Upper Peninsula of Michigan. Immediately after this the State was formally admitted. By special permission the State was allowed to cast three electoral votes in the Presidential contest of 1836-7. In the same year in which it was admitted, Mr. Mason was re-elected to the position of Governor, which office he continued to hold until 1839.

THE LONGEST THROWS, LEAPS, AND RUNS.

Cambridge, Iowa.

What is the longest throw on record with a base ball? What is the longest single standing jump? What is the fastest time ever made by man running 100 yards? What is the fastest mile ever made by a horse?

A. Aplin.

Answer.—The longest throw with a base ball for the year 1882 was 132 yards 1 foot, made by E. N. Williamson, the third baseman of the Chicago league nine. The longest standing jump with artificial aid was made by G. W. Hamilton, at Romeo, Mich., Oct. 3, 1879. With 22 pound weights he jumped 14 feet 5½ inches. The longest standing jump without artificial aid was performed by J. J. Tickle, Sept. 2, 1871, at Manchester, England, who cleared 10 feet 5 inches. The fastest run of 100 yards was made by George Seward, an American, at Hammersmith, England, Sept. 30, 1844, who accomplished the feat in 9¼ seconds. The fastest recorded time ever made by a horse for one mile was 1 minute 39¾ seconds, which was accomplished by Ten Broeck, a running horse, at Louisville, Ky., May 24, 1877. The fastest mile in heat racing was performed by Ada Glenn, in 1 minute 41¼ seconds, running, at Sheepshead Bay, L. I., Sept. 21, 1880.

BOLIVAR, THE LIBERATOR.

Orange Grove, Miss.

Give a short historical sketch or the life of General Bolivar.

Frank.

Answer.—Bolivar y Ponte, surnamed The Liberator, was a South American patriot, who in July, 1783, was born in Caracas, a town in the then Spanish province of Venezuela. His father, having obtained considerable wealth, like many of the early adventurers, sent his son to Madrid to pursue the study of law. When Venezuela in 1810 endeavored to throw off the yoke of Spanish oppression, Bolivar joined the cause of the patriots and began service under Miranda. Soon his own ability eclipsed that of his senior officer and he was given a separate command. Defeating the Spaniards in August, 1813, he entered Caracas at the head of his victorious army in triumph. He was immediately appointed dictator; but his enjoyment of that office was suddenly terminated by the reappearance of the Spaniards, who in 1814 defeated and drove him from the province. His defeat, however, did not discourage him. In 1817 he led the patriots in a battle against Morillo and again found himself a conqueror. Venezuela chose him to be her President, and in 1819 New Granada did him like honor, the two States uniting to form Colombia. In 1823 his love for liberty and hatred of Spain caused him to lend assistance to the revolting Peruvians. The latter were successful, and as a reward for the excellent service of the Liberator, Bolivia, named in his honor, was erected into a separate State, and Bolivar was made its President for life. For a few years he remained President of both Colombia and Bolivia. He died in December, 1830.

ENGLISH SOVEREIGNS.

Huntingdon, Pa.

Who have been sovereigns of England since the reign of King John?

W. S. C.

Answer.—The following, beginning with John, the grantor of Magna Charta, have been sovereigns of England:

John—Sixth son of Henry II.

Henry III.—Eldest son of John.

Edward I.—Eldest son of Henry III.

Edward II.—Eldest surviving son of Edward I.

Edward III.—Eldest son of Edward II.

Richard II.—Son of the Black Prince, eldest son of Edward III.

Henry IV.—Son of John of Gaunt, fourth son of Edward III.

Henry V.—Eldest son of Henry IV.

Henry VI.—Only son of Henry V.

Edward IV.—Grandson of Richard, son of Edmund, son of Edward III.

Edward V.—Eldest son of Edward IV.

Richard III.—Younger brother of Edward IV.

Henry VII.—Son of Edmund, eldest son of Owen Tudor by Katharine, widow of Henry V.

Henry VIII.-Only surviving son of Henry VII.

Edward VI.—Son of Henry VIII. by Jane Seymour.

Mary I.—Daughter of Henry VIII. by Katherine of Arragon.

Elizabeth—Daughter of Henry VIII. by Anne Boleyn.

James I.—Son of Mary Queen of Scots, granddaughter of James IV. and Margaret, daughter of Henry VII.

Charles I.—Only surviving son of James I.

Commonwealth— { Oliver Cromwell.

Richard Cromwell.

Charles II.—Eldest son of Charles I.

James II.—Second son of Charles I.

William III. { Son of William Prince of Orange

and by Mary, daughter of Charles I.

Mary II. Eldest daughter of James II.

Anne—Second daughter of James II.

George I.—Grandson of Elizabeth, daughter of James I.

George II.—Only son of George I.

George III.—Grandson of George II.

George IV.—Eldest son of George III.

William IV.—Third son of George III.

Victoria—Daughter of Edward, fourth son of George III.

WHO MADE MAXIMILIAN EMPEROR OF MEXICO?

Taylor, Ill.

What part did France take in placing Maximilian on the throne of Mexico?

M. M. Aldil.

Answer.—Taking advantage of the war which occupied the attention of the United States, Napoleon III., planned the conquest of Mexico. With but little difficulty his army succeeded in this enterprise and occupied the City of Mexico in 1863. He soon discovered the barren nature of his conquest and the certainty of final failure. To rid himself of the consequences of what had proved a most costly enterprise, before he should be forced to a humiliating abandonment of the country, he tempted Maximilian, Archduke of Austria, to accent the crown of Mexico. To give eclat to the affair and the color of popular approval, he ordered an election. This was dominated by French troops and Napoleon’s Mexican accomplices, and the result was an apparent popular vote to adopt an imperial form of government and invite Maximilian to accept the throne. In 1864 he was received with festivities and other marks of distinction planned by the French and their Mexican supporters. The Mexican patriots, however, still maintained an organization. When driven out of the capital President Juarez retired to San Luis Potosi, then to Monterey, and finally to Chihuahua, and with his Cabinet still maintained the form of a central, national head of the republic. The French availed of the excuse that Maximilian was in possession of the government to return to France, and leave him to his own resources. The guerrilla bands of patriots which had kept up the harassment of the imperial troops with more or less persistency from the first, gathered strength, and at last, deserted by Napoleon, attacked on all sides by the rallying militia of the republic, the unhappy Emperor undertook to escape from the country, was captured, and finally executed at Queretaro, June 19, 1867. The French were wholly responsible for placing Maximilian in Mexico and for abandoning him to his unhappy fate.

TRADES UNIONS.

Jacksonville, Ill.

Please give us information as to the origin, object, and extent of trades unions.

W. A. Lewis.

Answer.—The various trade societies are the outgrowth of the old English guilds, which originated in the beginning of the eleventh century, and had for their prime object the relief or support of infirm guild-brothers, the burial of the dead with proper religious services, etc. In time, however, these organizations became better classified and more exclusive. One guild was confined to the merchants, another to the woolen manufacturers, another to the cutlery manufacturers, etc.: the objects, at the same time, becoming more comprehensive. In order to secure skilled workmen and prevent competition with the inexperienced, the craftsmen secured the passage of apprenticeship laws. In the case of woolen and several other trades apprentices were required to serve manufacturers seven years. Employers and employes were then united in these efforts, but, finally, as the manufacturing industries became more profitable and improved, and machinery was introduced, the rich masters withdrew from the craftguilds, and began to hire children and men who had not served a complete apprenticeship. This action on the part of the employers caused the first “trade society” to be formed, in 1796, called the Institution, which had for its object the protection of its members against the encroachments of capitalists, and to secure the passage of stricter apprenticeship laws. Since that time the trades unions have increased in number and membership, until they include nearly all the craftsmen of England, and from protective associations they have grown into societies for the general improvement of the laboring classes. To its efforts mainly are due the passage of the eight-hour law of Great Britain and the statute granting the Saturday half-holiday. In the United States similar organizations are found, to which, especially in large cities, nearly all the workmen belong.

THE RED SEA.

Chicago, Ill.

Is it generally believed by Bible scholars that the Red Sea was so called because of the destruction of Pharaoh and the Egyptian army?

Ann Halliday.

Answer.—The drowning of Pharaoh and his host in the Red Sea had nothing to do with its name. It takes this from a peculiar reddish color remarked at certain seasons of the year in parts of this sea, due to marine plants, or to reddish animalculæ, called by sailors “whale feed,” which float on it like a scum; or to the reefs of red coral which abound in many parts of it; or, possibly, to the fact that its upper coast was one of the boundaries of Edom, “the red.” No Biblical scholar of any repute has ever asserted that the sea took its name from the overthrow of Pharaoh.

DESCRIPTION OF A CREAMERY.

Fort Dodge, Iowa.

The farmers of this section of the country need to know what a good creamery is. Tell us what the inside of a really good creamery looks like.

Many Readers.

Answer.—A Chicago inquirer says: “Oblige butter and cheese consumers with a description of a first-class creamery. Some of us have a very vague notion of such an establishment.—E. D. Smith.” Another inquiry comes from Neligh, Neb. So some care has been taken to obtain a description of a thoroughly well-constructed factory of this kind. This is the more important as the dairy business of the West is growing with wonderful rapidity, and nothing has done more to develop this industry than the recent introduction of creameries. The term creamery was formerly applied to an establishment fitted up expressly for the purpose of manufacturing butter, but now the name is given to factories where both butter and cheese are made. Milk is brought in spring wagons from dairy-farms for a distance of six miles or less, and cream is gathered anywhere within a radius of fifteen miles to be manufactured into butter and cheese. This product thus handled in larger quantities, in a scientific manner, with effective labor-saving machinery and proper surroundings, makes it possible to obtain the best results, and such product is always marketable at prices much higher than dairy butter. The factory of the Aurora Creamery Company, built at Aurora, Ill., about a year ago is generally regarded as a model establishment, and will furnish an example for this description. To operate a creamery successfully two things are absolutely necessary, viz., a good spring of living water of low temperature, say 50 to 54 deg., and good drainage; without these features there is no prospect of permanent success in the undertaking. The factory named has a spring located about 200 feet off which discharges, both winter and summer, 750 gallons of pure water per hour, temperature 52 deg., with 5 feet 9 inches fall, while drainage is supplied by a 2-foot square stone sewer which empties into the river, through which a slough is drained, and into which there is a 5-foot fall from the factory. The main building is of brick with a 12-inch wall: size, 32 × 70, 20 feet high; right wing, 20 × 24; left wing, 18 × 24, and rear extension, 18 × 26. The room in which the cheese is manufactured is 30 × 40. It contains a fine upright 9-horse-power engine, a Wir’s self-agitating rotary cheese vat with a capacity for 12,000 pounds of milk and a gang cheese press. The butter room, 30 × 30 feet, contains one churn with a capacity of 400 gallons, and one with a capacity of 150 gallons, a power butter worker, sink with steam pipes to scald, and revolving brush for washing cans, 3 cream vats 300 gallons each, a receiving vat into which the milk is strained, and from which it is drawn into deep pails, or sets, which are placed in three cemented water vats of capacity sufficient to cool 20,000 pounds of milk daily. The left wing of the factory contains a 16-horse power boiler, which furnishes steam to run the machinery and heat the building; a seventy-barrel water tank, which is placed over the boiler; a Davidson steam pump and coal bin which will store fifty tons of coal. An improvement which, it is claimed, is found in no other factory, is an elevated “whey vat” placed over the boiler-room, into which the whey is raised by a rotary pump, and from which the farmers draw their supply of whey to be carried into the country. When all that is wanted has been drawn out a gate is opened, and the balance is run into the river, after which the tank is scalded out and kept sweet and clean. This is a vast improvement over the pestilence breeding arrangement which is sunk in the ground, and is located near the butter and cheese rooms of most other factories. The right wing of the factory contains a driveway, a receiving-room, weighing platform, and stairway to office. The extension holds 150 tons of ice, and contains a refrigerator with a capacity of 30,000 pounds of butter. In the second story is a neat office, store-rooms, and curing room, to which the cheese are raised by an elevator. The lower floors are made of 2 × 6 joists, dressed and matched and imbedded in cement; under which is a four-inch coating of grout, so that there is no possible chance for the milk to leak through the floor and produce the sickening stench which is so common in many factories. Special attention has been given to ventilation in every part of the building and the whole establishment has the appearance in neatness of a tidy farmhouse kitchen. The sum of $10,000 was expended in real estate, buildings, and fixtures of this factory, but a good creamery with a comfortable outfit of medium capacity could be put up for much less money. The machinery for churning and working the butter is as simple as it is ingenious. The churn is a great square chest revolving on an axis running through its longest diameter; the butter-workers are fluted wooden cones running around a circular disk inclined at an angle to the horizon, so that the buttermilk runs off as fast as it is expressed. The apparatus for stirring the cheese curd and pressing the cheese, and a score of other nicely contrived instruments, operate with the uniformity and precision of clock work.

SPEED OF RAILWAY TRAINS.

Waukegan, Ill.

How does the speed of railroad trains in this country compare with that of trains in Europe?

C. D. Adams.

Answer.—The fastest recorded railroad speed in the United States is given in the New York Clipper Almanac, as follows: The train which left West Philadelphia for Jersey City over the Pennsylvania Railroad at 7:35 a. m., Sept. 4, 1879 (Edward Osborn, engineer), made 1 mile in 50¼ seconds; 3 miles in 2 m. 36¼ sec., and 5 miles in 4 m. 50 sec. A train on the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railroad made the run from Hamburg to Buffalo, N. Y., 10 miles, in 8 minutes. The locomotive Hamilton Davis and six cars, on the New York Central Railroad in 1855, made 14 miles in 11 minutes. A new Fontaine engine and two coaches, carrying W. H. Vanderbilt and party, ran from Amherstburg to St. Thomas, Can., over the Canada Southern Railroad, 111 miles, in 98 minutes—no stop. Probably the fastest run ever made for any considerable distance in England was that of the special train carrying the Duke of Wellington from Paddington to Slough, 18 miles, in 15 minutes. But these are exceptional runs; what is of more importance is to compare regular time-table speed. The London Engineer says, commenting on a series of articles on this subject which have appeared in the German journal, Die Verkehrszeitung, in the American Railroad Gazette, and in other papers, “it appears that railroad speeds in Great Britain, on the Continent, and in the United States are much slower than most people suppose. If we take for instance, the run from London to Edinburgh, a distance of 397 miles via York, this is made in 9 hours by great Northern trains, the average speed being 44.1 miles per hour. From Euston the distance is 401 miles, and London and Northwestern trains make the run in 10 hours, or 40.1 miles an hour. By the Midland Railway the distance is 404 miles, and the time 10 h. 5 min., or very nearly the same speed. Some of the fastest trains in the world are those run between Leeds and London. From King’s Cross the distance by the Great Northern is 186½ miles. From St. Pancras by the Midland is 196 miles. The fastest train on the Great Northern makes the run in 4 h. 5 min., or an average speed of 45.4 miles an hour. The Midland trains traverse the distance in 4 h. 30 min., giving an average velocity of 43.5 miles an hour. The fastest train in the world is the Flying Dutchman, broad gauge, which makes the run to Swindon at 53½ miles an hour. The Great Northern trains run from London to York, 188 miles, at 48 miles an hour, and at least one train runs to Peterborough at 51 miles an hour. The run from London to Grantham has been made repeatedly at 51 miles an hour. On the United States railways the quickest run appears to be that made between Jersey City and Philadelphia, 89 miles, made at the rate of 47⅔ miles an hour. There is not in the world a train timed to run 60 miles an hour, although it is, of course, certain that that velocity is often exceeded. If a speed of 60 miles an hour could be maintained continually between London and Edinburgh, the journey would occupy only 6 hours and 36 minutes; and allowing for three stops of 10 minutes each on the route, the time would be under 7¼ hours, instead of 10 hours. So far as the machinery of a railway is concerned—by which we mean the road, the rolling stock, and the signals—there is nothing to prevent an average speed of 60 miles an hour being maintained. That it is not attained is certain.”

THE UNITED STATES CIVIL LIST.

Oskaloosa, Iowa.

What officers are included under the civil service?

L. A. H.

Answer.—The civil officers of the United States are those employed by the several departments. In 1876, in reply to an inquiry made by order of Congress, the following official statement was made: Department of State, 430; Treasury, 12,482; War Department, 1,489; Navy Department, 131; Postoffice Department, 44,897; Interior, 2,475; Department of Justice, 528. Total number of civil officers, 62,427.

GREAT FIRES.

Joliet, Ill.

Which was the greatest fire, that of London, Moscow, or Chicago?

An Inquirer.

Answer.—The great fire of London, which occurred in 1666, destroyed about two-thirds of the city; but there is no estimate of the value of the property. The burning of Moscow, in September, 1812, destroyed property which has been valued at $150,000,000. The great Chicago fire of 1871 consumed $192,000,000 worth of property. The area burnt over in the Chicago fire was greater than that covered by either the London or Moscow fire.

PRESIDENT JACKSON’S DOUBLE MARRIAGE.

Owensville, Ark.

Who was the first husband of Andrew Jackson’s wife, and what was the cause of the separation?

Subscriber.

Answer.—Mrs. Jackson was formerly the wife of Mr. Lewis Robards, of Kentucky. While Mr. Robards and his wife were residing at the home of Mrs. Donelson, the mother of Mrs. Robards, Andrew Jackson became a boarder, and consequently quite intimate with the family. In time, Mr. Robards became intensely jealous of his wife, which culminated in his charging her with adultery and suing for divorce. This charge, however, was neither proven nor generally believed. Through the influence of Jackson, the Legislature in 1791 passed an act legalizing the separation of Mr. and Mrs. Robards, but the legal divorce from the courts was not obtained until 1793. After the act of the Legislature, Jackson married Mrs. Robards, supposing that she was lawfully divorced; but after the decision of the court, in order to remove everything questionable, he was remarried.

THE BUNKER HILL FLAG.

Chicago, Ill.

What flag, if any, did the provincials use in the battle of Bunker Hill, June 17, 1775? What was the first flag used by the revolutionary army?

H. J. H.

Answer.—Reference to that standard work, “The Origin and Progress of the Flag of the United States of America,” by George Henry Preble, U. S. N., and other sources of information, shows that it is uncertain what flag, if any, was displayed by the Americans at Bunker Hill, in the famous fight of June 17, 1775. The flag raised on Prospect Hill by General Putnam, a month later, July 18, 1775, was red, with the motto, Qui Transtulit Sustinet , (who transplanted still sustains) on one side, and “An Appeal to Heaven” on the other. This latter motto was emblazoned on the white flag with a green pine tree carried by the privateers commissioned by Massachusetts, soon after this. The first cruisers commissioned by Washington also bore “the pine tree flag.” Before the battle of Bunker Hill, indeed, immediately after the battle of Lexington, on the 19th of the preceding April, the provincial troops of Connecticut carried a standard bearing the arms of that colony and the Latin motto above cited. As General Putnam and his Connecticut troops took a prominent part in the battle of Bunker Hill, it is presumable that this flag was displayed in that action, and by parity of reasoning it may be inferred that the colonial flags of Massachusetts and New Hampshire were carried into the action by the militia of those colonies. Precisely what these were it is almost or quite impossible to determine with certainty. Indeed, there seem to have been several different flags. The “union-flags” so frequently mentioned in the accounts left us of the revolutionary movements of 1774 and the early part of 1775 were, in most instances, the English red ensign, with such mottoes as “Liberty and Union,” “Liberty and Property,” or simply “Liberty.” Peculiar devices were employed by the patriots of different neighborhoods. Not until Jan. 2, 1776, was the first common standard raised. This was the “Great Union,” as it was christened, adopted by General Washington, and first displayed at his headquarters in Cambridge, Mass., on the date above given. It consisted of thirteen stripes, alternately white and red, with the crosses of St. George and St. Andrew in the union where the stars now glitter.

ORIGIN OF PORTERHOUSE STEAK.

Chicago, Ill.

Can Our Curiosity Shop tell us why steaks cut from the small end of the sirloin are called porterhouse steaks?

Epicure.

Answer.—Colonel Thomas F. De Voe, a New York butcher, author of “The Market Book,” “The Market Assistant,” and other works of similar nature, gives the following account of this now popular cut of beef: Martin Morrison kept a favorite porterhouse at No. 327 Pearl street, New York, near the old Walton House. It was a popular resort with many of the New York pilots, because here they were always sure of a pot of ale or porter and “a hot bite,” including one or two substantial dishes. On one occasion, in 1814, Morrison had enjoyed an unusual number of calls for steaks, and when an old pilot, who dropped in at a late hour, called for something substantial to eat, he was forced to cut from a sirloin roasting piece which he had got for the next day’s family dinner. The old pilot relished his steak amazingly and called for another. This disposed of, “he squared himself in front of his host and vociferated, ‘Look ye here, messmate, arter this I want my steaks off the roasting piece! Do you hear that? So mind your weather eye, old boy!’” The old pilot’s companions soon learned to appreciate these cuts, and it was not long before they were all insisting on having them. Accordingly, Morrison’s butcher, Thomas Gibbons, of the Fly Market, asked him why he had ceased to order the large sirloin steaks. Morrison explained that he had found that cuts from the small end of the sirloin of the beef suited his single customers best, both in size and quality, and directed that thereafter, instead of sending him the sirloin roasts uncut, he have them cut into chops or steaks, as he should direct. Gibbons’ daily order, “Cut steaks for the porterhouse,” soon gave these the name of “porterhouse steaks,” by which they became known all through the Fly Market, particularly as this excellent cut rapidly became popular in all the public houses of the city. The name is now familiar to housekeepers on both sides of the Atlantic, at least wherever the English language is spoken.

SOLDIERS’ HOMESTEADS.

Cedar Falls, Iowa.

Is a soldier who served more than three years in the army during the late rebellion, and who almost immediately afterwards took up a homestead claim of 120 acres of land, whereon he is now living, entitled to enter forty acres more in another place?

A. N. Wilson.

Answer.—The following letter from Commissioner McFarland, in answer to a similar inquiry from Mr. A. H. Field, of Indian River, Mich., answers this question officially. Observe that the answer turns upon the important fact that Mr. Field entered his homestead of only eighty acres after the passage of the act approved June 22, 1874, hence the Commissioner holds that he is not entitled to the benefits of the act, whereas if he had made final proof of his claim before June 22, 1874, he would be entitled to an additional eighty acres.

“Washington, D. C., Feb. 14, 1883.—A. H. Field, Esq., Indian River, Mich.—Sir: I am in receipt of your letter of the 31st ult., in which you state that you served four years in the army during the late civil war, and that in 1878 you made a homestead entry of eighty acres—all that you could get in that locality—and have lived on the same ever since, and made final proof. You ask if you are not entitled to an additional entry of eighty acres. In reply, I have to state that you are not. The homestead act of June 8, 1872, provides that any soldier who served for ninety days in the army during the war of the rebellion, and was honorably discharged, who may have heretofore entered under the homestead laws a less quantity than 160 acres, shall be permitted to enter a sufficient quantity of land, which, added to that embraced in the original entry, shall not exceed 160 acres. Such provision was carried into the Revised Statutes of the United States (Sec. 2306), which statutes were approved June 22, 1874, and since that date if such a soldier elects to enter a less amount of land than 160 acres, he must abide by his election. Very respectfully,

“A. C. McFarland, Commissioner.”

Mr. Field writes to The Inter Ocean, inclosing this letter from the Commissioner of the General Land Office, and complaining that this law inflicts a hardship on him and other soldiers in the late war, who, like himself, deferred their entries until after the passage of the above act. He says: “It seems that it is unfortunate for me, as an old soldier, that I did not locate my land previous to June, 1874. I ought to be entitled to eighty acres of land more as well as any other class of soldiers.” Whether this complaint is or is not well founded, the fact remains that the law is as above stated.

FINDING ONE’S POSITION AT SEA.

Plymouth, Wis.

By what method do sailors at sea determine their exact position?

Dobs.

Answer.—The mariner determines his latitude by observing the meridian altitude of a celestial star whose declination or distance from the equator is known. In the northern hemisphere for an approximate answer the pole star is generally taken, the altitude of which is nearly the latitude of the place. If an observer were standing upon the equator and looking to the north he would see the pole star on the horizon, with no altitude. If he should move three degrees north the pole star would have an altitude corresponding. At Chicago it is above the horizon about 41 degrees 50 minutes, corresponding to the latitude of this city. Owing to the apparent revolution of the pole star about a central axis, which is the true pole of the heavens, the accurate latitude can only be obtained by observing its least and greatest altitude and taking one-half their sum. The longitude of any place computed from Greenwich, Washington, or other prime meridian, is easily determined by observing the Greenwich or Washington time when the sun passes the zenith meridian. In other words, knowing the difference in time between Greenwich and the place of observation, the longitude of the place may be readily computed. A difference of time amounting to one hour represents 15 degrees of longitude east or west, as the case may be. The difference in time between Chicago and Washington is forty-three minutes, which makes the longitude of Chicago 10 degrees 45 minutes, reckoning from the legal prime meridian of the United States, which is that of Washington. Every ship carries a marine chronometer, which is a time-keeper of the most careful construction, whose accuracy has been tested with the utmost precision—which is plainly a matter of the utmost importance to a vessel when it is remembered that an error of four seconds of time represents about one and one-tenth statute miles, enough to wreck a ship on a lee shore when the captain, following the chronometer, supposed himself at a safe distance from the shoal or shore.

YEARS FOR PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION.

Streator, Ill.

Is there any easy rule for finding the years on which Presidential elections have been held or are to be held?

A. C.

Answer.—Every year divisible by four, without exception, is the year for the election of President and Vice President of the United States.

U. S. BONDED DEBT—WHEN PAYABLE.

Barton, Wis.

When and in what sums does the bonded debt of the United States fall due?

W. Munger.

Answer.—Several of the later issues of bonds are payable at the pleasure of the government, but the following cannot be redeemed except by purchase in the market until specified dates. Four per cents payable July 1, 1907, $738,829,600; 4½ per cents payable Sept. 1, 1891, $250,000,000; Pacific Railway 6’s payable Sept. 1, 1895, $3,002,000; Pacific Railway 6’s payable Sept. 1, 1896, $8,000,000; Pacific Railway 6’s payable Sept 1, 1897, $9,712,000; Pacific Railway 6’s payable Sept. 1, 1898, $29,383,000; Pacific Railway 6’s payable Sept. 1, 1899, $14,526,512.

THE SIGNS OF THE ZODIAC.

Geneva, N. Y.

Who first devised the signs of the zodiac, and for what purpose?

Chas. W. Smith.

Answer.—Representations of the zodiacal signs are found among the ancient writings of the Hindoos, Persians, and Chinese, and among the carvings on the ruins of Egyptian temples. There is such a degree of similarity in the characters that a common origin must be supposed. The signs of the zodiac embrace the twelve important constellations, which, owing to the motions of the earth, appear to revolve through the heavens within a belt extending nine degrees on each side of the sun’s apparent annual path, and within or near which all the planets revolve. Since the sun appears successively in each of these twelve constellations during the year, the zodiac was divided into twelve equal parts, corresponding to the months. These signs and their subdivisions were used in measuring time and as the basis of astronomical and astrological calculations and predictions. Astronomers now, for convenience, use the same signs, giving to each constellation an extent of thirty degrees, although the constellations vary in size. These signs are Aries representing the ram; Taurus, the bull; Gemini, the twins; Cancer, the crab; Leo, the lion; Virgo, the virgin; Libra, the balance; Scorpio, the scorpion; Sagittarius, the archer; Capricornus, the goat; Aquarius, the water-bearer; and Pisces, the fishes. On the 20th of March the sun enters Aries, and at midnight Virgo, the opposite constellation, will be overhead. During the month of April the sun will pass into Taurus, and at midnight Libra will be overhead. The early astronomers were astrologers, and claimed to be able to predict the future careers of individuals and nations by observing the positions and movements of the planets, and condition of the weather, at the most important periods of men’s lives. A man born when the sun was in the constellation Scorpio was believed to be naturally bent toward excessive indulgence of the animal passions; one born when the sun was in Aries was destined to be a great scholar or ruler; one born when the sun was in Pisces was predestined to grovel or be a servant, and so on. All this is regarded now as exploded superstition, except by fortune-tellers and their dupes.

AREAS OF ENGLAND, SCOTLAND, AND IRELAND.

Houghton, Mich.

What are the areas of England, Ireland, Scotland, and Wales? Also, what is the area of the county of Cornwall?

W. J. Uren.

Answer.—England has an area of 50,914 square miles, or 32,584,735 acres; Ireland, 32,524 square miles, or 20,815,460 acres; Scotland, 30,462 square miles, or 19,496,132 acres; Wales, 7,397 square miles, or 4,734,486 acres. The county of Cornwall contains 1,390 square miles, or an acreage of 869,898.

TO SELECT HOUDAN FOWLS.

Clinton, Iowa.

By what marks can I tell Houdan fowls I am about to purchase a pair, if they are what they are represented to be—of pure breed.

J. Allen.

Answer.—Houdans stand and walk erectly; the males weigh from eight to nine pounds; the hens from five to seven pounds. They are lumpy in shape, are evenly speckled white and brown, with large comb, crest, and beard. Refuse any that have not pink-white feet, black and white plumage, and good crests.

THE FIRST CABLE MESSAGE.

Fairpoint, Minn.

What was the first message sent on the Atlantic cable?

Frank Palmer.

Answer.—The first message on the Atlantic cable of 1858, which soon proved a failure, was a congratulatory dispatch from Queen Victoria to President Buchanan. The first message on the successful cable completed in 1866 was the announcement of the treaty of peace between Prussia and Austria.

PRINCE NAPOLEON.

Aurora, Ill.

Will Our Curiosity Shop tell us what relation the Prince Jerome Bonaparte, lately arrested in France for issuing an insurrectionary proclamation, bears to Napoleon I. and oblige many readers?

T.

Answer.—Jerome Bonaparte, the father of this Prince Jerome, was the youngest brother of Napoleon I. In 1803, when he was only 18 years of age, he married Miss Elizabeth Patterson, of Baltimore. This act was displeasing to Napoleon, who passed a decree annulling the marriage on the ground that his brother was not of age and the bans were not published in France. Soon after the return of Jerome to his native country he was made King of Westphalia, and at the suggestion of Napoleon, married Catherine, daughter of the King of Wurtemburg. Of this marriage three children were born—Jerome Napoleon, in 1814, who died in 1847; Napoleon Joseph Charles Paul, the subject of this sketch, in 1822, who afterward took his elder brother’s name, and the Princess Mathilde. The Prince first came into prominence by his denunciation of the government of Louis Philippe and his sympathy with the revolutionists, which caused his banishment in 1845. But, in 1848, he returned and participated in the revolution. In 1852 he took his seat in the Senate and Council of State, receiving the title of Prince and being declared by decree of the Senate the heir of his cousin, Napoleon III., in case the latter should die without issue. He took part in the Crimean war, commanding a reserve force at Alma and at Inkerman. Before the close of the war he was recalled, ostensibly on account of his health, and soon entered upon the duties of several important civil offices. In 1859 he was married to Princess Clothilde, daughter of the late Victor Emanuel, King of Italy, by whom he has three children. In 1861 he visited the United States, and, with his suite and the French Minister, accompanied the Army of the Potomac, pushing as far South as Richmond. After his return he sympathized to a certain extent with the democratic feeling arising in France. For this seeming absurdity he was given the name Plon-Plon. In 1876 he was returned to the French Assembly from Corsica, but in the year following he was rejected. On the death of the Prince Imperial, as the son of Napoleon III. is called, in Zululand, in 1879, Jerome became the head of the Bonaparte family. He was not popular with a majority of the leading Bonapartists, many of whom refused to acknowledge him as their chief, and urged the proclamation of the elder of Jerome’s two sons as the heir of Napoleon III. Of late, however, there has been a reconciliation between the ex-Empress Eugenie and Jerome, and the Bonapartists generally seem disposed to acquiesce; so that, in case of the Bonaparte’s coming to the front once more, his title of Prince may become something more than an empty sound.

THE CORN CROP ESTIMATES FOR 1882.

Dunlap, Iowa.

How much corn was produced in 1882? Are there any reliable statistics on the subject?

W. H. Dedrick.

Answer.—According to the report of the Department of Agriculture the corn crop of 1882 amounted to 1,624,917,800 bushels. These figures have been questioned, but they are based on the estimates of about 1,500 agricultural observers and reporters employed by the bureau, and they are generally conceded to be a fair estimate. Of course, all our crop statistics are only estimates.

CEDAR COUNTY, NEBRASKA.

Melon, Iowa.

Please give a short description of Cedar County Nebraska.

Subscriber.

Answer.—This county lies on the northern boundary of the State, being washed by the Missouri River and drained by the several branches of the Bow and Beaver Creeks. In many portions the land is very rich and yields abundantly wheat, corn, and other cereals. In 1879 the corn crop of Cedar County amounted to 2,826,259 bushels, or 40 bushels per acre, which was the largest yield of any county in the State. Orchards of choice fruit trees have been set out and thrive well. The climate is like that of Southern Dakota and Northwestern Iowa, very warm in summer and cold in winter, which latter, from the dryness of the climate, is rendered more endurable than a higher temperature in some of the more Eastern States. The population in 1880 was 2,899. St. Helena, the county seat, is a thriving little town of 300 inhabitants.

THE SITE OF EDEN.

Westfield, Wis.

In Our Curiosity Shop of Jan. 11, C. A. Sharp asks for the location of the Garden of Eden. The Bible tells us that “a river went out of Eden to water the garden, and from thence it was parted and became into four heads.” It then proceeds to give them in the order of distance above the mouth of the Euphrates. But one of these rivers is now known by its original name, and that is the Euphrates. Let us, therefore, go down that and see if we can find the other three tributary to it that will agree with the narrative. The first is a large stream from the north. We at once recognize it as the Hiddekel. This is the third river, and its head is far to the north, as is also that of the Euphrates. The text says, “it goeth toward the east of Assyria.” The marginal reading, I think, will be found to explain this. It says “it goeth east to Assyria,” and the great Assyrian Empire was upon it. As we go down these united rivers we find a considerable stream from the northeast, the head of which is in the mountains toward the Caspian Sea. If this is the second river, the Gihon, the text says it “compasseth the whole land of Ethiopia.” This expression has doubtless led to much confusion, as the mind has been turned to Ethiopia, in Africa, and which seemed irreconcilable with the text. But turn to the passage and we find the marginal reading to be Cush, and Cush, or Cutha, was a country east of the Hiddekel, through which this stream flows. We turn again to the narrative and it says the first river is the Pison, and that it compasseth the land of Havilah, where there is gold and precious stones. After leaving the mouth of the second river, the Gihon, we find a stream having its head in the mountains east of the Persian Gulf, and also a place called Havilah. The country abounds in precious stones and valuable minerals, and this, with the other three rivers, seems to fill the conditions of the text. We will now hastily review the above to see more clearly its coincidence with the account as given by Moses 2,500 years afterward, in the second chapter of Genesis. A river went out of Eden to water the garden, and from thence it was parted into four heads. The name of the first is Pison, etc.; this we find in the stream coming from Persia, which fulfills its conditions. The second is the Gihon; it too coming from the land of Cush agrees with the text. The third, the Hiddekel, all admit to be the modern Tigris and its connections with Assyria agree well with the record. The fourth is the Euphrates, which flows as of old. But was there a place called Eden from which these streams flowed? Turn to Isa. xxxvii., 12, in the blasphemous letter sent to King Hezekiah by the commander of the Assyrian army, and among the nations he has destroyed is Eden, which from its connections with the other nations is supposed to have been near the junction of the third and fourth rivers. And in the list of nations trading with Tyre we find Eden connected with the nations in the same vicinity. See Ezekiel xxiii., 23. Here then, at no great distance above the Persian Gulf, near 30 degrees north latitude, in a mild climate on a noble river, we may look for the home of the progenitors of our race.

E. H. Fisher.

OVER 2,700 COUNTIES.

Topeka, Kan.

I have just read a statement in a newspaper that there are 2,400 counties in the United States, which is doubted. We therefore ask The Inter Ocean to give us the facts.

R. E. Hinckley.

Answer.—This is an understatement, since in 1880, according to the census, there were 2,671 counties in the United States, including the fifty-nine in Louisiana, locally called parishes. Here is the full list of States and Territories:

No. of

States. Counties

Alabama 66

Arkansas 75

California 53

Colorado 32

Connecticut 8

Delaware 3

Florida 45

Georgia 137

Illinois 102

Indiana 92

Iowa 99

Kansas 113

Kentucky 117

Louisiana 59

Maine 16

Maryland 24

Massachusetts 14

Michigan 82

Minnesota 86

Mississippi 75

Missouri 117

Nebraska 80

Nevada 17

New Hampshire 10

New Jersey 21

New York 60

North Carolina 94

Ohio 88

Oregon 26

Pennsylvania 67

Rhode Island 5

South Carolina 33

Tennessee 94

Texas 232

Vermont 14

Virginia 99

West Virginia 54

Wisconsin 63

2,472

Territories.

Arizona 7

Dakota 94

Idaho 13

Montana 11

New Mexico 14

Utah 27

Washington 25

Wyoming 7

Dis. of Columbia 1

Total 2,671

There have been a number of new counties organized since the census year, particularly in Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Texas, and other States and Territories where the settlement of the country is proceeding most rapidly. There are now about 2,730 counties in the United States.

CARDINAL WOLSEY.

Colfax, Ind.

Please give a short biography of Cardinal Wolsey.

Samuel Smith.

Answer.—Thomas Wolsey, the wily, skillful statesman and ambitious Cardinal, whose life was so intimately associated with that of the profligate king, Henry VIII., studied theology at Oxford, and in 1500, at the age of 29, took holy orders and became the rector at Lymington. He was introduced into the royal court of Henry VII. as chaplain, in which office he obtained the confidence of the king, and was often consulted in important state affairs. His successful diplomacy at the court of the Emperor Maximilian secured for him, as a reward, the deanery of Lincoln. When Henry VIII. ascended the throne he employed Wolsey as his almoner. With the talents of a skillful diplomat, the ambitious priest obtained an influence over this monarch even greater than he had previously held over his royal father. In 1514 he was appointed Archbishop of York, and in the following year became Lord Chancellor of England. The Pope was not unmindful of his able supporter, who in the same year that he became Chancellor was clothed in the resplendent robes of a cardinal. Four years after he became legate. In the height of his power he was the virtual sovereign of the kingdom, and in addition he exercised throughout England and its dependencies, and to some extent beyond these boundaries, nearly all the prerogatives of the sovereign pontiff. His income was scarcely surpassed by that of the king himself. Princes and even monarchs were among the suppliants for his favor and influential offices. He aspired to sit on the papal throne, and twice it seemed as if he would realize this aspiration, but he was defeated through the intrigues and power of Charles V., whose elevation to the imperial throne, left vacant by the death of the Emperor Maximilian, he had opposed in behalf of Henry VIII. His almost regal power continued until Henry desired to put away his wife, Catharine, aunt of Charles V., when Wolsey’s dilatoriness in securing the divorce exasperated the king, and upon his refusing to sanction Henry’s marriage with Anne Boleyn, he was soon dismissed in disgrace. He was stripped of all his honors and estates, but was suffered to retain his episcopal see of Winchester until the following year, 1530, when a conspiracy against the king’s life having been discovered, Wolsey was arrested us an abettor. He was on his way to London to undergo trial on a charge of treason, when he fell ill and died Nov. 29, 1530, at the Monastery of Leicester. Among his last words were the following addressed to the Lord Lieutenant of the Tower: “Master Kyngston, if I had served my God as diligently as I have done the king, He would not have given me over in my gray hairs.” As paraphrased by Shakespeare, these last words of the fallen Cardinal are now immortal.

ALASKA.

Rock Island, Ill.

How does Alaska compare in size with New York State or Illinois; and what are its principal natural characteristics?

A. N. Brown.

Answer.—Alaska, according to the report of Ivan Petroff, special agent of the census of 1880, contains 531,400 square miles. This is as large as all New England, together with New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware, and the following seven grand States west of the Alleghanies: Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, Kentucky, and Tennessee. It is a vast region, 2,200 miles in length from east to west (measuring to the farthest of the Aleutian Islands), and 1,400 miles broad. It has a remarkable coast line of 25,000 miles in extent, which is about two and a half times as much as the sea coast of all the rest of the United States. The islands of Alaska alone, according to the estimate quoted by Dr. Jackson, comprise an area of over 31,000 miles, or twice as much as the total area of Maine. The highest mountains in the United States are in Alaska: Mount Fairweather, 15,500; Mount Crillon, 15,900: Mount Cook, 16,000, and Mount St. Elias, 19,500. It is remarkable for the number and stupendous proportions of its glaciers. Says Dr. Jackson: “From Bute Inlet to Unimak Pass nearly every gulch has its glacier, some of which are vastly greater and grander than any glacier in the Alps.” Hot and mineral springs abound. The Yukon River is one of the largest in the United States, being for the first 1,000 miles from one to five miles wide with five mouths, forming a delta seventy miles across. According to Mr. Robert Campbell, of the Hudson’s Bay Fur Company, including its chief tributary, the Pelly, it is navigable at certain seasons for nearly 3,000 miles.

Nearly all the sealskins used in the markets of the world come from two little islands belonging to Alaska. The skins of the sea otter are also very valuable, and there are many choice land fur-bearing animals. The waters are wonderfully rich in fish. Besides cod, “Alaska can supply the world,” says Dr. Jackson, “with salmon, herring, and halibut of the best quality.” It is also “the great reserve lumber region of the United States.” There are “thousands of square miles of yellow cedar, white spruce, hemlock, and balsam fir that densely cover the southeastern section of Alaska.” Gold and silver mines of considerable importance have been opened, and there are indications that the Territory is rich not only in the precious metals, but in other minerals, especially in iron, copper, and coal. In the interior the climate along the Yukon is not unlike that of Dakota. At Fort Yukon the thermometer often rises above 100 degrees in summer, and indicates from 50 degrees to 70 degrees below zero in winter. Along the immense southern coast and islands the climate is moist and warm. At Sitka, according to records kept for forty-five years, the mean spring temperature is 41.2 degrees; summer, 54.6 degrees; autumn, 44.9 degrees; winter, 32.5 degrees; for the whole year, 43.3 degrees. “The surprising fact is brought to light,” adds Dr. Jackson, who takes the above figures from the Alaska Coast Pilot, “that the winter climate of Southern Alaska for forty-five years past has been the average winter climate of Kentucky and West Virginia, and the average summer climate of Minnesota.” The mild climate of this region is due to the warm Japan current of the Pacific, the Kuro-Siwo. Generally of Alaska, Mr. William H. Dale, of the Smithsonian Institution, says: “I come back convinced, from personal inspection, that Alaska is a far better country than much of Great Britain and Norway, and even part of Prussia.” The total population in 1880 is given at 33,426, of whom 430 were white, 1,756 Creole or mixed races, and the rest Indians—Innuits, 17,617; Aleuts, 2,145; Thlinkets, 6,763; Hyda, 788, distributed as follows: The whites and creoles are nearly all in Southeastern Alaska, the Aleutian Islands, and Kadiak, which is the division including the south coast of the Alaska Peninsula down to Zakharof Bay, with the adjacent islands, the Kadiah group, the coast and islands of Cook’s Inlet, the Kenai Peninsula, the coast of Prince William’s Sound, and valleys of rivers running into the waters of these coasts. Since the census was taken the white population has been greatly increased by the influx of gold miners and speculators. This Territory is still without a regularly constituted civil government. The laws of the United States “relating to customs, lumber, and navigation” are extended over it, and the Collector and Deputy Collectors have authority to arrest persons violating these laws and send them to Oregon or California to be tried in United States courts. Otherwise the government is mainly a provisional one, organized by the people and enforced by general consent. It is high time that this state of things was ended.

THE AGE OF BENEDICT ARNOLD.

Ogdensburg, N. Y.

What was the true age of Benedict Arnold? No doubt you are aware that authors do not agree as to the time of the birth of General Arnold. Will you please give us light?

R. W. J.

Answer.—It is true that authors differ as to the age of Benedict Arnold. Appleton’s Cyclopedia says he was born Jan. 3, 1740. Lossing’s Cyclopedia of History gives the time as Jan. 3, 1741, and other authorities do not agree. We prefer to adopt the facts given by the Hon. Isaac N. Arnold, of this city, who has just written and published what there is good reason to believe is the most carefully prepared and impartial history of the American arch traitor of Revolutionary times that has ever appeared. This historian fixes Arnold’s birth on Jan. 14, 1741, and his death on June 14, 1801, in London.

METROPOLITAN POLICE.

Warsaw, Ind.

In what respect do metropolitan police differ from city police?

A. B.

Answer.—Metropolitan police are appointed and supported by the State or central government, while city police receive their appointments from the city magistrates. The city of London is guarded by 11,667 metropolitan policemen and 842 city policemen. At one time the city of New York was protected by metropolitan police, but for various reasons, one of which was because it restricted the free exercise of the spoils system so common with city governments, the act authorizing the appointment of such police was repealed.

WAS CHRIST BORN IN B. C. 4.

Chicago, Ill.

Is it certain that Christ was born four years before the Christian era?

Chicago.

Answer.—All investigations prove conclusively that it is impossible to determine to the satisfaction of chronologists in general either the day, month, or year of Christ’s birth. It is almost universally admitted that this event preceded the commencement of the Christian era as now reckoned. St. Clement, the earliest of the “church fathers,” fixes it on Nov. 18 in the twenty-eighth year of the Emperor Augustus, a little more than two years before the beginning of our era. Since the death of Herod the Great, according to Josephus, must have occurred before Easter of B. C. 4, modern scholars are generally agreed that Christ’s birth could not have been later than B. C. 4; and there is strong reason to believe that it was in B. C. 6 or 7. See McClintock and Strong’s “Cyclopedia of Biblical Literature,” under “Jesus Christ.” As to the day and month of Christ’s birth the differences are still more difficult to overcome. Modern investigation is strongly against Christmas, or any day in mid-winter, as unseasonable either for the shepherds to be watching their flocks in the fields, or for the congregating of the people from all parts of the kingdom to be registered and taxed, which was the occasion of Mary and Joseph’s being at Bethlehem. These two arguments are used, along with others, by the Biblical scholars who hold severally to the opinions that the nativity was not earlier in the year than March, and, one party says, in March, another in April or May, another in June, and still others in July or August.

GROWTH OF ENGLISH INTEMPERANCE.

Rantoul, Ill.

Is it true that drunkenness continues to increase in England, notwithstanding the wonderful success of English and American temperance reformers and the large number of total abstainers enrolled by the Salvation Army?

A Teetotaler.

Answer.—Whatever the explanation, and whether or not it constitutes an additional argument for the temperance movement, it is declared to be a fact that the number of persons charged with drunkenness in 1881 was 1,622 more than the number charged in 1880, being 174,481 to 172,859. Furthermore, according to the excise reports there was 7½ per cent more beer drunk in 1881 than in 1880, the total quantity being 970,785,564 gallons in a population of 26,000,000, or about 31 gallons for each man, woman, and child. The increase in the population during the decade of 1871-1881 was 3,256,020, which is about 1.43 per cent a year, while the increase in drunkenness was nearly 1 per cent in the last year.

TEMPERANCE IN COMMON SCHOOLS.

Chicago, Ill.

What is the text of the bill recently proposed in the Illinois state Legislature to require teachers to give instruction in temperance? Who introduced it? What are the arguments used in its favor?

A Teacher.

Answer.—The following is the bill introduced Jan. 31 in the General Assembly of this State, by the Hon. Jesse D. Jennings, of Fayette County: “Be it enacted,” etc., “that they (the directors) shall direct that elementary instruction be given in physiology and hygiene, which shall give special prominence to the effects of alcoholic drinks, stimulants and narcotics upon the human system. The certificate of qualification held by any person who desires to teach shall show that satisfactory examination has been passed upon the effect of alcoholic drinks, stimulants, and narcotics upon the human system.” The advocates of the bill maintain that, in view of the admitted evils of intemperance, and particularly the moral and physical injuries to individuals and society resulting from the use of alcoholic drinks, stimulants, and narcotics, it is of the highest practical importance that the youth of the public schools be properly instructed as to the effects of these insanity engendering poisons. They say that since the State, for purposes of revenue, and also professedly with the desire of preventing abuses, has authorized men and women to publicly offer these poisons for sale, it is morally bound to warn the youth of the land not to use them except as medicine, or in the arts, as other poisons are sometimes used. They hold that those who admit the iniquities of intemperance, but are opposed to sumptuary legislation, cannot reasonably oppose this recourse to educational remedies for these appalling evils. If the law requires road commissioners, when repairing the highways, to hang out danger lights wherever they open cess-pools and sewers, or make other perilous chasms in the road, the advocates of this bill argue that it is the duty of the State licensing the opening of liquor shops to throw enough light on the traffic to prevent young people from falling into drunkenness in the dark.

CANADIAN DENOMINATIONAL STATISTICS.

Chicago, Ill.

Herewith I hand you the denominational statistics of Canada, as given in the government returns for 1881. Those recently given in Our Curiosity Shop, on the authority of Rand, McNally & Co.’s Atlas of the World, are out of date:

Roman Catholics 1,791,982

Methodists 742,981

Presbyterians 676,155

Church of England 574,818

Baptists 275,291

Congregationalists 26,900

All other denominations 236,683

Total 4,324,810

K.

TWO INDIANA TEMPERANCE RESOLUTIONS.

Oregon, Ill.

Please give us the temperance planks in the platforms of the Indiana Democracy and Indiana Republicans, as adopted in their conventions of last summer.

A Prohibitionist.

Answer.—The Indiana Democracy met in convention last August: after wrestling with the few prohibition delegates for a brief moment, they adopted the following resolution:

“The Democratic party is now, as it has always been, opposed to all sumptuary legislation, and it is especially opposed to the proposed amendment to the constitution of Indiana known as the prohibitory amendment, and we are in favor of the submission of the proposed amendment, as well as other proposed amendments, to the people, according to the provisions of the constitution for its own amendment: and the people have the right to oppose or favor the adoption of any or all the amendments at all stages of their consideration, and any submission of constitutional amendment to a vote of the people should be at a time and under circumstances most favorable to a full vote, and therefore should be at a general election.” The Republicans, several days later, on Aug. 9, adopted this resolution: “The Republican party resolves that reposing trust in the people as the fountain of power, we demand that the pending amendments to the constitution shall be agreed to and submitted by the next Legislature to the voters of the State for their decision thereon. These amendments were not partisan in their origin, and are not so in character, and should not be made so in voting upon them. Recognising the fact that the people are divided in sentiment in regard to the propriety of their adoption or rejection, and cherishing the right of private judgment, we favor the submission of these amendments to a special election, so that there may be an intelligent decision thereon, uninfluenced by partisan issues.”

PASSION PLAYS.

Berlin, Wis.

What is the origin and history of the “Passion Play,” of which we hear so much lately?

F. Peck.

Answer.—This recent dramatical representation of the passion of Christ claims its origin and justification in sentiments akin to those which it is said inspired the old religious dramas, known as “Moralities,” or “Miracle Plays.” The first composition of this nature is ascribed to Ezekiel, a Jew, who, in the third century, adapted the story of Israel’s exodus from Egypt to the Grecian stage. His object was to arouse the patriotism of his exiled and despondent countrymen and excite in them a hope for the re-establishment of their kingdom in Palestine. In the fourth century, St. Gregory Nazianzen, the Bishop of Constantinople, having noticed the effect of the Grecian drama upon the people, concluded that the readiest method of extending the church of Christ was the dramatic presentation of the sufferings of its author, which he accomplished in the drama entitled “The Passion of Christ.” When the barbarians made their inroads into Southern Europe, and the church began to extend its influence northward into the lands of the Germans, Normans, and Saxons, it found great difficulty in coping with the fascination which the heathen festivals and performances exercised over the uneducated minds of the people. In order to obviate this trouble, miracle plays were introduced. Adapting the drama to the surrounding circumstances, many of the heathen characters, slightly changed, were retained. The play was supplied with humor by the artful caprices of the impersonated devil. In one representation “Judas, assisted by the devil, who sits upon the scaffold, hangs himself. When the hanging is complete both slide down to hell on a slanting rope.” Soon after the Reformation the miracle plays began to decline, and now they are performed in only a few places, mostly in Southern Bavaria and the Tyrol. The passion play of Oberammergau is famed the world over, and attracts an immense concourse of visitors from all lands whenever it is presented. In 1633 the flax in that neighborhood became diseased and unfit for the spindle. To prevent the recurrence of any such calamity the Oberammergau peasants made a vow to God that every ten years they would present the sufferings of Christ upon the stage in this way. This vow was kept until the beginning of the present century, when the further performance of the play was prohibited. Thereupon the peasants appealed to King Maximilian, who granted them permission to continue their celebrations, providing certain objectionable features were removed. This was agreed to, and in 1811 the drama, written by Pastor Weise, was first presented devoid of the devil and comic personages. The gospel story commences with Christ’s triumphal entry into Jerusalem, and closes with a scene previous to the ascension. In a practical manner, the plot is developed. The money changers are driven from the temple in anger. Judas smarts under the rebuke which he received at the home of Lazarus. They meet and plan the betrayal resulting in the crucifixion. The part of Christ is impersonated by a peasant. The ignorant inhabitants still regard these plays as the most impressive and effective method of teaching the gospel and various moralities. The claim that the passion play now occupying so much of the public attention was inspired by religious motives is rejected by the public generally, and is ridiculed by the press. There is an all but unanimous feeling of opposition in England and in this country to having the passion of the Savior, the solemn tragedy of Calvary, mimicked on the stage by ordinary stage performers. This feeling led the late Mayor Grace, of New York City, to refuse to license the presentation of the play in that city, and his successor, Mayor Edson, has taken the same stand. Salmi Morse, the manager, threatens to test the legality of this interdiction. Such is the attitude of this matter at present.

RATIO OF BEEF TO LIVE WEIGHT.

Rogers Park, Ill.

What is the proportion of good meat in a well-fed beef animal compared with its live weight?

A Consumer.

Answer.—Sixty pounds of dressed beef for each 100 pounds of live weight is considered a fair average, and indicates that the animal was of good stock in first-rate marketable condition. Of course the choice cuts, consisting of the ribs, sirloin and rump steak, constitute only about half of this. So that an animal which weighs 1,000 pounds live weight will produce but about 600 pounds of dressed meat, of which the choice cuts will amount to about 310 pounds and the “coarse meat” to 290 pounds.

NAMES OF CERTAIN BLOOD RELATIVES.

Grove City, Ill.

What relation are children of first cousins? What relation is a child to its parents’ first cousin?

V. T. Houston.

Answer.—The children of first cousins are second cousins. A’s child is “first cousin removed” to A’s first cousin, while he is second cousin to the son or daughter of A’s first cousin.

FINDING LATITUDE AT SEA.

Garrison, Iowa.

Referring to the explanation of the method of determining latitude by observations on the pole star, given in a recent issue of Our Curiosity Shop, I venture to submit the following indication of the common method by which sailors ascertain their latitude at sea. It is true that latitude may be determined by means of a carefully observed altitude of the polar star, providing the apparent time of observation can be ascertained within a few minutes. This method might frequently be used at sea when the horizon is well defined if the star were of the first magnitude; but being only of the second or third it is difficult to determine the altitude with certainty. For this reason the usual method of finding the latitude at sea is by taking the altitude of the sun when on the meridian. The latitude of a place, being its distance from the equator, is measured by the arc of the meridian contained between the zenith and the equator; hence, if the distance of the sun from the zenith when on the meridian and the declination be given the latitude is easily determined.

B. F. Hussey.

AUTHORS, EDITORS, AND MANUSCRIPTS.

Mt. Hope, Kan.

Kindly explain the editorial rules governing the receipt and treatment of manuscript offered for publication, whether intended for newspapers, periodicals, or books. Suppose, too, that an author should send the manuscript of a book to a publisher on the promise that it would be returned if not accepted, how long ought it to be before he should be notified of its receipt and acceptance or rejection?

W. S. W.

Answer.—There is no definite general rule for these matters beyond the common understanding that the editor must attend first of all to the regular routine of his office, and manuscript must wait, until he has time to read it. In the case of contributions to a periodical, it is understood unless contributors specifically request the return of their contributions and inclose postage stamps for this purpose, that the editor, if he does not use them, is at liberty to consign them to the waste basket. It is not unusual for contributions to literary magazines and standard reviews to lie on the editors’ tables for a month or six weeks before the verdict “accepted” or “rejected” is pronounced. A glance at a contribution, even the mere subject, indicates to the editor whether the article is likely to suffer by delay. Stories and many other contributions will keep; current news and kindred matters will not. These manuscripts must be read at once; those must wait; and how long, only the editor is in the position to determine. Even after articles are accepted the same law prevails, and the circumstances of each particular issue determine what is to be used and what “held over.” It frequently happens that editorials which have cost the editor serious labor, and are actually in type, are crowded out by unexpected events which must take precedence, and are held back by a succession of such events until too stale to be used, and the writer is forced to write “kill” over against the children of his own heart and brain. Many a disgusted contributor would feel less mortified and indignant at the rejection of his offering if he could understand all the circumstances of the case. The contribution rejected to-day might have been gladly accepted had it come a day sooner. An article accepted yesterday and paid for, perhaps never appears; why, only the editor can explain. Even champagne tastes flat after it has stood a few moments; witticisms are still-born if not ushered in at the right instant. The book-publisher is subject to similar influences, but not in the same degree as the editor of a newspaper or review. But many a book manuscript has been rejected because out of season. Many another has been rejected because the writer was impatient and the editor, rather than keep him in such a mood and unwilling to take the responsibility of publishing what he had not read with critical care, has relieved himself by returning it “with thanks.” It is no slight matter for an editor to read and so digest a book, in which the publisher is asked to invest from $1,000 to $5,000, as to enable him to pronounce a favorable judgment with confidence. Of course long and carefully prepared manuscripts, especially books, are entitled to more consideration than ordinary newspaper contributions; and should never be destroyed until the authors have been courteously notified that they are not wanted, and have had ample time to send for them. In the supposed case of the above question, acknowledgment of receipt of the book manuscript should have been mailed as soon as it came to hand, unless it was received by express or as registered mail matter, and from thirty to sixty days, according to the length and nature of the book would not be too long to grant the editor or publisher before expecting a decision. Except in special cases, editors of newspapers do not receipt by mail for contributions sent to them.

RAILROAD MILEAGE.

Oshkosh, Wis.

Please give a few statistics in reference to railroad construction in the United States and in the more important foreign countries.

W. L. Frost.

Answer.—The number of miles of railroad in the world constructed prior to Jan. 1, 1881, was 226,442, of which sum 93,671 miles were within the United States. Germany had built 21,037 miles; Great Britain and Ireland, 17,696; France, 15,287; Russia, 13,571; Austria-Hungary, 11,471; British India, 8,615; Canada, 6,891; Italy, 4,999, and Spain, 4,264. During the year 1881 the railway mileage of this country increased to 104,813 miles, to which the year 1882 added 10,821 miles, making a grand total of 115,634 miles. To build these great highways and properly equip them about $5,750,000,000 have been expended. Iowa during the past year took the lead, having constructed 953.37 miles, and Texas followed close after with 817 miles of new road.

A FEW AMERICAN WORTHIES.

Manson, Iowa.

Please name five or more of the greatest of the following classes of Americans: Orators, poets, historians, inventors.

George Bell.

Answer.—Any answer to such a question is largely a matter of personal opinion. Among political orators Patrick Henry, James Otis, Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, Thomas Pike, Sergeant Smith Prentiss, John C. Calhoun stand among the most illustrious. As to pulpit orators, it would be invidious to name one without designating at least fifty who are evidently of the same rank. Our great poets have not been many. First among them have been and still are, as regards fame, William Cullen Bryant, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, George Denison Prentice, and Nathaniel P. Willis. Whittier, T. Buchanan Read, Holmes. Lowell, Miller, Holland, Saxe, Morris, Mrs. Sigourney, are poets not soon to be forgotten. Irving, Sparks, Prescott, Bancroft, are among our most eminent historians. Fulton, inventor of the steamboat; Morse, inventor of the first practical electric telegraph; Whitney, inventor of the cotton-gin, and Howe, inventor of the first successful sewing machine, are among the first of the ten thousand American inventors who have done the world noteworthy service. Edison and several hundred other inventors, who have improved upon the inventions of their predecessors until they have doubled, trebled, and in some instances quadrupled their value to the world, are quite as worthy to be remembered.

RAILROAD LAND GRANTS.

Oshkosh, Wis.

Give us the total amount of public lands granted by the United States to aid in the construction of railways, and oblige a subscriber.

W. L. Frost.