OUR CURIOSITY SHOP. (continued 10)

DON CARLOS.

Kingman, Kan.

Who and what was Don Carlos?

A Reader.

Answer.—1. There was a Don Carlos in the sixteenth century. He was the son of Philip II., of Spain; was born at Valladolid in 1545, and recognized as heir to the throne in 1560. But owing to his dullness at school, and distaste for study, the King deemed him unfit to reign over his subjects, and invited the Prince’s cousin, the Archduke Rudolf, to Spain, intending to educate him for the throne. Jealous of this usurper, Don Carlos conceived a strong dislike to all the King’s counselors, whom he plotted to destroy. But having foolishly divulged to his confessor that he intended to murder some one, that some one was suspected to be the King. The stupid Prince was tried and convicted of high treason, and left to the mercy of the King. Philip declared that he could make no exception in favor of such an ungrateful son, but there is found no formal record of any sentence of death. Don Carlos died soon afterward, at the age of 23. 2. The Don Carlos who has of late years been causing so much trouble in Spain, as a pretender to the throne, is the eldest son of the brother of King Fernando VII. His wife is Princess Marguerite, of Bourbon, daughter of Duke Carlos III., of Parma. He is a brother of the ex-Queen Isabella, and uncle to the present King.

EDUCATION AND CHRISTIAN BENEVOLENCE.

Wexford, Mich.

What proportion of the benevolent and educational institutions in the United States are built and operated by Christians, and what by infidels?

F. J. Hall.

Answer.—In the report of the United States Commissioner of Education for 1880 the following statistics of schools in the United States not under State control are given: One hundred and sixty-two commercial and business colleges, generally self-supporting, and unconnected with, or not dependent on, Christian or other benevolent organizations or private benevolence. There were 232 kindergartens, most of which were private schools and self-supporting. Such as were charity schools, like the free kindergartens of certain cities, were supported, for the most part, by Christian benevolence. There were 1,264 “schools of secondary instruction,” such as seminaries and academies; 355 asylums for orphans, 142 theological schools, and 227 “institutions for the superior instruction of women.” Most of all four classes of schools were and still are under the direction of Roman Catholics, Protestants or Hebrews. Of the 364 universities and colleges, only eighty are marked non-sectarian, and to these institutions are attached nearly all the 310 theological, law, and medical schools. There are forty-nine schools of science, (mining, engineering, agriculture, etc.), endowed with the National land grants, apportioned to the several States under act of 1862, the States providing in nearly every instance the grounds, buildings, apparatus, etc., and supplementing the income of the endowment fund. Even many of these schools, such as Purdue University, Indiana, Illinois Industrial University, and others, are indebted to private individuals, or county and city subscriptions for handsome contributions in money, lands, etc. Then there are thirty-five schools and collegiate departments of science not endowed by the National land grants or State grants, but almost wholly the product of private benefactions, the benefactors in nearly all cases being pronounced Christian philanthropists. The benefactions to educational institutions of the United States, (mostly denominational), in the years ending with 1880, amounted to about $60,000,000.

If by “infidels,” you intend persons who disclaim all faith in Christianity, then it is doubtful if any of the above institutions were founded or are sustained to any degree worthy of mention, by an infidel. Even Girard, the founder of Girard College was not an out and out atheist or deist, though he was bitterly opposed to all existing sects, and had a strong aversion to the clergy of every denomination.

GENERAL E. R. S. CANBY.

Ann Arbor, Mich.

Tell us something about General Canby.

A. B. D.

Answer.—Edward Richard Spriggs Canby LL. D., was born in Kentucky in 1807, graduated at West Point in 1839, and spent the remainder of his life on the warpath. His first post was in Florida (1839-42), but he was little known until the war with Mexico, when he fought with such valor at Cherubusco and the City of Mexico as to win the brevets of major and lieutenant colonel. From 1849 to 1861 he served on the Pacific coast, in Washington, and Utah Territory, and against the Navajoes, and at the outbreak of the civil war took command in New Mexico, where he was brevetted brigadier general at Valverde. Two years later he was commander of the expedition which captured Mobile, and there won the title of brevet major general. Soon afterward Generals R. Taylor and E. K. Smith surrendered to him. In 1866 he was made a brigadier general in the regular army.

In 1869, having served in several important commissions, and being worn out, he voluntarily consented to take charge of the Department of Columbia; and there he was treacherously shot by the chief “Jack,” April 11, 1873, while trying to arrange for the removal of the Modocs from Northern California.

“PRECESSION OF THE EQUINOXES.”

Blunt, D.T.

Please explain in the Curiosity Shop the meaning of the expression “Precession of the Equinoxes,” and how the climate of the earth is affected by this phenomenon?

Arthur Snow.

Answer.—As the plane of the earth’s orbit crosses the equator at an angle of about 23½ degrees, the attractive force of the sun, moon, and planets, constantly exerted upon the earth, has a tendency to tilt the pole away from the sun and to draw the equator toward it. As a consequence, the sun crosses the equator each time a little farther west than the point where it crossed the last time preceding, and where it would have crossed on its return if there were no disturbing force. Originally it was said that the equinoctial point, or place of crossing, went forward to meet the sun, and hence this phenomenon was called the precession of the equinoxes. But, from the fact that the equinoctial point really falls backwards on the celestial equator, toward the west, each time about 50 seconds of a degree, it is now very frequently termed the recession of the equinoxes. In consequence of this recession the seasons begin a little earlier each year, and it is estimated that in 12,800 years they will be reversed, our summer occurring when the sun is in the constellation that he now traverses in winter time. It requires about 25,000 years for the sun to complete one circuit of precession of the equinoxes.

COMET OF 1812 AND 1813.

Lake Forest, Ill.

Is it true that the comet now coming into view is the same as the one of 1812? When will it become plainly visible to the naked eye, and when will it be nearest the sun?

Star-gazer.

Answer.—It is generally admitted that the comet discovered by Professor Brooks on the 5th of September last, and now visible, with the aid of a good opera or field glass, in the constellation Draco, between the “Great Dipper,” in Ursa Major, and the “Northern Cross,” in the Constellation Cygnus, is identical with the comet of 1812, which was believed by the superstitious to prognosticate our last war with Great Britain. It will reach perihelion, or the point in its orbit nearest the sun, Jan. 25. It will increase in brightness rapidly from the first of December, and be plainly visible to the naked eye by the middle of that month. At its brightest it will be brighter than in 1812, but it will not equal at any time the magnificent comet of 1882. The period, as calculated in 1812, was 70.6 years. As the interval between its perihelion time, Sept. 15, 1812, and its perihelion passage, Jan. 25, 1884, will be but 71.5 years, it is not strange astronomers—considering the imperfections of astronomical science and art then as compared with the state of astronomy now—are not surprised at this small error in this comet’s calculated orbital period.

LONGEVITY OF THE CIRCASSIAN RACE.

Garden City, Kan.

Is it a fact that the longevity of our race is on the increase? If so, what are the data from which this conclusion is reached? Is our physical strength on the increase, and what is the evidence? It has been agreed to leave these questions to you. One of the parties to the dispute is an ex-judge of the Supreme Court of one of the greatest States in the Union.

J. W. Holmes, M. D.

Answer.—The above questions having been referred to one of the highest medical authorities in the West, a member of a State Board of Health, he replies as follows:

“It is a fact that the longevity of our race [i. e., the Caucasian or white race] is on the increase. Statistics published by the British Registrar show that during the last 150 years the average length of human life in the British Islands has been increased by nearly one-third. It is also true that the physique of the race is improving. I am sorry that I have not time to look up references for you; but any reasonably well-equipped life-insurance agent should be able to furnish them readily for the first question; and the Journal of Anthropology would supply evidence enough for the second. Dr. Nathan Allen, of Lowell, Mass., has made the subject a special study.”

RAILROADS IN ILLINOIS.

Cooperstown, Ill.

How many companies are there owning railroads in Illinois?

E. P. R.

Answer.—According to the commissioner’s report for 1880-81, there were during the year fifty-four railroad companies operating roads in Illinois. Poor’s “Manual” gives the names of sixty-five companies operating roads in the State in 1882. It is difficult to state how many companies own these roads, for every year many of them change hands by lease or sale. There are more companies owning roads than there are operating companies. For instance, during the years 1880-81 six railroads were merged into the Wabash system, another was purchased by the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railroad Company, and still another was leased for an indefinite period by the Cincinnati, Indianapolis, St. Louis and Chicago. Probably the next annual report of the Railroad and Warehouse Commission will show exactly how many proprietary companies are still in existence. We have no data for an answer to your other question.

FOREIGN IMMIGRATION.

Mount Vernon, Iowa.

From what countries is most of the immigration to the United States? What proportion of the immigrants can read and write? Are any of them well educated? What was the immigration last year?

F. P. F.

Answer.—During the sixty years included between 1820 and 1880, the following countries were represented in the immigration to the United States, as here shown:

England 894,444

Ireland 3,065,761

Scotland 159,547

Wales 17,893

Netherlands 44,319

Poland 14,831

Portugal 9,062

Russia 38,316

Austria-Hungary 65,588

Belgium 23,267

Denmark 48,620

France 313,716

Germany 3,002,027

Greece 385

Spain 28,091

Sweden and Norway 306,092

Switzerland 83,709

Turkey 619

Italy 70,181

All other countries 1,161,875

Most of the immigrants from Sweden and Norway, Germany, Austria, Denmark, Netherlands, and Scotland, are able to read and write; the majority of the others are illiterate. Many are very well educated, having enjoyed college privileges, and the advantages of travel. The total number of immigrants during 1882, was 788,992.

BASE OF THE METRICAL SYSTEM.

Omaha, Neb.

Is it true that the unit of the metrical system is exactly the ten-millionth part of a quadrant of the earth, measured on a meridian? Please answer and settle a controversy.

Aaron.

Answer.—It is not true. After all the pains taken by scientists to obtain the exact measure of a quadrant of a meridian of the earth, it is now conceded that this problem is still unsolved. In the latter part of last century, certain French astronomers and geodetic surveyors persuaded the French Academy of Sciences that they had succeeded in measuring so much of such an arc as enabled them to accurately determine the whole arc by geometrical calculations. In this belief what is now known as the metric system of measures was constructed, and under the French Republic, in 1795, the existing standards of French measures were adopted, based on the meter, the ten-millionth part of the earth’s meridian quadrant as thus computed. According to this a meter is 39.368 American inches, or 39.37 English inches. But while later surveys have failed to determine the quadrant with absolute certainty, it is conceded that they have demonstrated the inaccuracy of the earlier surveys and computations, and what is now generally accepted as a very close approximation to an exact measure shows that the standard French meter falls short of the ten-millionth part of the earth’s meridional quadrant by its 1-5,400 part. That is, according to the progress of more extended geodetic measurements, brought down to 1875, the earth’s meridional quadrant exceeds 10,000,000 meters by about 1,850 meters. Nevertheless the International Bureau of Weights and Measures very wisely adheres to the original standard meter, represented by the platinum meter of the French archives as the fundamental unit of the metric system.

EXECUTING FOR WITCHCRAFT.

Oshkosh, Wis.

Will our Curiosity Shop please tell us the facts about witchcraft at Salem and elsewhere. Respecting Salem witchcraft, give causes, number killed, cruelties practiced, and names and characters of the men upholding the persecutions?

H. F. Fehlandt.

Answer.—The Salem witchcraft was only one of the results of the superstition, as old almost as man himself, that certain persons, through intimate connection with the spirit world, possess superhuman influence for evil over their fellow-men. The early Christians inherited the idea from their pagan forefathers, and in 1484 Pope Innocent issued a bull directing the inquisitors to search out and punish all guilty of such crimes. For nearly three centuries following the delusion reigned, so that in Germany alone more than 10,000 persons were executed in consequence of this bull, and in England, during the 150 years following the reign of Elizabeth, over 30,000 persons were sacrificed to this wild superstition. In fact witches were hung in the latter country as late as 1716, and in Scotland until 1722. Under these circumstances it is not strange that Englishmen in America partook of the fanatical excitement, and when in 1688 four children of John Goodwin, a respectable man in North Boston, began to show strange symptoms, immediately after receiving abuse from a disreputable Irish woman, the people should at once attribute them to witchcraft; the more so since three Bostonians had been hung already for that offense, and lately a book had been published in defense of the popular belief. Four years later the excitement culminated at Salem. The first alleged victims were in the family of Samuel Parris, a clergyman. His daughter, niece, and two other girls began to show symptoms like those of the Goodwin children, and accused Tituba, an Indian squaw in the family, of bewitching them, though she stoutly protested her Innocence. Soon the number of bewitched increased, and likewise the number of accused. The excitement grew, being constantly fanned by those who should have been foremost in checking it. None were safe from accusation, and many, to save their own lives, accused their dearest friends and relatives. When Sir William Phipps became Governor of Massachusetts, in May, 1692, his first act was the appointment of a court for Suffolk, Essex, and Middlesex, consisting of seven judges: William Stoughton, the Lieutenant Governor; Chief Justice Nathaniel Saltonstal, who refused to act, and was replaced by Jonathan Curwin; John Richards, Bartholomew Gedney, Wait Winthrop, Samuel Sewall, and Peter Sergeant. Cotton Mather and Samuel Parris were among the chief Instigators of the prosecutions that followed. Under this tribunal twenty persons were hung, fifty or more tortured into confession of guilt; the jails were filled, and hundreds more were under suspicion, when the reason of the community awoke to a realization of the injustice and barbarity of such proceedings, and fanaticism was soon succeeded by bitter remorse. There is not space here to enumerate many of the tortures employed to extort confessions. The lash, the stocks, binding the sufferers in painful postures, as with neck and heels together; starvation and thirst, and other barbarities were exercised, until hundreds falsely accused themselves, their friends and neighbors, and even their dearest relatives, to obtain release.

AN ARMY LEGION.

Chicago, Ill.

Please state how many men the Austrian and Belgic legions enlisted for the service of Maximilian I. of Mexico, contained. I would like to know somewhere near the number, whether it was 500 or 5,000 men.

Charles Seymour.

Answer.—It is impossible to give a definite answer to this question. The military term “legion” was not a very definite term, as regards numbers, even in the case of the old Roman legion, where it corresponded somewhat to the modern “army corps.” Sometimes it numbered 3,000 men and at others 6,000 or more. In 1792 the whole army of the United States was officially designated the “Legion of the United States” the Infantry regiments being styled “sub-legions.” This was not a popular organization and nomenclature with army men, and was soon abandoned. The term has been applied in modern times to divisions in the German, French, and other European armies, variously organized, and numbering from 2,500 to 5,000 men. It would be impossible, without reference to official records of Maximilian’s government, to say what number of Belgians and Austrians were enlisted in his service; but it was less than 10,000 all told, and most likely, judging from facts in our possession, not more than 7,000.

RAPHAEL’S SUPREME MADONNA.

Winchester, Ill.

Where was the Sistine Madonna executed? Where and by whom was it taken to Dresden?

Maggie Huston.

Answer.—The “Madonna di San Sisto” was executed by Raphael as an altar-piece for the Church of St. Sixtus at Piacenza, in Northern Italy. It is perhaps the most widely known of Raphael’s works, and universally regarded one of his supreme efforts. Mrs. Jameson, renowned as an art critic, says of it; “For myself, I have seen my ideal once, and once only, there where Raphael—inspired, if ever a painter was inspired—projected on the space before him that wonderful creature which we style the Madonna di San Sisto.” It was painted between 1517 and 1520. We are not positive as to when and by whom it was removed to Dresden, but think it was during the reign of Frederick Augustus II., King of Saxony from 1797 to 1854. This King did more than any of his predecessors to embellish Dresden.

AUTHOR OF “THE FLAG OF OUR UNION.”

Stanberry, Mo.

Will your Curiosity Shop give a short sketch of the author of the poem entitled, “The Flag of Our Union”?

J. M. H.

Answer.—George P. Morris was a native of Pennsylvania, born in 1802. From early manhood he followed journalism, and was the originator of the two newspapers, The Mirror and The National Press. For several years he was associated with N. P. Willis, and, under their united efforts, the Mirror became a leading literary, magazine, having among its contributors Poe, Bryant, Halleck, and Paulding. In 1853 Morris and Willis edited “Prose and Poetry of Europe and America.” His reputation, however, chiefly rests upon his original poems, and of these the most familiar are “Woodman, Spare that Tree,” and “The Flag of Our Union.”

PENSIONS OF SOLDIERS OF 1812.

Hazelhurst, Miss.

Are the soldiers of 1812 entitled to pensions or land warrants? If so, how may they obtain them?

H. J. Brainard.

Answer.—By the act of Congress, approved March 9, 1878, any soldier of the war of 1812, or his widow, is entitled to a pension of $8 a month, provided he is not already receiving that amount, or more, as a pension; or, if receiving a pension of less amount, he is entitled to enough more to raise it to $8 per month. In addition he may claim 160 acres as a land warrant, granted to all soldiers who fought in the American army before 1855. For further information write to the Commissioner of Pensions, W. W. Dudley, Washington, D. C.

COUNTY LICENSES FOR DRAM-SHOPS.

Hamilton, Iowa.

Can whisky be sold in Illinois outside of the corporate limits of a city by the drink? Are they not limited, under government license, to quantities of one gallon or more?

Reader.

Answer.—Spirituous liquors cannot be legally sold in quantities of less than one gallon in any part of Illinois without a license, either from city, incorporated town, or village or county authorities. Counties are empowered to license dram-shops outside of incorporated cities, towns, etc.

CERTAIN CANADIAN AND AMERICAN CITIES.

Riverton, Iowa.

1. What is the population of the four largest cities of Canada and the four largest cities of the United States next the Canadian border? 2. If a man having a family takes a homestead claim must he forfeit his claim if his family refuse to accompany him?

Subscriber.

Answer.—1. In Canada: Montreal, 140,863; Toronto, 86,455; Quebec, 62,446, and Hamilton, 35,065. In the United States: Cleveland, 155,946; Buffalo, 149,500; Detroit, 116,340; Toledo, 50,143. 2. No.

M. TAINE, THE AUTHOR.

Omaha, Neb.

Can you give me some information regarding M. Taine, author of a “History of English Literature?” 2. Where does Louis Kossuth reside?

Don Quixote.

Answer.—Hippolyte Adolphe Taine, one of the foremost essayists and critics of our time, was born at Vouziers in Ardennes, France, April 21, 1828. After completing his education at the College Bourbon and the normal school of Paris, he published several works which attracted attention, and marked him as a polemic writer of power. In 1864 he was given the professorship of æsthetics in the School of Fine Art, Paris. Besides his controversial writings he has published several works on art and literature. 2. In Turin, Italy.

FATHER TAYLOR.

Vesper, Wis.

Please give a short sketch of, “Father Taylor,” the sailor-preacher in Boston.

S. Boynton.

Answer.—Edward T. Taylor, better known as “Father Taylor,” was a sailor during the war of 1812, and first acted a preacher while a prisoner at Dartmoor, England. In 1819 he was ordained by the American M. E. Church, and in 1828 was appointed to the Seamen’s Bethel, in Boston. Warm-hearted and quick-witted, he won the hearts of the rough men there, and from them received his “title.” He revisited England in 1832, and traveled in Palestine in 1842. During the famine of 1846 in Ireland he was chaplain in the United States relief frigate. He was born in 1794, in Virginia, and died in 1871.

LONDON.

Columbus, Wis.

Please give us the derivation of the word “London.”

Will Smith.

Answer.—There is a fable that London was founded by Brute, a descendant of Æneas, and called New Troy, or Troy-novant, until the time of Lud, who surrounded it with walls and named it Caer Lud, or Lud’s town. But Haydn’s “Dictionary of Dates” contradicts this statement, and writes the old name Llyndin, meaning “the town on the lake.” The name is evidently of Celtic origin. It is claimed by some that there was a city on that same spot 1107 B. C., and it is known that the Romans found a city there called Londinium, A. D. 61.

THE HULLS—ALEXANDER HAMILTON.

Lawler, Iowa.

1. Was General Hull, who surrendered at Detroit, a relative of Commodore Hull, of the United States frigate Constitution? 2. Of what nationality was Alexander Hamilton?

D. Hall.

Answer.—l. The distinguished revolutionary soldier, General William Hull, who was afterward condemned for surrendering to the British at Detroit early in the war of 1812-15, was an uncle of the naval hero who commanded the Constitution for a time. 2. Alexander Hamilton was born on the British West India island, Nevis, one of the lesser Antilles.

OLD POSTAL RATES.

Chicago, Ill.

Will you please inform us what the postal rates have been since the foundation of the system, and particularly the rates to Europe? If not convenient to give the latter for the whole period, give them for twenty years ago.

J. M.

Answer.—A detailed reply to this question cannot fail to interest the readers of Our Curiosity Shop, since it will enable them to appreciate more fully the strides of progress made in interstate communication since this government was formed. It is impossible to fully estimate the service cheap postage on letters, newspapers magazines, and books, and of late on seeds, samples of merchandise, etc., has rendered in the marvelous intellectual, moral, and material development of this country. The postal service is one of the most beneficent, as it is one of the most potent, forces in the control of the Federal Government. As a bond of union between the States its influence is of inestimable value. It is a life-long school of patriotism, minifying and almost annihilating the alienating force of distances, keeping the links of friendship bright and strong between old friends scattered throughout the land, familiarizing voters with the condition of all parts of the country, and fostering the common good in innumerable ways.

From the organization of the Postoffice Department, in 1786, to 1816 the rates on domestic letters (or letters for any place within the United States) were as follows: “For each piece of paper of which a single letter, or letter packet, may be composed,” under 40 miles, 8 cents; under 90 miles, 10 cents; under 150 miles, 12½ cents; under 300 miles, 17 cents; under 500 miles, 20 cents; over 500 miles 25 cents.

In 1816 the following schedule went into force: For a single letter carried not over 30 miles, 6¼ cents; less than 80 miles, 10 cents; less than 150 miles, 12½ cents; less than 400 miles, 18¾ cents; over 400 miles, 25 cents. Provisions for mailing newspapers were made as follows: Newspapers, under 100 miles or within the State where published, 1 cent; over 100 miles and out of the State, 1½ cents.

By the act of March 3, 1845, the rates were modified as follows: For each letter weighing less than half an ounce, if carried less than 300 miles, 5 cents; over 300 miles, 10 cents; each additional half ounce, double rates; drop letters delivered from the office where posted, 2 cents. The newspaper rates were: For papers containing less than 1,900 square inches, 1 cent each, if delivered within the State where printed and mailed, or out of the State but within 100 miles of publication office; for any greater distance, 1½ cents each; if conveyed less than 30 miles, free. Papers measuring over 1,900 square inches were charged magazine postage. Magazines, pamphlets, and other printed works were charged 2½ cents for the first ounce, and 1 cent for each additional ounce or fraction of an ounce, for any distance whatever. Bound books were unmailable. Carriage by private individuals on mail carriages, or by express, thenceforward, was prohibited. Two years later transient newspaper rates were raised to 3 cents, and prepayment was required; postage on unsealed circulars was raised from 2 cents to 3; newspaper postage to Oregon and California was placed at 4½ cents, and letters, via Chagres and Panama, 40 cents; between post towns in California, 12½ cents.

In 1849 the postage on transient newspapers was reduced to ordinary rates, but prepayment was maintained.

In 1851 the single letter was defined by weight instead of by piece, at a half ounce or under, and rates were greatly cheapened, as follows: For a single letter under 3,000 miles, 3 cents, if prepaid; otherwise, 5 cents; over 3,000 miles, 6 cents, or 12 cents. The postage on newspapers, which had been almost prohibitory in the early days, and had been maintained at high rates until this time, was now (1851) greatly reduced, as will be seen by comparing the following quarterly charges with the charges per copy given above:

Weekly newspapers, to actual subscribers in the county, free; under 50 miles and out of county where published, 5 cents a quarter; over 50 and under 300 miles, 10 cents; over 300 and under 1,000 miles, 15 cents; over 1,000 and under 2,000, 20 cents; over 2,000 and under 4,000, 25 cents; over 4,000, 30 cents. Postage on transient newspapers and circulars was also proportionately reduced, and books under 32 ounces were admitted to mail at 1 cent an ounce if prepaid, if not prepaid 2 cents.

Slight changes were made in 1852 and 1855, but it was reserved for the Congress of 1863 to make the next great step forward by making the rate of postage on all domestic letters uniform throughout the Union, at 3 cents for each half ounce or fraction thereof. At the same time the quarterly postage on newspapers and periodicals sent to subscribers, and not exceeding 4 cents, was made uniform for all distances, at the following rates; Weekly, 5 cents; semi-weekly, 10 cents; tri-weekly, 15 cents; six times a week, 30 cents; seven times, 35 cents. But in 1868 the law was so amended as to allow weekly newspapers to go to regular subscribers in the county free. No modification of domestic letter rates occurred after this until the new postal law of this year, which went into effect Oct. 1, reducing the single letter rate to 2 cents. An important change as to newspapers and periodicals was made in 1872, requiring prepayment in advance either at the mailing or the delivery office. In 1874 it was made payable at mailing office exclusively, and a still more important change was made in the reduction of the rate on such matter to only 2 cents per pound or fraction thereof.

Stamps and stamped envelopes were first introduced in 1851, the registry of valuable letters in 1855, the carrier delivery system in 1863, the money-order system Nov. 1, 1864, the postal-cards, at 1 cent each, in 1872.

The foreign postal rates not being subject to the will of this government only, but being a matter of international agreement, will be treated in a separate article.

STEAM PLOWS.

Webster City, Iowa.

When and where were steam plows first used? How are they constructed, and how many acres will they plow per hour?

H. C. B.

Answer.—An apparatus for steam plowing was first patented in the United States Nov. 19, 1833, by E. C. Bellinger, of South Carolina. It was not received with sufficient favor by farmers or planters to encourage the manufacture of the machines. In England, Francis Moor took out a patent as early as 1769 for an engine to plow, harrow, and do other farm work without the aid of horses. Several other attempts at inventing steam plows were made, but all to no practical purpose, until 1810, when a Major Pratt patented a steam-plowing apparatus, employing two engines stationed on opposite headlands, and drawing plows by means of endless chains or ropes. An improved form of this machine was patented by Mr. Heathcote, M. P., in 1832, which is said to be the first that was ever worked successfully in the field. Alexander McRea made improvements on Mr. Heathcote’s machine in 1846 and 1849; still the practical results were insignificant until in 1854, when John Fowler, also of England, brought forward an improvement on the plans of Bellinger, Pratt, and others, since which time various changes and additions have been made, and steam plowing has gone into successful practice on many of the large estates of Great Britain and in the East and West Indies; about 1,500 steam plows being now in use in England alone.

Many attempts to invent a successful traction engine for steam plowing have been made, particularly by Mr. J. Boydell, of England, in 1846, Mr. Calloway and Mr. Pukis, of England, in 1851, and in this country by Joseph W. Fawkes, by Henry Corning in 1850, David Russell in 1855, B. Crawford in 1857, Judd Stevens in 1858, particularly, by Thomas H. Burbridge, of St. Louis, in 1858, and Mr. W. R. Hinsdale, of New York, about 1870, who invented a gang of three plows to go with Messrs. Aveling and Porter’s traction engine, imported from England by the late Mr. A. T. Stewart, to be used on his estate at Garden City, Long Island.

The plan called cable traction, invented in part by Pratt, in part by Bellinger, and improved by Fowler, has been operated with greater success than any other. It consists of a single locomotive engine, of from twelve to fourteen-horse power, with a windlass under the boiler, around which passes a single steel-wire cable, which, by means of hinged clips, lays hold of the cable with a grip proportioned to the strain. This continuous cable, twice the width of the plat to be plowed, passes around a sheave, or pulley-block, fastened to a self-acting anchor placed on the opposite side of the field from the engine. This “anchor” consists of a low truck on four wheels, with sharp, disk edges, which cut so deep into the soil that it will not drag when the traction is applied. A box loaded with stones, or some other weight, on the outer side of this truck keeps it from tilting when the power is applied to the plows. A sheave on the truck gives motion to a drum which winds up another cable attached to a post or anchor in the direction in which the furrows are to succeed each other, so that the machine warps itself along the headland on which it is stationed just as fast as the plowing progresses, keeping at all times directly opposite to the locomotive engine, which is moving down the opposite headland in the same direction. The plows are attached to a balance frame, the especial invention of Mr. Fowler, and are in duplicate, pointing to each other, so that when the set at one end of the frame is at work the opposite set is carried along the cable in the air. The plow frame is hauled from one side of the field to the other, between the engine and the movable anchor, by reversing the action of the windlass. It is adapted to turning from two to eight furrows at once, according to the power of the engine and toughness of the soil. The amount of ground plowed by such a machine varies from three to eight acres a day for a three-furrow gang, according to depth of furrow from twelve inches to four inches. An eight-furrow gang will do a little more than twice this amount of work per day.

For various reasons steam plowing is not practiced to any noticeable extent in the United States, but it is probable that as the advantages of this mode of turning up the soil to a depth not practicable by animal draft, become better understood, and other changes transpire, it will go into successful operation here as it has done in England.

THE “BAD LANDS.”

Eldora, Iowa.

Where is the district of country called the “Bad Lands?” Is it true that it is very remarkable for fossil remains, and that wood or any animal substance, if left there for a short time, becomes petrified?

A. J. P.

Answer.—The “Bad Lands,” or “Mauvaises Terres,” of the old French fur-traders’ dialect, are an extensive barren tract in Dakota, Wyoming, and Northwestern Nebraska, between the North Fork of the Platte and the South Fork of the Cheyenne River—west, south, and southeast of the Black Hills. It lies mostly between the 103d and 105th degrees of longitude, with an area as yet not perfectly defined, but estimated to cover about 60,000 square miles. There are similar lands in the Green River region of which Fort Bridger is the center, and in southeastern Oregon. The following description applies directly to the district named in the question, so commonly known in the Northwest as the “Bad Lands.” They belong to the Miocene period, geologically speaking. “The surface materials are for the most part white and yellowish indurated clays, sands, marls, and occasional thin beds of lime and sandstone.” It is fitly described as one of the most wonderful regions of the globe. It is held by geologists that during the geological period above named a vast fresh water lake system covered this portion of our continent, when the comparatively soft materials which compose the present surface were deposited. As these lakes drained off, after the subsidence of the plains further east, resulting in the formation of the Missouri Valley, the original lake beds were worn into canyons that wind in every conceivable direction. Here and there abrupt, almost perpendicular portions of the ancient beds remain in all imaginable forms, some resembling the ruins of abandoned cities. “Towers, spires, cathedrals, obelisks, pyramids and monuments” of various shapes appear on every side, as far as the eye can range. Says Dr. Hayden, the earliest explorer of this region, “Not unfrequently the rising or setting sun will light up these grand old ruins with a wild, strange beauty, reminding one of a city illuminated in the night, as seen from some high point. The harder layers project from the sides of the canyons with such regularity that they appear like seats of some vast weird amphitheater.” Through all this country rainfall is very light, the earth absorbs the most of what rain does fall, and water and grass are very scanty. The surface-rock is so soft that it disintegrates rapidly, covering the lower grounds in many places to a depth of several feet with a soft, powdery soil unsuited to vegetation, into which animals sink as in snow, while when wet it becomes a stiff mud of impassable depth. The fitness of the Dakota name for this region, signifying a land hard to travel over, cannot be called in question. These lands are plainly unsuited for agriculture, and with rare exceptions, here and there, are of little value for grazing purposes. But they are one of the most astonishing treasuries of fossil remains to be found anywhere. The soft clayey deposits are in some places literally filled with the bones of extinct species of the horse, rhinoceros, elephant, hog, camel, a deer that strongly resembled a hog, saber-toothed lions, and other marvelous creatures, which have rendered this section of the earth a study of the highest interest to geologists of all lands. Fossil trees and shrubs and fruits abound here. All these petrifactions are the result, in part, of conditions that do not now exist in the same degree, and required no one can tell how long. The soft clays of this region and the climate are still peculiarly conducive to petrifying animal and vegetable substances, but this process requires many years to convert such substances to stone.

GRAIN PRICES AND ENGLISH CORN LAWS.

Listowel, Can.

What was the price of grain in England for a few years preceding and following the repeal of the corn laws?

H. Martinson.

Answer.—From 1835 to 1855 the average prices in England of wheat, barley, and oats, per imperial quarter of eight bushels, were as follows. The corn laws were repealed in 1846.

Wheat, Barley, Oats,

Years. s. d. s. d. s. d.

1835 39 4 29 11 22 0

1836 48 6 32 10 23 1

1837 55 10 30 4 23 1

1838 64 7 31 9 22 5

1839 70 8 39 6 25 11

1840 66 4 36 5 25 8

1841 64 4 32 10 22 5

1842 47 3 27 6 19 3

1843 50 1 29 6 18 4

1844 51 3 33 8 20 7

1845 50 10 31 8 22 6

1846 54 8 32 8 23 8

1847 69 9 44 2 28 8

1848 50 6 31 6 20 6

1849 44 3 27 9 17 6

1850 40 3 23 6 16 5

1851 38 6 24 9 18 7

1852 40 9 28 6 19 1

1853 53 3 33 2 21 0

1854 72 5 36 0 27 11

1855 74 8 34 9 27 5

Reckoning the pound sterling at its present value at the United States Custom House, it appears from the above table that an imperial bushel of wheat was worth $1.18⅓ in England in 1839, $1.51 in 1845 (the year before the corn laws were repealed), $2.10 in 1847, owing to the unusual scarcity in Europe and other special causes; about $1.52 in 1848; that the following year it dropped to $1.22; and that in 1855, owing to the Crimean war and other influences, it rose to $2.25. The price continued to decline after 1855 until it reached $1.33 in 1859. Then the opening of our civil war sent prices up temporarily, but even before it closed they dropped to the lowest point touched since the corn laws were repealed, viz., 40s 2d per quarter, or $1.20 per bushel—still a shade higher than the price in 1839, six years before the repeal. The good effects of that repeal must be looked for in other matters than in the reduction of prices of grain: in the general revival of manufacturing industries, the increase of the volume of trade, better wages, and many other items of prosperity.

HOW “SCALPERS” MAKE MONEY.

Glasgow, Ohio.

1. How can “scalpers” sell tickets at lower rates than railroad companies? 2. Did Senator Wade vote for the impeachment of President Johnson?

D. M. McIntosh.

Answer.—The following are some of the many ways in which “scalpers” or ticket-brokers supply themselves with tickets that they can afford to sell at a reduction from the regular prices and still make a profit: 1. They purchase at a discount partly-used through tickets between the large cities, from travelers getting off at intermediate cities and way stations. As the fares between the prominent Eastern and Western railroad centers are usually proportionately lower than to way stations, where there is no competition, travelers often find that they can purchase through tickets at such prices as make it more economical for them to get such tickets and sell the unused mileage to the scalpers, even at a considerable discount, than to pay full way-passenger rates. Second—During excursions many persons use but half of a ticket, and sell the “return” to the “scalpers” at a discount on full rates. Third—In railroad wars they can buy quantities of tickets cheap to retail later, the railroad companies selling tickets in large quantities at such times to speculators, who transfer them to “scalpers” to sell at their convenience, when the war is ended and rates have increased. Fourth—Sometimes, while a railroad company is bound by contract not to sell at less than a specified rate, it will offer to “scalpers” a commission large enough to enable them to undersell the regular ticket agents, who are bound by the agreements entered into between railroad companies to sell only at fixed prices. 2. He did.

LIBERIA.

Vinton, Iowa.

Please give the principal facts in the history of Liberia.

A Reader.

Answer.—The negro republic of Liberia owes its origin and much of its prosperity to American philanthropy and enterprise. Dec. 31, 1816, a body of energetic men organized themselves into the American Colonization Society, with Henry Clay for President, their aim being to establish an African colony for freed negroes. Not until six years later did they succeed in inducing the African princes of Guinea to favor their plan; but in 1821 a treaty was concluded by which they obtained a tract of land 500 miles long and 50 miles wide on the grain coast of Upper Guinea. Thereupon the society began at once the exportation of colonists. To each man was given 30 acres, together with the means for cultivating the land. The first town was Monrovia. The form of government adopted was that of the United States, and the country is universally recognized as an independent republic. Since 1847, when the protection of the United States was withdrawn, Liberia has enjoyed a certain prosperity, since more schools and churches have been established in proportion to the population than in Great Britain or America. But as to wealth and political influence it has failed. Only about 19,000 negroes have emigrated from our country, but surrounding tribes have been added gradually to their territory, and the present population is estimated to number 1,068,000, of whom about 18,000 are Americo-Liberians. About 50,000 have learned the English language and 3,000 are Christians. The chief products are sugar, palm oil, cocoa, cotton, coffee, arrow-root, and rice.

THE ARGENTINE CONFEDERATION.

Pilzen, Neb.

Be so kind as to name the States composing the Argentine Confederation, their areas and population, and a few of the chief facts as to the government and condition of the country.

Vesper.

Answer.—The Argentine Confederation is composed of a group of fourteen States or Provinces, and four Territories, whose population, according to the census of 1869, and estimated areas are as follows:

Provinces— Areas. Population.

Buenos Ayres, on the coast 63,000 495,107

Santa Fe, on the coast 18,000 89,218

Entre Rios, on the coast 45,000 134,235

Corrientes, on the coast 54,000 129,023

Rioja, Andes 31,500 48,746

Catamarca, Andes 31,500 79,962

San Juan, Andes 29,700 60,319

Mendoza, Andes 54,000 65,413

Cordova, Central 54,000 210,508

San Luis, Central 18,000 53,294

Santiago del Estero, Central 31,500 132,898

Tucuman, Central 13,500 108,904

Salta, Northern 45,000 88,933

Jujuy, Northern 27,000 40,362

Total 515,700 1,736,922

Territories—

Gran Chaco 125,612 45,291

Missiones (1879) 23,932 32,472

Pampas 191,842 21,000

Patagonia 347,400 24,000

Total 688,796 122,763

This shows a total population in 1869 of 1,859,685. The present population is believed to be over 2,500,000. By the treaty of 1881 between the Argentine Confederation and Chili, the latter concedes to the former all the territory east of the crest of the eastern ridge of the Andes, including a small part of Terra del Fuego, and the greater part of Patagonia. The form of government is republican. The President is elected for six years by an electoral college, composed of 133 representatives chosen by the several states. The National Congress is composed of a Senate of twenty-eight members, two from each state, or province, and a house of fifty members, apportioned according to population. There are five ministers, viz.: The Ministers of Foreign Affairs, the Interior, Finance, War, and Education. Each of the provinces has a governor and legislature elected by a popular vote. A large part of this vast country consists of rich, alluvial plains, called pampas, similar to the prairies of this country, with a soil four or five feet thick, formed for the most part, like our prairie soil, by the decay of luxurious vegetation. Immense herds of cattle and sheep are raised on these grand prairies, furnishing the principal exports, hides, tallow, wool, and canned meats. In 1881 the horned cattle were estimated at 18,000,000 head, and the sheep at 100,000,000. The exports of the country amounted to $56,497,423, and the imports to $54,029,545. Most of this trade is between Buenos Ayres—the capital, having a population of about 200,000, and European, chiefly English, ports. Twelve lines of steamers run to Europe, making the trip in an average period of twenty-nine days. The revenue for 1881 was $24,349,450, derived almost wholly from import and export dues. The expenditures amounted to $26,747,480, and the national debt has grown to $107,681,639, a considerable part of which is represented by recent public improvements: railways, bridges, roads, etc. There are now about 1,600 miles of railway and 10,000 miles of telegraph in the country. The laws recognize no difference between natives and foreigners, and of late foreign immigration, mostly from Spain and Italy, has been flowing in at a steadily increasing rate, amounting now to about 50,000 per annum.

THE OLD CALIFORNIA MAIL.

Chicago, Ill.

By what route was the first California and Oregon mail, via the Isthmus, carried; where was it first opened; what was the postage on letters: and what was the distance run?

John Albright.

Answer.—On the 1st day of December, 1848, the Falcon sailed from New York to Chagres, stopping at Havana en route, and carrying the first regularly established United States mail via the Isthmus. From Chagres it was carried up the Chagres River, thence overland to Panama, where it was taken by the California Steampacket Company’s vessels to San Francisco, Cal., and Astoria, Oregon. The distance between New York and Chagres, by this route, was given as 2,860 miles, and from New York to Astoria, 7,500 miles. The postage on letters between places in Oregon and California and places on the Atlantic was 40 cents for each half ounce, or fraction thereof; while local postage between offices in Oregon and California was 12½ cents per single letter.

MEASURING HAY.

White Lake, D. T.

How many cubic feet constitute a ton of hay, and what length of time is required for it to settle sufficiently to make measurement correct?

W. A. Rogers.

Answer.—Measuring is a very crude, unsatisfactory method of estimating the weight of hay. There are times, however, when it is impracticable to use the scales, and a close approximation to the true weight will answer all purposes. Then, by taking into consideration that fine, soft hay will pack more closely than a coarser, stiffer quality, that when cut early in the season it will become more solid than stiff, late-cut hay, that the degree of dryness when stacked will affect the weight, that the compactness of the lower part of a stack or lead is affected by the height, the time it has stood, or distance and kind of roads it has traveled over, it is quite possible for a person of ordinary experience and judgment to make an estimate of the quantity in a load or mow. It is estimated that, with all the above-mentioned conditions at an average, timothy, in stacks of ten feet high and upward, measures about 500 cubic feet to the ton; clear clover, between 600 and 700 cubic feet; new mown hay, about 675 cubic feet; fine hay, well settled, 450 to 500 cubic feet. To find the cubic feet in a circular stack, multiply the square of the circumference by four one-hundredths (.04) of the height. Below is given a set of rules for computing the number of cubic yards in a ton of hay in the field, stack, or load, which can be easily reduced to cubic feet by multiplying the result in cubic yards by 27:

1. The number of tons of meadow hay in windrows is the quotient of the product of the length, breadth, and height, in yards, divided by 25.

2. To find the number of tons of hay in a mow, divide the product of the length, height, and width by 15, if the stack be well packed. If shallow, and the hay recently stacked, divide by 18, and by any number from 15 to 18 according to the density of the stack. In square or long stacks the number of tons is the quotient of the product of the length of the base, the width, and half the height, in yards, divided by 15.

3. In loads the number of tons of hay is found by multiplying together the length, width, and height, in yards, and dividing the product by 20.

BRAVE BARCLAY’S BRAVE BRIDE.

Chicago, Ill.

The allusion to the British commander in the battle of Lake Erie, made last week in Our Curiosity Shop, when giving the fragment of the popular old song of the war of 1812, reminds me of an incident I have read which goes to show that Captain, afterward Commodore, Barclay, our defeated enemy, was not only a brave but a noble-minded man. He was sadly crippled in that battle, and having been previously engaged to marry a lady of rank and fortune in England, after his return to that country he sent a message to her by a mutual friend, saying that although his love for her was not abated, yet, as he was so badly mutilated, if she desired it, he would release her from her engagement. The noble lady replied “Tell Commodore Barclay that I will marry him if he has only body enough left to hold the soul.”

A Reader.

DEFINITION OF LITERATURE.

Weyauwega, Wis.

What is included under the term “Literature?” Is all prose literature?

H. L. A.

Answer.—It would be difficult to improve upon the definition of literature in Webster, quarto edition: “1. Learning; acquaintance with letters or books. 2. The collective body of literary productions, embracing the entire results of knowledge and fancy preserved in writing; also the whole body of writing upon a given subject, as the literature of biblical literature, of chemistry, etc. 3. Belles-lettres, or the class of writings distinguished for beauty or style of expression—as poetry, essays, or history—in distinction from scientific treatises and works on positive knowledge.” Which of the above senses is intended must be judged from the subject and context. Webster further says: “Literature, in its widest sense, embraces all compositions, except those on the positive sciences, mathematics, etc. It is usually confined, however, to belles-lettres, or works of taste and sentiment, as poetry, eloquence, history, etc., excluding abstract discussions and mere erudition. A man of literature is one who is versed in the belles-lettres; a man of learning excels in what is taught in the schools, and has a wide extent of knowledge, especially in respect to the past; a man of erudition is one who is skilled in the more recondite branches of learned inquiry.” The perspicuity of the above definitions leaves nothing obscure. Prose is the common language of men, in distinction from verse. All of literature that is not in verse may be classed as prose, but so may ordinary social and business correspondence, text-books of science, court records, State statutes, and city ordinances, and much else which is plainly excluded from literature by the definitions given above.

“OLD GRIMES.”

Marion, Ind.

Your correspondent, C. N. H., of Chicago, says: “For several years I have seen notices, or sketches, of ‘Old Grimes,’ generally without age, date, and other items to identify the real ‘Old Grimes’ as I knew him. Ephraim Grimes was born about 1770, in Connecticut.” C. N. H. further states, after giving something of his history, that he finally “landed at Fort Covington, N. Y., where he remained, making shingles, until about 1834, when his son came and took him to Connecticut.”

Now, I wish simply to say that I am sure that Ephraim “Grimes,” born in 1770, and living and making shingles in 1834, was not, as C. N. H. declares, the real “Old Grimes” about whom was composed the song:

I heard this old song sung when I was a lad going to school, about 1825. So that if “Old Grimes” was dead in 1825 your correspondent is mistaken in stating that he has seen and known the “real Old Grimes.” Again, the real “Old Grimes” is said, in the rhyme, to be a “good old soul;” but C. N. H. states that “Ephraim Grimes was a dealer in counterfeit money, was convicted, imprisoned, and had the tip of his right ear taken off and was banished the State.” Not a very “good old soul,” was he?

H. H. H.

Answer.—The article above referred to, as from “C. N. H.,” was not published in Our Curiosity Shop. Beyond doubt the subject of the rhyme quoted was not the Grimes who died in Connecticut in 1834. The original Grimes was first immortalized by the English poet Crabbe, who was born in 1754 and died in 1832. Grimes was the subject of one of his tales in rhyme. Later, the American poet Albert G. Greene, of Rhode Island, wrote the humorous ballad which has rendered “Old Grimes” familiar to every American boy and girl.

LORD CHANCELLOR AND CHIEF JUSTICE.

Mattoon, Ill.

What are the duties of the Lord Chancellor of England, and of the Lord Chief Justice? Tell something of the courts over which they preside.

Reader.

Answer.—The Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain is the highest legal authority in the kingdom, the confidential adviser of the sovereign, and in rank precedes all except the members of the royal family and the Archbishop of Canterbury. He is a political officer, and one of the Cabinet, the President of the Supreme Court of Judicature, and also a member of the Privy Council, a Court of Appeal composed of the Lord Chancellor, the Judges of the High Court of Justice, and four other judges. He is created without writ or patent, by the simple delivery of the great seal, of which he becomes the keeper, and during his term of office he acts as prolocutor for the sovereign in Parliament.

The High Court has five divisions: The Queen’s Bench—the Supreme Court of Common Law—presided over by the Lord Chief Justice of England, assisted by four “puisne justices;” the Chancery, presided over by the Master of Rolls and three vice chancellors; the Common Pleas, by the Lord Chief Justice of Common Pleas, and four “puisne justices;” the Court of Exchequer, by the Lord Chief Baron and four “puisne barons;” the Court for Probate, Divorce, and Admiralty cases, by a president, judge, and admiralty advocate, Queen’s proctor, and admiralty proctor.

RIVERS, RAILROADS, AND MINES.

Berlin, Neb.

Please to give the coal area, product of gold and silver, and number of miles of river navigation and railroads in the United States and in other countries.

Peter Thomas.

Answer.—The coal area of the world is distributed as follows, according to a late estimate made by the geologist Le Conte:

Square Miles.

United States 192,000

British America 18,000

Great Britain 12,000

Spain 4,000

France 2,000

Germany 1,800

Belgium 518

Rest of Europe 100,000

China 2,000

Japan 5,000

The estimated production of gold and silver from 1800 to 1880 is, according to “The West in 1880,” as follows:

U.S. $1,780,000,000

Australia 1,260,000,000

Spanish A $900,000,000

Other coun’ts 330,000,000

The railroads of the world were distributed thus in 1880:

Square Miles.

United States 93,000

Canada 6,145

Rest of N. America 1,738

Germany 21,275

Great Britain 17,696

France 15,375

Russia 14,698

Austria 12,160

Spain and Portugal 5,260

Scandinavia 5,167

Italy 5,096

Belgium and Holland 3,910

Turkey, etc 1,870

Switzerland 1,650

South America 6,830

Africa 5,897

Australia 4,350

India 8,611

Rest of Asia 1,203

We have not within reach the number of miles of river navigation, except by the tedious process of adding the navigable waters of all the rivers and streams of the world. It may be said, however, that the corps of United States civil engineers has estimated that there are 20,000 miles of navigable waters, or waters that can easily be rendered navigable, in the Mississippi system, and in the St. Lawrence system there are about 15,000 miles more, under the control of the United States alone and with Canada.

COPYRIGHTED ILLUSTRATIONS.

Chicago, Ill.

Is it right or permissible for one paper to copy engravings or cuts appearing in another paper or magazine? If not, why?

Constant Reader.

Answer.—Not if the paper, magazine, or book is copyrighted in this country, as most American illustrated papers, magazines, and books are. The copyright law is intended to give artists and publishers exclusive control of their productions. The right course to take to get the privilege of using copyrighted works of any kind is to negotiate with the publishers, who will, in some cases, make very moderate terms, particularly for the use of wood-cuts and other engravings that are several years old. There is no law against pirating the illustrations published in European periodicals, and this is done in this country by photo-engraving and other means, to an unlimited extent. Last winter an enterprising contemporary astonished all Chicagoans by loading our newsboys with illustrations of the still flaming ruins of the Newhall House, Milwaukee, before noon of the day of the conflagration. It turned out that the illustration was a photo-engraving of the ruins of a London theater, pirated from the London Illustrated News.

CHRISTADELPHIANS.

Pewaukee, Wis.

Please give a description of the sect called Christadelphians.

H. G. Purinton.

Answer.—This sect is one lately organized in America. The principles of the church are thus briefly stated: The Old and New Testaments are equally important; those who love God in this life He will restore to immortality; others He will annihilate; there is no personal devil; Christ is the son of God, deriving from Him moral perfection, but from his mother a human nature. He appeared upon the earth as a prophet; He now mediates between God and man as a priest; he will again appear on earth to reign as a king of the house of David.

A BEAUTIFUL HYMN.

Ann Arbor, Mich.

The lines asked for in The Inter Ocean of Nov. 3, beginning:

“Those everlasting gardens, etc.”

are from the concluding stanza of Sir John Bowring’s hymn, “From the Recesses of a Lowly Spirit.” I found it as No. 2,546, in Foster’s Cyclopedia of Poetical Illustrations. It is set to a beautiful chant in Baker’s Church Music.

R. B. Pope.

THE GLACIAL PERIOD.

Midland, Wis.

How long has it been since the “Glacial Period” ended? How far south did the glaciers extend.

D. W. Brown.

Answer.—It would be a rash geologist who would undertake to say how many years it has been since the Glacial Period. Geological periods cannot be reckoned by years with any approach to certainty. Even the dates of geological events in the “Recent,” or “Human Period,” immediately following the Glacial Period, cannot be arithmetically computed. The order of their succession is about all that can be established with reasonable certainty. Such events belong, practically speaking, to an era of which it has been said: “Then time was not.” In America evidences of glacial action extend as far south, at least, as Washington and the Ohio River; in Europe to 50 degrees north latitude, and in some places down to 45 degrees.

LOUIS PHILIPPE.

Argyle, Minn.

In what year did Louis Philippe ascend the throne? Give a brief history of his life and death.

J. G. Legrange.

Answer.—Louis Philippe, son of Louis Philippe Joseph, Duke of Orleans, was born at Paris in 1773, and, having held the title of Lieutenant of the Kingdom since the abdication of Charles X., as a result of the revolution of July, 1830 ascended the throne of France Aug. 9, 1830. During the first revolution, in which he fought on the side of the people, he became suspected of aspiring to the throne, and, his arrest having been ordered, he sought refuge for himself and sister in Switzerland. There for a time he taught under the assumed name of Chabaud-Latour. Later he visited Northern Europe and America, and in 1800 settled at Twickenham, near London. Upon the restoration of the royal family, he returned to Paris, and recovered his estates. Though coldly received by his suspicious kinsman, Louis XVIII., he was extremely popular elsewhere, and in recognition of his plain manners and attention to the bourgeoisie he received the title “Citizen King.” His reign was prosperous, and his wise government did much to restore France to a state of quiet industry. But suddenly the cry arose for a reform in the electoral system, and receiving no friendly response from the King or ministry, the people grew rebellious. The King used military force, the people became their own army, and Feb. 24, 1848, Louis Philippe fled from Paris, with his faithful minister, Guizot. He and his queen were concealed in Normandy for a few days, and then passed on a British steamboat to Newhaven, Eng., as Mr. and Mrs. Smith. He died quietly at Claremont in 1850.

POSTAL EXPENDITURES NORTH AND SOUTH.

Nashville, Tenn.

It was stated not long ago, in Our Curiosity Shop, that the postal expenses in the Southern States have long exceeded the postal revenue from the same States, while in the Northern States the opposite is true. I challenge you to show that this was the case before the late civil war.

A Confederate.

Answer.—That is not at all hard to show. It has been the case pretty much ever since the government was formed. In the Northern States the postal revenue has almost always been in excess of the expenditures, while the reverse has been true in the South. In 1846-7 the transportation of the mails throughout New England cost $256,464, while the postal revenue collected in those States amounted to $443,648. The expense of mail transportation in New York and Pennsylvania was only $384,719, while the postal revenue collected amounted to nearly double that amount, say $746,933. In Virginia, Maryland, the Carolinas, and Georgia, during the same time, the expenditures aggregated $770,044, while the amount received for postage was but $311,569, or less than half as much. At the same time Alabama paid in less than $50,000, while the expenditures were over $136,000; and Texas returned but $3,246 for an expenditure of $24,102; though Wisconsin, in which the expenditure reached but $15,043, returned to the general postoffice $56,703, and Iowa, then in its infancy, came within less than $500 of meeting all the cost of her postal service. This is a fair sample of how it was before the war.

WEALTHIEST STATES.

Chicago, Ill.

Will you kindly state in Our Curiosity Shop which State in the Union is considered to be the richest? Say if Pennsylvania does not rank the highest in the aggregate of products. If not, what State does? and what is Pennsylvania’s rank?

Enquirer.

Answer.—According to the census of 1880 the four States showing the highest assessed valuation of real estate and personal property are: New York, $2,651,940,006; Pennsylvania, $1,683,459,016; Massachusetts, $1,584,756,802; Ohio, $1,534,360,508. Assessed valuations are so far from being the true values of property, and there is such divergency in the practice of the various States—some assessing at nearly the true value, others at scarcely 25 per cent of it, and most of them at rates ranging between 40 per cent and 50 per cent of it—that there is no great amount of satisfaction in a comparison based on these valuations. For example, the total assessed valuation of personal property for the State of New York is $322,657,647, when it is generally believed that four men, Mr. Vanderbilt, Jay Gould, Russel Sage, and Augustus Belmont, together, own very nearly this amount in bonds, mortgages, and other personal property.

As to the value of their chief products, the States holding the highest rank are as follows:

Number of Value of

States. establishments. products.

New York 43,739 $1,080,696,596

Pennsylvania 31,232 744,818,445

Massachusetts 14,352 631,135,284

Illinois 14,549 414,864,673

Ohio 20,699 348,298,390

In agriculture: Value of Value of all

States. live stock. farm products.

Illinois $132,437,762 $203,980,137

New York 117,868,283 178,025,695

Ohio 103,707,730 156,777,152

Iowa 124,715,103 136,103,473

Pennsylvania 84,242,877 129,760,476

In mining: Value of product of Value of

States. precious metals. non-precious metals

Pennsylvania $65,559,576

Colorado $19,249,172 1,041,350

California 18,301,828

Nevada 17,318,909

Michigan 25,858 14,279,437

Illinois 8,911,279

Ohio 8,077,488

From the above it appears that in the aggregate value of their agricultural, manufacturing, and mining products, New York leads all the other States, with a total of over $1,381,000,000; Pennsylvania follows, with $1,024,000,000; Illinois marches third, with over $760,000,000; Massachusetts fourth, with over $676,000,000; and Ohio fifth, with nearly $617,000,000.

PENSION-ATTORNEY’S FEES.

Tipton, Iowa.

Is it true that a pension attorney cannot lawfully charge more than $10 for his services in procuring a pension? If so, when was this law passed? It used to be $25: at least that was what pensioners around here paid.

Old Soldier.

Answer.—Prior to June 20, 1878, it was lawful for an attorney to make a contract with a pension claimant for $25 as a fee, which amount was paid by the Commissioner of Pensions, or on his order, when the pension was allowed, out of the first pension payment. It was wholly contingent upon the successful prosecution of the claim. In 1878 Mr. Bentley, then Commissioner of Pensions, arrayed himself against claim attorneys, and procured the enactment of the present law, approved June 10, 1878, making it unlawful for an attorney to receive a greater sum than $10 for his services in procuring a pension. This amount the attorney can collect from the applicant and keep, whether the claim is allowed or not. It is doubtful whether Mr. Bentley’s well intended endeavors to benefit applicants through this law have not resulted in more harm than good, as hundreds, if not thousands, of applicants have paid attorneys this $10 in advance, and therefore the latter, having nothing more to gain, have merely filed the applications, and left the cases to take the regular red-tape course, and be thrown out for informalities or for want of a little additional testimony, which defects the attorneys would have strived to cure if the fee had remained at $25, and been wholly contingent on the allowance of the pensions.

HEADLIGHT OIL.

Alden, Iowa.

Please give the composition and properties of “headlight oil,” such as is used by the railroad companies in lanterns and headlights.

P. M. Edwards.

Answer.—Strictly speaking, headlight oil of the first quality is what its discoverer, Joshua Merrill, named mineral sperm. It is an illuminating oil intermediate between kerosene and neutral lubricating oil, the specific gravity of kerosene being .804, that of mineral sperm .847, and that of lubricating oil .883. The boiling points of these are respectively, 350 deg. Fahr., 425 deg., and 575 deg. It is volatile only at very high temperature, therefore, and cannot be ignited at less than 300 deg. Fahr., which is one reason why it is preferred to kerosene, particularly on railroad cars and locomotives and ocean steamers. The headlight oils in common use do not conform strictly to the above descriptions, being, some of them, only a fine quality of kerosene. The chemical constituents of refined petroleum are hydrogen and carbon, in the proportions of 75 of the former to 85 of the latter. We have not the precise chemical formula for headlight oil.

UNITED STATES NATIONAL CEMETERIES.

Bucyrus, Ohio.

How many United States National cemeteries are there, and where are they? What salaries are paid to superintendents? Are they kept in good condition?

Old Soldier.

Answer.—The National cemeteries consecrated to the remains of the fallen patriots of the late civil war are all well cared for by salaried superintendents, and are examined from time to time by competent inspectors, whose duties require them to report any neglect. Every grave is marked with a headstone; the grounds are handsomely laid out; the walks, winding among the green swarded lots, are neatly graveled; and shade trees, ornamental shrubs and flower beds are tastefully arranged to beautify these “God’s acres,” sacred to the Nation’s dead. The cemeteries west of the Missouri contain the graves of a good many soldiers who have died since the rebellion, in the regular army service on the frontiers. There is an United States National cemetery near the City of Mexico, consecrated to the gallant fellows who fell at Chapultepec, and Contreras, and in other brilliant actions of the war with Mexico. The locality of the awful massacre of General Custer and his entire command by the Indians, led by Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse, is marked by a National cemetery and a suitable monument. The following is a full list of the National cemeteries, with the salaries of their superintendents:

Cemeteries. Salaries.

Mobile. Ala. $840

Little Rock, Ark. 900

Fort Smith, Ark. 840

Fayetteville, Ark 780

Soldiers’ Home, D. C. 900

Battle Ground, D. C. 720

Barrancas, Fla. 780

St. Augustine. Fla.

Andersonville, Ga. 900

Marietta, Ga. 900

Camp Butler, Ill. 780

Mound City, Ill. 900

Quincy, Ill.

Rock Island, Ill.

Crown Hill, Ind. 720

New Albany, Ind. 780

Fort Gibson, I. T. 780

Keokuk, Iowa 780

Ft. Leavenworth, Kan. 840

Fort Scott, Kan. 840

Cave Hill, Ky 720

Camp Nelson, Ky. 900

Danville. Ky.

Lebanon, Ky. 720

Lexington, Ky. 840

Logan’s Cross Roads, Ky. 840

Mill Springs, Ky.

Alexander, La. 840

Baton Rouge, La. 480

Chalmette, La. 900

Port Hudson, La. 900

Annapolis, Md. 780

Antietam, Md. 900

Laurel, Md.

Loudon Park, Md. 720

City of Mexico, Mex. 900

Corinth, Miss. 900

Natchez, Miss. 900

Vicksburg, Miss. 900

Jefferson Barracks, Mo. 900

Jefferson City, Mo. 780

Springfield, Mo. 780

Custer Battlefield, M. T.

Fort McPherson, Neb. 720

New Berne, N. C. 840

Raleigh, N. C. 840

Salisbury, N. C. 900

Wilmington, N. C. 840

Beverly, N. J. 720

Finn’s Point, N. J. 720

Cypress Hills, N. J. 720

Woodlawn, N. J.

Gettysburg, Pa. 900

Philadelphia, Pa. 840

Florence, S. C. 840

Beaufort, S. C. 900

Chattanooga, Tenn. 900

Ft. Donelson, Tenn. 780

Knoxville, Tenn. 840

Memphis, Tenn. 900

Nashville, Tenn. 900

Pittsburg Landing, Tenn. 900

Stone River, Tenn. 900

San Antonio, Texas 720

Brownsville, Texas 840

Alexandria, Va. 840

Arlington, Va. 900

Balls Bluff, Va.

City Point, Va. 840

Cold Harbor, Va. 780

Culpeper, Va. 840

Danville, Va. 780

Fort Harrison, Va. 720

Fredericksburg, Va. 900

Glendale, Va. 720

Hampton, Va. 900

Poplar Grove, Va. 900

Seven Pines, Va. 720

Richmond, Va. 900

Staunton, Va. 720

Winchester, Va. 720

Yorktown, Va. 780

Grafton. W. Va. 720

In all, there are 315,555 graves under the supervision of the Quartermaster General, according to a late report, only 172,409 of which had been identified.

A TRULY REMARKABLE EGG.

Champaign, Ill.

Sir: Having read a short time since in your columns an account of a “Wisconsin hen” having laid a double egg, I enclose the following:

“About fifteen years ago a Mr. Green, of Toledo, Ill., had a hen which laid an egg as large as a goose egg. Inside the outer shell was another perfect egg inclosed in a shell, and between the two shells, two yolks and two whites. It is needless to remark that the hen died in a few hours. There are a number of people now living in or about Toledo who can vouch for the truth of this story.

L. W. A.”

FOREIGN POSTAGE.

Chicago, Ill.

Please state the rates of postage between this country and Europe as far back as possible, but particularly the rates in force twenty years ago.

J. M.

Answer.—It is not easy to ascertain the rates of postage between the United States and each of the States of Europe for the whole period of our history, nor would the information repay the research. The Whig Almanac for 1849 gives the following rates of foreign postage prevailing at that time: Letters, per half ounce, to Bremen, paid or unpaid, if mailed at New York, 24 cents; within 300 miles of New York, 29 cents; over 300 miles, 34 cents. If to Prussia, 12 cents additional; to Hamburg, 6 cents additional; to Austria, 18 cents; Bavaria, 22 cents; Switzerland, 21 cents; Egypt, 37 cents—each additional, per quarter-ounce letter. To Denmark, 22 cents; Sweden, 39 cents; St. Petersburg, Russia, 24 cents—each additional, per half ounce. To British West India Islands, by British West India mail steamers, 25 cents per half ounce; to Martinique, Havana, Porto Rico, St. Thomas, or other islands not British, 50 cents; to Chagres, Panama, Valparaiso, or any port on the Pacific coast, 75 cents. The same year the postal difficulties with Great Britain and her colonies were adjusted by the adoption of a uniform rate of sea and port postage not to exceed 24 cents, the inland rates (5 cents to 10 cents here and 2 cents to 4 cents in Britain) being added. In 1860 the following foreign postal rates prevailed for one-half ounce; to France and Algeria, by French mails, 30 cents; to the German states, 30 cents; to Great Britain, 24 cents, except from Washington, Oregon, and California, (29 cents); to Bremen, 10 cents; to Hamburg, 10 cents; to Frankfort or Wurtemburg, 22 cents; to Luxemburg, 25 cents; to Holland and the Netherlands, 42 cents; to Austria, 30 cents; to Russia, 29 cents; to Prussia, 30 cents; to the Papal States and Tuscany, 35 cents; to Spain, 42 cents; to Portugal, 42 cents; to Denmark, 35 cents; to Sweden, 42 cents; to Norway, 46 cents; to the West India Islands, (not British) 34 cents for less than 2,500 miles, and 44 cents for more than 2,500 miles: to the British West India Islands, 10 cents for 2,500 miles or less, and 20 cents for any greater distance; to the two Sicilies, 30 cents; to Parma and Modena, 33 cents; to Lombardy, 33 cents; to the Sardinian States, 38 cents. In 1865 the postage was about the same; but after the formation of the postal union, in 1874, an uniform postage was adopted of 5 cents on prepaid, and 10 cents on unpaid letters, weighing not more than one-half ounce, between all members of the union; newspapers not exceeding 4 ounces, 2 cents; books and all other printed matter and patterns of merchandise, not exceeding 8¾ ounces, at the rate of 2 cents per 2 ounces; postal cards, 2 cents.

HIGH TARIFF AND CHEAP GOODS.

Oskaloosa, Iowa.

In a recent political dispute the free-trader declared that the consumer pays all the tariff. How can the protectionist answer this?

Inquirer.

Answer.—This question has been answered, substantially, several times before, but the following extract from the speech made before the Fair Trade Congress, Leamington, by Robert P. Porter, formerly editor of Our Curiosity Shop, author of “The West in 1880,” and member of the late United States Tariff Commission, is so much in point that it is given here:

“In the cotton industry need I say that we have practically robbed England of 50,000,000 of customers, increased the number employed in our mills to 200,000 persons, and, in the last two decades, doubled the value of the product. Imports of cotton goods have steadily declined from 227,000,000 yards in 1860 to 23,000,000 yards in 1881, while exports reached the same year 150,000,000 yards. Has the consumer been injured? No! With the exception of a few special lines which we do not manufacture, cotton goods are as cheap, and even cheaper, with us than in England. A more remarkable progress has been made in the silk industry, which before the Morrill tariff gave employment to 5,000 persons; in 1880 it employed over 30,000, a six-fold increase. The importation of silk goods has remained stationary since 1860 at about £6,000,000, the production of our own mills increasing from £1,200,000 in 1860 to over £8,000,000 in 1880. Yet the cost of the manufactured goods to the consumer, estimated on a gold basis, has steadily declined at a much greater rate than the cost of the raw material.”

Further on Mr. Potter says: “I have this year made a careful comparison of the average earnings of labor in the important branches of industry in Great Britain, Germany, France, Belgium, and Holland, with the average earnings of the same class of workers in the United States. In prosecuting this inquiry I have visited the industrial centers of these countries, and am prepared to further substantiate my conclusions with details if necessary. I find that in the United States wages are from 60 to 150 per cent higher in the various industrial pursuits than they are in the mentioned European countries. At the same time the difference between the purchasing power of a dollar in free trade and protection countries is absurdly exaggerated by the Cobden Clubites. In Germany and France (under protective tariffs), especially in the former country, the workmen can live far cheaper than in England. The purchasing power of a dollar, so far as the wants of the working man is concerned, when the cost and quality of food is taken into consideration, is about the same in the United States as in England, though wages are often 100 per cent higher in America.”

HALBIG, THE SCULPTOR.

Chicago, Ill.

Please give a sketch of John Halbig, the sculptor.

Otto F. H. Masch.

Answer.—John Halbig was born in Bavaria in 1814, and educated at the Munich Academy, where he is now professor of statuary. Since 1846 he has modeled more than 1,000 works, chiefly busts. The most noted is the lions at the Gate of Victory, Munich. In 1873 the King of Germany ordered him to make a colossal group representing the crucifixion, to be placed on a lofty mountain peak overlooking Oberammergau, the village where the “Passion Play” is so religiously represented.

HELEN AND THE TROJAN WAR.

Dana, Ill.

1. Will Our Curiosity Shop tell me how to pronounce the name of the President of France, and what his salary is? 2. Who was Helen? I heard a gentleman say that, when looking at a certain lady, he could easily believe in Helen’s smile and the siege of Troy. Please tell me about her.

Ignoramus.

Answer.—1. Gravy. His salary is 600,000 francs ($120,000), and an additional 300,000 francs for household expenses. 2. Helen, according to tradition, was the daughter of Zeus and Leda, the wife of Tyndareus, King of Sparta, and was so extremely beautiful that at the age of 10 she was stolen by two mighty Greeks, from whom her brothers, Castor and Pollux, rescued her. Later Tyndareus bound her suitors to the number of about thirty to save her, in case of another abduction. She became the wife of Menelaus, King of Lacedæmon, but, during his absence from home, Paris, a prince from Troy, in Asia Minor, induced her to elope with him. Thereupon Menelaus called upon the thirty to fulfill their oath, and with a large army they sailed against Troy, laid siege to it, and were victorious after ten years. There are conflicting stories of her fate.

WHEAT IN OHIO AND NEBRASKA.

Triadelphia, Ohio.

Which years, the odd or even, have produced the most wheat in Ohio for the last ten years? State same for Nebraska.

P. M. P.

Answer.—The following table, compiled from the reports of the Agricultural Department, Washington, gives the estimated wheat crops of Ohio and Nebraska for the ten years closing with 1882, in bushels. How much support these figures give to the notion that the even years bear better crops than the odd ones, or vice versa, the reader can estimate for himself:

Ohio Av. yield Nebraska Av. yield

Year. wheat crop. per acre. wheat crop. per acre.

1882 45,453,600 14,947,200

1881 38,520,000 13.3 13,840,000 7.1

1880 49,790,475 17.3 12,922,677 8.5

1879 36,591,750 19.3 13,043,590 11.3

1878 33,120,000 18.0 13,872,900 13.1

1877 26,000,000 15.0 5,640,000 15.0

1876 21,750,000 11.8 4,330,000 11.5

1875 17,500,000 9.5 3,400,000 9.8

1874 25,993,000 15.0 3,619,000 11.6

1873 18,567,000 12.0 3,584,000 15.5

Certainly, in the case of Ohio, the aggregate yield of even years surpassed that of the odd years, and the same was true in all but one pair of years for Nebraska. As regards the average yield per acre, the even years were not so uniformly better than the odd ones, and this is the only test measure. But the following table, from the same source, showing the average yield of wheat per acre for the whole United States, for the ten years from 1872 to 1881 inclusive, is calculated to explode the notion that the oddness or evenness of the year makes any difference:

Av. yield

Year. per acre.

1872 11.9

1873 12.7

1874 12.3

1875 11.0

1876 10.4

1877 13.9

1878 13.1

1879 13.8

1880 13.1

1881 10.1

One of the most interesting facts to note in the above table is the rapid increase of wheat raising in Ohio, which is due in large degree to the improved methods in farming—deep plowing, use of fertilizers, tile drainage, and so forth. Another matter worthy of special notice is the large increase of the Nebraska wheat crop, owing to the steady extension of the cultivated area of that State. The falling off in the average yield per acre points to the lesson that Nebraska must learn from the example of Ohio—the necessity for improved cultivation as the country grows older.

DEMOCRATIC PARTY.

Hillsboro, Iowa.

When was the Democratic party first organized? How long did it ever hold unbroken control of the government?

W. N. Gales.

Answer.—The birth of the Democratic party, or “Jacksonian Democracy,” as it used to be called, dates from the disruption of the old Democratic-Republican party, consequent upon the election of John Quincy Adams as President Soon after the Inauguration of Adams in 1825 the Adams and Clay factions of the Democratic-Republican party separated from it. The Jackson and Calhoun factions rallied around these men, and the Presidential election contest of 1828 was fought on almost purely personal issues. Jackson was elected President over Adams by 178 electoral votes to 83, although the popular vote stood 647,231 for Jackson and 509,097 for Adams. At the same time Calhoun was elected Vice President by 171 electoral votes to 83 for Richard Rush, of Pennsylvania. Before the next Presidential canvass Jackson and Calhoun had become inimical to each other; the “Jackson men” carried the day, and, through the first National Democratic Convention—held in Baltimore in May, 1832—nominated Jackson for re-election, and Van Buren in place of Calhoun for Vice President. Dating from Jackson’s first term, the Democrats held unbroken control of the Executive office until the end of Van Buren’s term, in all twelve years, which is the longest period of consecutive Democratic administration of our Federal Government. The next longest was from March 4, 1853, to the bankruptcy of the National Treasury and the civil war, reached before its close, eight years later.

FIRST WHITE CHILD BORN IN CHICAGO.

Pekin, Ill.

I was born in Chicago, Oct. 1, 1827, and my elder brother tells me there were but four houses there at that time, and two of them belonged to Frenchmen. I claim the honor of being the first white child born at that place. I am the son of Reuben and Hannah Reed.

Levi Reed.

Answer.—The first white child born in Chicago was a girl, Ellen Marion Kinzie, sister of the late Colonel John H. Kinzie. According to the testimony of Mrs. Whistler, wife of Lieut. William Whistler, this was in December, 1804. Mrs. Whistler was the mother of the first white boy born in Chicago, Merriweather Lewis Whistler. He first saluted the light in old Fort Dearborn in the autumn of 1805. He was drowned at the age of 7, at Newport, Ky. Your brother is certainly mistaken as to the number of houses in Chicago in 1827, for a series of reminiscences dictated by the early pioneer, John H. Fonda, quoted in Hurlburt’s “Chicago Antiquities,” says that when Fonda visited Chicago in 1825, though it was then but an Indian agency and trading post, the place contained “about fourteen houses.”

INSTITUTIONS FOR FEEBLE-MINDED CHILDREN.

Evanston, Ill.

What State provisions are there for the benefit of feeble-minded persons? Give the number of the blind, deaf, and feeble-minded in this State.

Catharine Donnovan.

Answer.—According to the report of the Commissioner of Education, the number of idiots and feeble-minded children in Illinois in 1889 was 4,170; of blind, 2,615; of deaf mutes, 2,202. The United States makes no provision for these classes. That is left to State legislation. State institutions for the feeble-minded are located at Syracuse, N. Y.; Columbus, Ohio; Faribault, Minn.; Glenwood, Iowa; Frankfort, Ky., and Lincoln, Ill. At Columbus, Syracuse, and Faribault children are taught the elementary branches, and have various occupations for physical exercise; at Glenwood much attention is given to kindergarten training; at Frankfort, to physical development. In our State institution the children are divided into ten classes, the three highest being graded, and, in addition to the common branches, they are taught vocal music and calisthenics:[;?] also sewing, gardening, and other occupations.

ARTICHOKES.

Juniata, Neb.

Please state the value of artichokes as food for hogs. How should they be raised?

John Cowan.

Answer.—At one time artichokes were supposed to be very watery and injurious food for swine, but a careful analysis has proved that they are not less nutritious than potatoes. In the Western States they grow wild in great quantities, and the roots are greedily devoured by the hogs. The Brazil variety should be extensively cultivated in a well-drained soil, as it is hardy and easily raised. The American Encyclopedia of Agriculture gives the following instructions for cultivating them: “Furrow the ground four feet apart and plant the tubers an inch below the surface and about ten inches apart, covering about two inches. Keep free from weeds with the ordinary two-horse corn-cultivator. Dig in the fall and leave the tubers to be rooted out by the hogs in autumn, winter, and spring. They bear great heat and drought, and are excellent food for horses, cows and sheep in winter if used in connection with food and salt.

UNITED STATES MILITIA.

Chicago, Ill.

What is the total militia force of the United States, organized and unorganized?

N. Snyder.

Answer.—The organized militia force of the United States, according to the latest returns made to the Adjutant General of the United States army, as given in the report of the Chief of Ordnance to the Secretary of War, for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1880, was as follows: Total non-commissioned officers, musicians, and privates, 117,037. Add 145 general officers, 921 general staff officers, 1,605 regimental field and staff officers, 8,869 company officers, and the aggregate is 125,906. Of these, New York had the largest number, 20,280; Arkansas the next largest, 16,377, South Carolina the next, 11,805; Pennsylvania the next, 9,750; Ohio the next, 8,374, and Illinois the next, 7,394. These figures are altered somewhat now, but cannot be given accurately. The number of men subject to military duty, but unorganized, on June 30, 1880, was 6,516,758.

MISSISSIPPI NAVIGATION.

Des Moines, Iowa.

Give your Iowa readers a few facts as to the navigation of the Mississippi River. About what proportion of the time is it closed by ice or on account of low water?

Answer.—Averaged for the nine years from 1865 to 1873, the depth of water below St. Louis was eight feet or over for about one-half the year, and less than four feet not quite three and one-half days a year. The time that navigation was arrested by ice in the ten seasons from 1870 to 1880 averaged thirty-five days a year; and the time that barges could not be loaded to eight feet draft on account of low water or ice, during the seven years ending with 1880, averaged about one hundred and twenty-six days a year. In the canals around the Mississippi rapids and between the Mississippi and the lakes, navigation is suspended above five months each year. To appreciate the significance of the above figures as to depth of water, it must be borne in mind that, where the depth of water is eight feet and over, grain is transported at less than half what it costs when the depth is four feet. There are years when navigation below St. Louis is not obstructed by ice all winter through; as for example, in the winters of 1868-69, 1873-74, 1875-76, while in the rigorous winter of 1877-78 the river was closed at St. Louis seventy days. Between St. Louis and Quincy navigation is obstructed by ice about four months every year, and by low water about thirty-five days more, while between Quincy and St. Paul navigation is practically closed about half of every year either on account of ice or low water.

MILLAIS’ PICTURE OF THE HUGUENOT.

Denver, Col.

Kindly inform us through Our Curiosity Shop what is the significance of the handkerchief in Millais’ picture of “The Huguenot.” I have gone to the limit of my resources and can find no allusion whatever to any such badge.

F. G. Woodbridge.

Answer.—On the eve of the bloody massacre of French Protestants, which commenced in Paris in the dead of night of Aug. 24, 1572, the Duke of Guise, to prevent the assassination by mistake of any of his own party, the Catholics, issued a secret order that every Catholic bind a strip of white linen around his arm, as a badge to be known by. This incident is vividly depicted in Millais’ celebrated painting of “The Huguenot,” where the Catholic maiden, who is aware of this secret order, seeks to save her bold Protestant or “Huguenot” lover by pledging him to wear her handkerchief around his arm until they meet again.

NORTH AMERICAN POULTRY ASSOCIATION.

Fairfield, Iowa.

What is the object of the poultry association, formed in Ohio some time ago? Is it merely for speculative purposes, or has it a public mission to perform? Who are the officers and who can become members?

Poultry Raiser.

Answer.—Probably the organization referred to in the above question is what calls itself the North American Poultry Association. Its declared purpose is “to take united action in the extension of the business of producing poultry and eggs for market, and for the mutual protection and advancement of the interests of producers.” This it proposes to do by showing people that “poultry-raising is more profitable than any other branch of stock-raising;” by keeping its members informed as to the best markets for poultry and eggs at different seasons of the year; by uniting to get the lowest shipping rates; by efforts to protect each other from dishonest poultry dealers or commission men; by imparting to one another useful information as to cures for diseases of fowls, and improvements in feeding and taking care of them. Whether some of the principal members are using this organization for selfish purposes to any reprehensible degree, as has been charged by one or more correspondents, we are not prepared to affirm or deny. Some of them are engaged in raising and selling fancy fowls and eggs at high prices, but as that is one of the declared objects of the association, it may only prove that it is fulfilling its mission. Any one in any part of the United States or Canada who wishes to become a member is invited to send $2 to the Treasurer, with a request that his name be presented to the association for admission to membership, the money to be returned in case he is not elected. In the opinion of some correspondents, the reason for demanding this prepayment is very obscure. Hoping to obtain official enlightenment as to the character of this association, The Inter Ocean addressed an inquiry to W. L. Chamberlain, Secretary of the Ohio State Board of Agriculture, to which he returned the following reply, which renders us unwilling to publish the names and postoffice address of officers of the so-called association:

“Columbus, Ohio, Nov., 1883.—Dear Sir: Yours relative to American Poultry Association, of——, Ohio, to hand. We have no official knowledge of any such association, as no reports from it are made to this department, as there are from all the other various agricultural organizations of the State. Inquiry at the Secretary of State’s office fails to reveal any incorporation of said association. Might also add that we have no personal knowledge of the association in question. Respectfully,

W. I. Chamberlain, “Secretary Ohio State Board of Agriculture.”

LAKE TAHOE.

Richmond, Ind.

What are the dimensions of Lake Tahoe, why is it so admired, and how near is it to the Central Pacific Railroad?

Traveler.

Answer.—Lake Tahoe is a lovely sheet of water at the eastern base of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, and fourteen miles southward from Truckee, on the Central Pacific Railroad. It is about 6,250 feet above the ocean, and is environed by scenery full of picturesque loveliness. The length, according to the latest authorities, is 35 miles, its width about 15 miles, and its depth 1,500 feet. Its waters are clear as crystal, cold as ice, and full of trout. Pleasure steamers ply on it in summer. Its outlet is the Truckee River. The surrounding scenery, the perfect transparency of its waters, the fishing, and the delicious atmosphere render it a favorite summer resort.