Chapter XXVIII

GOVERNMENTAL DEVELOPMENT DURING THE REVOLUTION

The Association a step toward sovereignty.—The First Continental Congress was called to deliberate and determine upon measures to recover rights and liberties of which the colonies had been deprived and to restore harmony with Great Britain. Although the Congress was consultative in nature, it completed the revolutionary organization and made unity of action possible. The adoption of the Association was a fundamental step toward sovereignty. It could only be interpreted to mean that the colonies intended to enforce their will upon the mother country. Furthermore, Congress provided means to enforce the Association within colonies. While the petitions and addresses which were sent forth were couched in respectful terms, the tone of the declaration and resolves was distinctly revolutionary, and when considered in connection with the Association, it becomes evident that the iron hand of a sovereign power was even then visible through the mists of revolution.

THE SECOND CONTINENTAL CONGRESS

Nature of Congress.—The Second Continental Congress which convened at Philadelphia on May 10, 1775, was a purely revolutionary body, a "creature of emergency." In its inception it was in no sense a sovereign body, but was rather a great central committee, representing the revolutionary elements in the various colonies, which assumed the supreme directing power until 1781. The colonies had displayed no regularity in the method of selecting the delegates. The two New Hampshire delegates were chosen by a convention of deputies who had been appointed by various towns. The five delegates of Massachusetts were chosen by the provincial congress. The Rhode Island assembly chose two delegates, and the Connecticut house of representatives five. In New York twelve delegates were selected by a provincial convention. The five delegates from New Jersey were chosen by the assembly, as were the nine from Pennsylvania and the three from Delaware. In Maryland a meeting of deputies chose seven delegates, three or more of whom might represent the colony. In Virginia a convention of delegates selected seven. In North Carolina a convention chose three delegates who were approved by the assembly, and in South Carolina the assembly appointed five. Georgia at first was represented by a delegate from a single parish.

Original powers of the delegates.—The delegates were not empowered to perform sovereign acts, but were considered as a central revolutionary committee, which was to take such measures as would be best calculated to recover and establish American rights and liberties, restore harmony between Great Britain and her colonies, and advance the best interests of the colonies. As the revolutionary movement spread and acts of violence occurred, necessity forced Congress to perform many acts which were not contemplated in the original instructions of the delegates; but from first to last it was lacking in sovereign powers and was always the creature of the states.

Causes of the weakness of Congress.—The fundamental cause of the weakness of Congress was its lack of legal powers. When executive acts were necessary, the delegates were never certain that their joint action would be upheld by the states. Congress had no power to enforce its will, or to coerce an unruly state. Another source of weakness was the constantly changing personnel of Congress, the numbers varying from twenty-four to a hundred. Many of the strongest members were sent on foreign missions, leaving important work to be done by men who had had little experience in public affairs. Sectional jealousy frequently interfered with concerted action; the small states feared the larger ones; states holding no western lands were suspicious of those with such possessions; and theological differences made it difficult for New Englanders to work with delegates from the middle and southern states. In 1777 when Vermont was asking to be admitted as a state, New England and New York found their interests to be conflicting, as both claimed jurisdiction over the Green Mountain country. Some of the members stooped to petty acts for self-aggrandizement, breeding suspicion in the minds of many. Congress was housed at Philadelphia in the state house, which was poorly arranged for a body whose business was mainly conducted by committees. Military necessity twice forced Congress to hasten from the city, the first time in December, 1776, when it fled to Baltimore, the second time after the battle of the Brandywine, when it became an exile, first at Lancaster and later at York.

Nature of the business of Congress.—Dr. Albion W. Small has classified the business of Congress under the following heads: (1) To dispose of sundry applications in behalf of individuals; (2) to consider requests for advice and aid to individual colonies; (3) to act as the mouthpiece of the patriotic party; (4) to serve as an organ of communication between the collective colonies and other communities or individuals; (5) to devise peace plans and measures for the general good; (6) to devise offensive and defensive measures to be urged upon the individual colonies; (7) to raise, organize, and regulate a continental army, and assume general direction of military affairs.

Organization of Congress and conduct of business.—When Peyton Randolph found it necessary to leave Congress, the delegates chose John Hancock president and Charles Thomson secretary, the latter serving until 1781. Most of the work was carried on by committees. When a vote was taken in Congress, the members did not cast their ballots as individuals, but each state delegation cast a solid affirmative or negative vote. Usually committees met in the morning from 7 to 10, Congress from 10 A.M. to 4 or 5 P.M., and committees from 6 to 10 P.M. The president's duties were manifold, for in addition to acting as presiding officer, he carried on correspondence with the commander-in-chief, with state governors, and with, local committees.

Early acts of Congress.—In spite of the conservatives who at first were in the majority and who desired to hold in check the revolutionary forces, circumstances forced Congress to exercise executive authority long before the Declaration of Independence. In June, 1775, Congress ordered the raising and organizing of an army, authorized a loan for the purchase of gunpowder, and issued $2,000,000 in bills of credit. In September provision was made for the fitting out of a navy, and steps were taken to open relations with foreign powers, to supervise the frontiers, and to establish a post-office. In the chaos which resulted from the overthrow of the chartered governments, several of the state revolutionary bodies appealed to Congress for advice. In answer to the Massachusetts appeal, Congress advised that, as no obedience was due to parliament and as the crown officials were absent, the provincial congress was to summon the representatives to an assembly which was to choose a council, and together the two bodies were to govern until difficulties were adjusted with the crown. Similar advice was given to New Hampshire, South Carolina, and Virginia. The various colonies were also advised to erect prize courts. In March, 1776, it advised the colonies to disarm the Loyalists, and soon afterward authorized the fitting out of privateers and opened the ports to all countries not subject to Great Britain. In May it urged all colonies which had not yet formed state governments to do so and declared that British authority should be suppressed. On July 4, 1776, it adopted the Declaration of Independence.

Judicial functions.—With the increase of privateering, prize courts became necessary, and in November, 1775, Congress advised the colonies to erect courts in which cases of capture might be tried by jury and appeals made to Congress. During 1776 the custom was followed of appointing a congressional committee to hear each appeal, but in January, 1777, a standing committee of five was appointed to hear all appeals. The increasing business and the need of legally trained men made it apparent that the committee system could not long handle the prize cases, and in January, 1780, a permanent court of appeals was established, which may be looked upon as a forerunner of the supreme court.

Military affairs.—When hostilities began, Congress acted on the theory that the colonies were loyal to the king, but were opposing Gage's ministerial army. Events soon forced it to take measures of defence, committees being appointed in May, 1775, to consider how military stores might be procured. On June 15 Washington was chosen commander-in-chief and on the following day a committee was appointed to draw up his commission and instructions. Congress also selected four major-generals, eight brigadier-generals, a quartermaster-general and commissary-general. Later a clothier-general was appointed.

At first military affairs were handled by congressional committees, but in January, 1776, a committee was appointed to consider the establishment of a war office. Five months later Congress adopted the committee's plan which provided for a Board of War and Ordnance to consist of five members of Congress and a secretary. In 1777 this congressional board was done away with and a new board, consisting of persons who were not members of Congress, was created, Gates being placed at its head. Congress also appointed an inspector-general, Thomas Conway being the first incumbent, being followed by Steuben. The system of supplying the army was found to be deficient and to rectify matters the commissary department was reorganized in 1777 and again in 1778. Congress continued to keep in touch with the army by sending special committees to examine actual conditions.

Naval affairs.—To handle maritime affairs a naval committee was appointed whose "active life lasted from October, 1775, until January, 1776, during which time it laid the foundation of the navy." On December 14, 1775, a marine committee, composed of one member from each colony, was chosen to take charge of the building and fitting out of vessels, and this committee soon assumed direction of naval affairs. Agents to superintend the work of construction were employed, and on the recommendation of the committee, Congress appointed prize agents. In November, 1776, a board of three naval experts was created to execute business under the direction of the maritime committee and a similar board was appointed in April, 1777, to handle affairs in New England alone. The marine committee continued until October, 1779. By that time it became evident that a more efficient system was needed and Congress appointed a Board of Admiralty consisting of three commissioners and two members of Congress. The board remained in charge of naval affairs until the governmental reorganization of 1781.

Foreign affairs.—To direct diplomacy was one of the difficult functions of a Congress whose members were but little versed in the intricacies of foreign courts. In the fall of 1775 a "secret committee on foreign correspondence" was chosen. In March, 1776, Silas Deane was sent to France, and in September of the same year a commission to handle American interests in Europe, composed of Franklin, Jefferson, and Deane, was appointed. Jefferson, however, remained in America and Arthur Lee was substituted. To obtain financial aid had been the chief object up to the Declaration of Independence, but after that Congress and its agents directed their energies not only to the securing of funds, but to obtain recognition by France and Spain, and to make military and commercial alliances. In 1777 the secret committee was changed to the "committee on foreign affairs," an organization which conducted the foreign policy up to 1781.

FINANCIAL AFFAIRS

Fiscal machinery.—The most difficult problem which Congress had to solve was the raising of sufficient funds to carry on the Revolution. To handle the public moneys and devise means for raising revenue, fiscal machinery gradually came into existence. In 1775 two treasurers were appointed to receive and disburse public funds. Soon a committee of claims of thirteen members was appointed, and in February, 1776, a standing committee of five known as the Treasury Board, which supervised financial officials and attended to the emission of instruments of credit. This board, under which was an auditor-general at the head of the office of accounts, was the germ of the later treasury. In 1778 the book-keeping system was remodeled and a comptroller, auditor, treasurer, and two chambers of accounts were provided. In 1779 the old treasury board was set aside and in its place a commission of five was appointed, of which three were not congressional delegates.

Bills of credit.—Congress had three principal means of raising money: by issuance of bills of credit, by requisitions upon the states, and by domestic and foreign loans. In addition there was a considerable income from prizes and captures. The need of raising money drove Congress to the doubtful expedient of issuing large quantities of paper money unbacked by bullion or specie but based upon the credit of the states. Between June, 1775, and November, 1779, Congress authorized the issuance of $241,552,780 in denominations varying from one-sixth of a dollar to sixty-five dollars. In addition the states issued over $200,000,000 in paper money. Such large amounts of unbacked paper could lead to but one result, a steadily increasing depreciation. At first the people took the continental money with little protest, but as issue followed issue in rapid succession, depreciation set in, and by January, 1779, the ratio of currency to specie was eight to one, by June twenty to one, and by the end of that year forty to one. In May, 1781, it ceased to pass as currency. Financiers have found it difficult to estimate the specie value of the various issues, but a careful economist has calculated that it was worth between $37,000,000 and $41,000,000.

Requisitions upon the states.—As military demands became more and more insistent, Congress found it necessary to make requisitions upon the states. The demands were met in a niggardly manner; between November, 1777, and February, 1781, the moneys received, figured in specie value, amounted to only $2,737,000. In 1780 Congress was driven to demanding specific supplies, such as corn, meat, and hay.

Domestic loans.—With the exception of a small loan for the purchase of gunpowder, Congress did not authorize a domestic loan until October, 1776, when it voted to borrow $5,000,000 at four per cent, and to establish state loan offices. Subsequent loans were at six per cent. After money from foreign loans began to come in in September, 1777, interest on the domestic debt was paid, enabling Congress to borrow more freely than before. From October, 1776, to September, 1777, only $3,787,000 was obtained from the states, and during the rest of the war $63,289,000 in paper was subscribed.

Foreign loans.—Most of the foreign financial aid came from France. In the years before France formally recognized the independence of the American states, large sums were loaned to Congress. In May, 1776, Vergennes secured a loan of a million livres from the French treasury and also obtained a small loan from Spain. Through the fictitious company of "Hortalez et Cie" in Paris organized by Beaumarchais, and the Spanish firm of Josef Gardoqui and Sons, large quantities of clothing, military stores, and considerable sums of money were placed at the disposal of the revolutionary agents. During 1777-1780 Congress borrowed from France $1,633,500.

STATE GOVERNMENTS DURING THE REVOLUTION

Organization of state governments.—As resistance to British authority intensified during 1775, the colonies took steps to organize for resistance. The colonial governors were forced to leave and the committees of safety assumed temporary executive functions. In most of the colonies revolutionary conventions were called which took over the legislative power until it became apparent that the difficulties with Great Britain could not be settled. As it grew more and more evident that the war was to be fought for independence, the conventions took steps to organize state governments. Several of them asked advice concerning such action from the Continental Congress, and that body finally advised all the colonies to proceed on the assumption that they no longer owed allegiance to the crown. The constitutional convention introduced a new principle in the theory of the state. Up to this time governmental authority had rested in England. Henceforth the powers of sovereignty were to emanate from the will of the people, the constitutional convention being the embodiment of the sovereign will.

Type of state governments.—In the formation of governments the states were guided by experience in colonial statecraft. The new constitutions disclosed the influence of the struggle with Great Britain, the framers seeking to protect the commonwealths from the possibility of encroachment of the executive at the expense of the legislative departments. The influence of the political philosophy which insisted that the separation of the departments of government was the safeguard of popular rights was also apparent in the new constitutions. Although they displayed a marked divergence on minor points, in general a common type of government prevailed. In most of the states the legislative department was in two parts, a lower and an upper house; the lower, usually elected for a year, represented the people at large, and the upper, serving for longer periods, represented the wealthier classes. In all but one state a property qualification was required for voters and representatives, and in most cases the property qualification was higher for members of the upper chamber. There was no uniformity in designation, the lower chamber being variously called the house of representatives, house of commons, or assembly; the upper house was usually called the legislative council, but in Virginia it was known as the senate, a designation afterward commonly adopted. The executive was usually weak, being vested either in a governor with limited power or in a small group. So well adapted to the needs of a state were the colonial charters of Connecticut and Rhode Island, that they continued to use their charters as constitutions for many years, merely substituting the authority of the people for that of the king.

Variations from type.—Several of the state constitutions contained unusual features. In Pennsylvania the radical convention in 1776 framed a constitution which provided for a legislature of one chamber and an executive council which could not veto an act of the assembly. Every seven years a council of censors was to be chosen by the voters to see that the constitution had not been violated. By a two-thirds vote the censors could summon a convention to amend the constitution. Georgia also set up a unicameral legislature. The Virginia constitution of 1776 contained a declaration of independence. It also provided that all bills must originate in the lower house and that money bills could not be amended by the senate. A privy council of eight members was chosen by a joint ballot of both houses. This body and the two houses selected the governor. The South Carolina constitution of 1778 provided for the election of the upper house by the people and the governor was deprived of the veto power. By the New York constitution of 1778, the governor was elected by the people, but he had neither appointive nor veto power, those functions being exercised respectively by a council of appointments chosen from the senate by the assembly, and by a council of revision composed of the governor, chancellor, and two or more judges of the supreme court. Objections raised by the council of revision could be defeated by a two-thirds vote of both houses. The first constitution of Massachusetts provided for a legislature of two houses, the upper chamber acting as a multiple executive. In 1780 a new constitution was accepted by the people. This provided that the governor be given military powers and the appointment of judges. He was to be advised by a council of nine elected from the senate by both houses.

Selection of the judiciary.—Divergences appeared in the methods of selecting judges. In Connecticut and Rhode Island they were appointed annually by the assemblies. In Georgia the chief justice was appointed by the assembly, but the people elected the county judges annually; in New Jersey, Delaware, and Pennsylvania the assemblies chose the judges for seven years; in Massachusetts, New York, and Maryland the governor and council appointed the judges who held office during good behavior; in other states the legislatures appointed them for varying terms.

The courts.—The states established superior tribunals which were authorized to review and correct decisions of inferior courts. In Georgia the county courts, when presided over by the chief-justice, acted as a final court of appeal. In New Jersey the governor and council constituted the highest appellate tribunal. In Virginia the constitution provided for a court of appeals which passed upon the constitutionality of laws and heard appeals. In Maryland and South Carolina the appellate courts were composed of the presiding officers of the district courts. In the other colonies the supreme court fulfilled the same function. The colonial system of county courts to try the smaller civil cases, and courts of session, composed of justices of the peace, for trial of petty criminal cases were retained.

English law the basis of American jurisprudence.—The English common-law forms of writs and legal process were continued with all their technicalities, a usage which has been one of the stumbling blocks in the attempts to simplify legal methods in the United States. "Either by the constitutions or by legislative enactments, English common law, and all those English statutes hitherto recognized and acted upon in the colonies respectively, were made the basis of state jurisprudence. The force of law was also continued to all existing colonial statutes until repealed or altered, except in South Carolina, where a particular enumeration and reënactment was made of the colonial statutes intended to be recognized."

The revolutionary state of Vermont.—In the Green Mountain region a new state was in the making. There New York claimed jurisdiction but her authority had never been established and in April, 1775, the inhabitants of the mountain country held a convention, eventually drew up a constitution, and asked Congress to recognize Vermont as a state. New York succeeded in defeating the movement in Congress, but the Vermonters, nothing daunted, proceeded to organize their government. The new revolutionary state soon became embroiled in disputes with New Hampshire and Massachusetts. These and the continued opposition of New York caused Congress to delay recognition, and Vermont was not formally admitted to the union until 1791, but to all intents and purposes it was a sovereign state from 1775.

Attempts at Western State-Making.—In the course of the Revolution, likewise, the settlements beyond the Alleghanies were trying experiments in state-making. The Watauga Association in eastern Tennessee, the Transylvania government in Kentucky, and the Nashborough, Association are all examples. These western communities reverted to the compact theory of government, and their experiences illustrate the democratic tendencies of the frontier. As yet, however, the communities were too weak to succeed in the midst of conflicting elements and each reverted for a time to the subordinate position of a county of the older state.

THE ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION

The confederation movement.—When danger from without threatened, a union of the colonies as a device of safety had often been suggested, but separatist tendencies had always proved too strong for the federationists. Franklin had been a friend of the idea of union, in 1754 having penned the Albany plan. In July, 1775, when it became apparent that the colonies were facing a great war, he proposed a league of friendship whose affairs should be conducted by a general congress in which each colony should have representation according to its population. Franklin's plan was not adopted, but it focused attention upon the growing need of a confederation. The Continental Congress was a revolutionary body which had no power save the sufferance of states which were themselves revolutionary. Whether or not those states were to retain sovereign powers depended entirely on the outcome of the struggle. To insure a successful issue, it was believed that a more perfect organ than the Continental Congress should be devised to conduct the Revolution.

Work of the confederation committee.—When Lee's independence resolution was introduced in the Continental Congress on June 7, 1776, it was accompanied by a motion to appoint a committee to draw up articles of confederation. On June 12 a committee composed of one delegate from each colony was chosen, among the members being John Dickinson, Samuel Adams, Roger Sherman, and Edward Rutledge. On July 12 the committee reported a plan of confederation, drawn mainly by Dickinson, which provided that each state should have a single vote in a central congress, and that an affirmative vote of nine states should be necessary to pass any measure.

Adoption of the articles.—Stress of business, military events which forced the hasty departure of Congress from Philadelphia on several occasions, and divergence of views prevented speedy action. On two ideas only was there agreement. The delegates were convinced that the English imperial system was wrong in its theory of taxation; whatever the form of the central government might be, it must not take from the states the power of taxation. They were also agreed that the executive power of the central government must be weak. The debates turned upon three main questions, taxation, representation, and congressional power to settle boundary disputes. Dickinson's plan proposed that taxation should be apportioned among the states according to population; this aroused the opposition of the Southerners, who objected to the slaves being counted as population. Franklin objected to Dickinson's proposal of one vote per state on the ground that it was an inequitable arrangement. In reply it was argued that the confederation was a league of friendship to be formed for a specific purpose and in consequence each state ought to have equal power. In regard to congressional power to settle boundary disputes, a difference arose between those states which possessed western lands and those which did not. Not until November, 1777, did Congress give the articles a favorable vote and on June 26, 1778, a form of ratification was adopted. Delegates from the New England states, New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and South Carolina signed the articles on July 9, North Carolina on July 21, Georgia on July 24, and New Jersey on November 26, 1778; Delaware on May 5, 1779, and Maryland not until March 1, 1781. In consequence of the tardy action of Maryland, the Continental Congress continued to conduct the war almost to its conclusion.

The more important provisions of the articles.—The preamble stated that the delegates had agreed "to certain articles of Confederation and perpetual union." Article I named the confederacy "The United States of America." Article II said, "Each State retains its sovereignty, freedom and independence, and every power, jurisdiction and right, which is not by this confederation expressly delegated to the United States, in Congress assembled." Article III stated the purpose of the entrance of the states into a league of friendship as follows: "for their common defence, the security of their liberties, and their mutual and general welfare." Article IV declared that the free inhabitants of each state should be "entitled to all privileges and immunities of free citizens in the several States" and provided for the extradition of criminals. It also stated that, "Full faith and credit shall be given in each of these States to the records, acts and judicial proceedings of the courts and magistrates of every other State."

Article V provided that delegates should "be annually appointed in such manner as the legislature of each State shall direct," and that Congress should convene annually on the first Monday in November. No state was to be represented in Congress by less than two nor more than seven members, and in determining questions, each state should have one vote.

Article VI dealt mainly with prohibitions upon the states. Without the consent of Congress, no state was to enter into treaties, confederation, or alliance with foreign courts, nor was any state to lay imposts or duties which might interfere with any stipulations in treaties entered into between the United States and foreign powers. Such naval and military forces were to be maintained by the states in time of peace as Congress might deem necessary, and no state was to engage in war without the consent of Congress unless actually invaded or in danger of Indian attack.

Article VIII provided that expenses incurred for common defence or for the general welfare, when allowed by Congress, should be defrayed out of a common treasury, to "be supplied by the several states, in proportion to the value of all land within each state, granted to or surveyed for any person, as such land and the buildings and improvements thereon shall be estimated according to such mode as the United States in Congress assembled, shall from time to time direct and appoint."

Article IX dealt with the congressional powers. Congress was given the exclusive power (1) of determining peace or war except in the cases mentioned in Article VI, (2) of sending and receiving ambassadors, (3) of entering into treaties and alliances, provided such agreements did not interfere with the rights of the states to lay such imposts and duties on foreign goods as they were subjected to by foreigners, or prohibit exportation or importation, (4) of establishing rules for deciding prize cases, (5) of granting letters of marque and reprisal in time of peace, (6) of establishing admiralty courts, and (7) of settling disputes between two or more states, an elaborate procedure in such cases being prescribed.

Congress was also given the exclusive power (8) of regulating the alloy and value of coin struck by its authority or by that of a state, (9) of fixing the standard of weights and measures, (10) of regulating affairs with Indians not members of states provided state rights were not infringed, (11) of establishing and regulating post offices and postage, (12) of appointing military officers except regimental officers, (13) of appointing naval officers, and (14) of making rules and regulations for the army and navy.

Other powers of Congress were (15) "to appoint a committee, to sit in the recess of Congress, to be denominated 'a Committee of the States,' and to consist of one delegate from each State; and to appoint such other committees and civil officers as may be necessary for managing the general affairs of the United States under direction..., (16) to ascertain the necessary sums of money to be raised for the service of the United States, and to appropriate and apply the same for defraying the public expenses, (17) to borrow money or emit bills on the credit of the United States, (18) to build and equip a navy, and (19) "to agree upon the number of land forces, and to make requisition from each state for its quota, in proportion to the number of white inhabitants in each state." With the exception of a vote upon adjournment, all measures required the assent of nine states. No period of adjournment was to be longer than six months.

Article X provided that the committee of the states should be authorized to execute the delegated powers of Congress during recesses. Article XII stated that bills of credit, loans, and debts should be considered as a charge against the United States and for whose payment the United States and the public faith were pledged. Article XIII provided that every state should abide by the acts of Congress, that the union should be perpetual, and that no alteration should be made in the articles by Congress unless afterwards confirmed by the legislatures of every state.

Fundamental weaknesses of the articles.—Admirable as this document was in many respects, it contained weaknesses which were certain to make the union temporary rather than perpetual. It failed to give the central government sufficient power. The articles were distinctly the instrument of a confederation of sovereign states, and not the constitution of a federal state. Congress was not given the power to raise money or to regulate commerce. It could not compel the states to pay the national debts, to live up to treaties, or to raise armies. The articles provided for no distinct executive department, but this was remedied in part by congressional acts. With the exception of the fourth, fifth, and seventh provisions of Article IX, judicial matters were left to the states. The required vote of nine state to pass measures necessarily hindered the passage of needed regulations. The requirement that every state legislature must give its consent before an amendment could be passed made it well-nigh impossible to change the instrument.

GOVERNMENTAL REORGANIZATION

Organization of executive departments.—The failure of the congressional committee system to perform executive functions had grown more apparent as the war progressed, and in the closing days of the Second Continental Congress measures were taken to concentrate the executive departmental work under individual heads. During January and February, 1781, the Continental Congress created four new offices: superintendent of finance, secretary at war, secretary of marine, and secretary of foreign affairs, a foreshadowing of the later cabinet. The policy thus inaugurated was continued under the new Congress which held its first sitting on March 2, 1781.

The work of Robert Morris.—The failure of the bills of credit, the insufficiency of state support, and the weakness of foreign credit had made it evident that the financial system must be reorganized; accordingly the treasury commission was abolished and finances were placed in the hands of Robert Morris, a successful merchant of Philadelphia who had rendered valuable assistance as a member of the Pennsylvania assembly and of Congress. Morris realized that retrenchment and economy must be his watchwords. In the words of Dewey, he endeavored "to collect the requisitions from the States, to create a national revenue and impost, and place the revenue on a specie basis...." He also sought to establish foreign credit and to found a United States bank. At every turn he was handicapped by local prejudice, petty bickerings over taxation, and the lack of power of the central government.

Foreign loans and requisitions upon states.—The adoption of the Articles of Confederation immediately strengthened foreign credit, for during 1781-1783 loans of $4,719,000 were obtained from France, $174,017 from Spain, and $1,304,000 from the bankers of Holland. The loans from Spain and Holland, however, probably would not have been obtained had it not been for the entry of those powers into the war. Requisitions upon states during the same period yielded $3,058,000 in specie value, but the proposals of Morris to institute a land tax, poll tax, excise, and tariff came to naught.

The Bank of North America.—In 1780 Congress had tried to establish a financial institution called the Bank of Pennsylvania, but it had been of little service. Morris planned a sounder institution to be known as the Bank of North America with a capitalization of not over $10,000,000. Only $70,000 was raised by private subscription and the government set aside $200,000 in specie which had recently arrived from France. From this bank during 1782-1783 the government borrowed on short term loans $1,272,842. As Congress repaid the bank before other creditors, a small working balance was maintained on which the government could draw for immediate needs.

War and navy departments.—Owing to factional quarrels, it was not until January, 1782, that General Benjamin Lincoln was made secretary at war. No one was appointed for the department of marine, and the work was turned over to the already overburdened superintendent of finance. The office of agent of marine was created, and this Morris held from September, 1781, until November, 1784.

Department of foreign affairs.—The first secretary of foreign affairs was Robert R. Livingston of New York, a former member of the committee which formulated the Declaration of Independence and famous later as minister to France at the time of the Louisiana purchase. He held office from August, 1781, to June, 1783, being succeeded in 1784 by John Jay. The department as conducted under Livingston consisted of the secretary, two assistant secretaries, and a clerk.

Conclusion.—Thus during the stress of war national and state governments had come into existence. Necessity had forced the people to act and though the leaders at times groped blindly and took many a false step, the political capacity of the American people had asserted itself and triumphed. They profited by their experiences and showed themselves ready to cast aside useless institutions and try new ones which gave fair promise of success. A government of the people, for the people, and by the people had come into existence which challenged the doctrine that the sovereign ruled by right divine.

READINGS

Bolles, A.S., Financial History of the United States, 1774-1780; Bullock, C.J., Finances of the United States from 1775 to 1789; Channing, Edward, History of the United States, III, 431-462; Dewey, D.R., Financial History of the United States, 33-56; Foster, J.W., A Century of American Diplomacy, 1-40; Guggenheim, J.C., "The Development of the Executive Departments, 1775-1789," in J. Franklin Jameson, Essays in the Constitutional History of the United States in the Formative Period, 1775-1789; Hatch, L.C., Administration of the American Revolutionary Army; Hildreth, Richard, The History of the United States of America, III, 374-410; Learned, H.B., The President's Cabinet, 47-63; McLaughlin, A.C., The Confederation and the Constitution, 35-70; Paullin, C.O., The Navy of the American Revolution, 31-251; Small, A.W., "The Beginnings of American Nationality," in Johns Hopkins University, Studies in History and Political Science, 8th Series, Parts I and II; Sumner, W.G., The Financier and Finances of the American Revolution; Van Tyne, C.H., The American Revolution, 175-202; Hunt, G., The Department of State, 1-37.

INDEX

Abenaki Indians, 257, 266; war of, 313. Abercromby, General James, in French and Indian War, 376, 377, 378. Acadia, colonization, 85-86; captured by England, restored to France, 86, 87; during War of Spanish Succession, English expeditions against, 271; conquest of, 272; attacked by French during War of Austrian Succession, 364, 365; French policy in, 366; during French and Indian War, 374. Acapulco, Mexico, commercial port, 86. Acatic, Nueva Galicia, in the Mixton War, 40. Accau, explorer in Minnesota with Father Hennepin, 100. Ácoma, New Mexico pueblo, 46, 72, 73. Adams, John, defence of British soldiers, 443; in First Continental Congress, 452; argues for Declaration of Independence, 479; member of committee for drafting the Declaration, 479; diplomacy in France and Holland, 532-533; peace negotiations, 533-538. Adams, Samuel, circular letter, 440-441; trouble with Governor Bernard, 443; the man of the town meeting, 445-446; in First Continental Congress, 451; on committee to draft Articles of Confederation, 550. Adelantados, 54-55. Administration of Justice Act, 450. Admiralty, English, 182-183; courts, 349. Africa, early ideas concerning, 1-2; Ptolemy's conception of, 1-2; trade with desired, 5; exploration of west coast, 5; Prester, John, 5; Sénégal and Gorée captured by English, 380; Sénégal given to British by Peace of Paris, 382. African Company, formed to break Dutch monopoly, 196. Agriculture, in Spanish colonies, 21, 75; in French Canada, 92, 93; in French West Indies, 94-95; in New England, 216-217, 330-331; in the Middle English colonies, 120, 122, 124, 128, 332; in the South, 333-335, in the British West Indies, 339-341; in Bermudas, 130; in Dutch colonies, 169, 170, 171, 173. Aguas Calientes, 58, 59; mines of, 58. Aguayo, Marquis of, expedition to Texas, 296-297. Aguilar, Marcos de, governor in Mexico, 48. Aijado Indians, 243. Ailly, Pierre d', author of Imago Mundi, 2, 7. Aix-la-Chapelle, Peace of, 366. Alabama Indians, 251, 270. Alabama River, 62. Alamance, battle of the, 415. Alarcón, Hernando de, explores Colorado River, 45. Alarcón, Martin de, governor of Texas, and of Coahuila, 294-295. Albany, 332. Albany Congress, 371, 411. Albemarle, Duke of. See Monk. Albermarle district, settlement, 207; population, 211; Culpeper rebellion, 211. Alberoni, 279, 359. Albórnoz, royal contador of New Spain, 48. Albuquerque, New Mexico, founding of, 290. Alburquerque, Portuguese viceroy in India, 24. Alcalá, University of, 76. Alcaldes, 14, 34, 55. Alcaldía Mayor, administrative district, 59. Aleutian Islands, Russian fur trade, 388. Alexander, Pillars of, 1. Alexander VI, Pope, assignation of discoveries between Spain and Portugal, 11. Alexander, Sir William, grant on Long Island, 150. Algonquin Indians, friendly to French, 257; a barrier to English expansion, 414. Alibamon, judicial department of Louisiana, 279. Alleghany Mountains, Spanish explorations in, 1566-1568, 64; Spanish trade in, 211; French and English traders cross, 101-102; English traders cross, 211, 258, 367. 369; in the French and Indian War, 372-374, 378; Proclamation of 1763, 404, 411; settlers cross, 413; a barrier to settlement, 414; in the American Revolution, 512. Allen, Ethan, 462. Allouez, Jesuit missionary in New France, 96, 97, 101. Alva, Duke of, 52. Alvarado, Pedro de, lieutenant of Cortés, 33, 36; alcalde mayor of City of Mexico, 34; conquest of Guatemala and San Salvador, 37-38; claim to Cíbola, 44; explorations in Peru and the South Sea, 46-47; governor and captain-general of Guatemala, 49; death, 47, 49. Amadas, Philip, takes possession of Roanoke Island, 110. Amazon Island, Cortés seeks, 37. Amazons, kingdom of, sought by Raleigh, 110. Amherst, Jeffrey, English general, 377, 378, 379, 381, 409; plan of defence of British New World possessions, 403-404; governor-general of Canada, 419. Amichel, province of, 26, 37; map showing, 43. André, Major John, hanged as a spy, 512. Andros, Edmund, governor of New York, 197, 262, 263; governor-general of the Dominion of New England, 194; overthrow, 194-195. Anglican Church, in the eighteenth century, 337-338. Anguilla, Island, government, 206. Anian, Strait of, 24, 25, 67-68, 72. See the Strait of Anian. Annapolis Royal, 272. Anne of Austria, regent of France, 80. Anne, Queen of England, colonial policy, 350-352. Anson, Commodore George, attacks Spanish possessions, 363; admiral in French and Indian War, 377. Anticosti Island, 82, 420. Antigua, settled by English, 133, 252; incorporated with Leeward Islands, 206; population, 340. Anza, Juan Bautista, opens route from Arizona to California, 391; leads colony from Sonora to San Francisco, 391; governor of New Mexico, explores in Colorado, 292. Apache Indians, 45: enslavement of, 23; hostility, 285; wars with, 298, 305, 401; missions for, 299. Apalachee (Apalachen), Indian settlement, 41, 42, 98; missions, 247, 253, 254, 270; revolt of, 270. Apalachicola Indians, 269. Appeals, 351-352. Appointments, 352. Arabs, theories of concerning geography, 1-2. Aragon, kingdom of, 13-14. Argall, Captain Samuel, expedition against French settlements, 86, 136. Aricara Indians, 283. Arika Indians, alliance with English, 270. Arispe, capital of Provincias Internas, 387. Aristotle, his conception of the world, 1. Arizona, 72, 236; Kino's explorations in, 302; mining excitement at Arizonac, 304; Keller and Sedelmayr in, 304; land route to California, 391. See Pimería Alta, Sonora. Arkansas region, De Soto and Moscoso in, 42; Oñate in, 73; judicial department of Louisiana, 280; French traders in, 283-286; English traders in, 102, 400; Tonty's fort in, 100, 102; under Spanish rule, 400. See La Harpe, Du Tisné, Tonty. Arkansas Post (Fort Carlos III), 398. Arkansas River (Napestle River), 42, 73, 100, 102, 283-285; Spanish expeditions to, 291. Arlington, Earl of, proprietary grant in Virginia, 185; interest in Hudson's Bay Company, 213. Armada, "the Invincible," defeat of, 52-53, 105. Arnold, Benedict, operations at Ticonderoga and Crown Point, 462; invasion of Canada, 471; at Valcour Island, 487-488; in campaign against Burgoyne, 495-499; treason, 511-512; in the British army, 530. Arriola, Andrés de, founds Pensacola, 275. Arroyo Hondo, boundary between Texas and Louisiana, 300. Arteaga, expedition up Pacific coast, 395. Arthur, Gabriel, on Tennessee River, 1673, 211. Articles of Confederation, confederation movement, 549; work of the confederation committee, 550; adoption of the articles, 550-551; provisions, 551-555; weaknesses, 553. Aruba Island, settled by the Dutch, 167. Asia, classical ideas regarding, 1; early contact with America, 2; visits of Polo, 3; trade route to, 5; search for northwest passage to, 106, 108, 164, 213; Portuguese trading settlements in China and Japan, 24; China a market for Russian trade, 388. Asiento of 1713, The, 273, 289. Asinai (Hasinai, Tejas, Texas), Indians, 251. Assemblies, control of the elections and purse, 352; increasing power, 357, 426-427. Association, the, adopted by the First Continental Congress, 455; enforcement, 458, 466-467; an act of sovereignty, 539. Association for the Defense of the Protestant Religion, 189. Atondo y Antillón, Admiral, attempt to colonize Baja California, 241-242. Atzcapotzalco, Aztec center, Mexico, 28. Aubry, in command in Louisiana after cession to Spain, 396-397. Audiencia, of Santo Domingo, 20; of the Confines of Panamá and Nicaragua, 50; of Guatemala, 50; of Havana, 398; of Mexico (New Spain), creation of, 38, 48; friction with Cortés, 42; powers, 48; composition, 48; replacement of, 49; Second Audiencia, 49; of Manila, 68; of Nueva Galicia (Guadalajara), 55; expeditions sent out by, 55-56, 387; of Panamá, 49, 50; of Nicaragua, 50. Augusta, Georgia, founded, 316; fur traders of, 369; evacuated by British, 529. Austin, Ann, 189. Austria, 359-360. Avalon, 125. Avalos, lieutenant of Cortés, 36, 37. Ávila, Alonso de, envoy for Cortés to Audiencia of Santo Domingo, and to the court of Charles V, 34. Aviño, mine of, 56. Axacan (Virginia), 117. Ayllón, colony in Carolina, 26. Ays, Florida, settlement at, 64. Ayscue, Sir George, expedition to West Indies and Virginia, 153. Azcué, Fernando de, expedition across Rio Grande, 248. Azilia, project for colonizing Georgia, 315. Aztecs, arrival in Valley of Mexico, 27-28; development of power, 28; discontent of subject peoples, 33; revolt against, 33; overthrown by Cortés, 33; limits of Aztec conquest, 39. Bacon, Roger, his conception of geography, 2. Bacon's Rebellion, 185-187. Baffin, William, discovers Baffin Bay, 213. Bahama Channel, route of Spanish treasure ships, 62, 64. Bahama Islands, 10; enslavement of Indians on, 23; settlement, 152, 206. Bahía (Brazil), captured by Dutch West India Company, 252. Baja California. See California, Lower. Balboa, Vasco Nuñez de, 28, 29, 42; discovery of the Pacific, 25; executed by Pedrarias, 29. Balearic Isles, 13. Baltimore, Lord. See Calvert. Bank, of England, 351; of North America, 554; of Pennsylvania, 554. Baptists, in Rhode Island, 220; in West New Jersey, 226; in South Carolina, 231. Barbados, occupied by the English, 132, 252; attached to the Windward Islands government, 206; unrest, 207; migrations, 207; furnishes settlers for South Carolina, 208, 210; trade with South Carolina, 210; influence upon South Carolina, 230, 231; social and economic conditions in the eighteenth century, 340. Barbuda, Island, 206, 252. Barcelona, 10; county of, 13. Barker, English freebooter, 66. Barlowe, Arthur, expedition of 1585, 110. Barroto, seeks La Salle's colony, 249. Barrowists, 135. Bartram, botanist and traveler, cited, 408. Bastidas, Spanish explorer, 24. Baton Rouge, captured by Gálvez, 515. Bay of the Bidayes (Galveston Bay), visited by La Harpe, 283. Bay of Chaleurs, 82. Bay of Espíritu Santo (Matagorda Bay), 249, 297. Bay of Juan Ponce, 64. Bay of St. Bernard, 283. Beaumarchais, Pierre Augustin Caron de, assists United States during Revolution, 506. Behaim's globe, 7. Bellefeuille, explores Tennessee River, 102. Beltrán, Fray Bernaldino, expedition to New Mexico, 72. See Espejo. Bemis Heights, first battle of, 497; second battle of, 498. Benavides, Fray Alonso de, Franciscan Missionary, 243; report on New Mexico in 1630, 243. Benbow, John, English vice-admiral, victories in West Indies, 268. Bennington, Battle of, 495-496. Bergen, New Jersey, 198. Bering, Vitus, 388; explores American coast, 388. Berkeley, John, Lord Berkeley, receives West New Jersey, 198; sells territory to the Quakers, 200; Carolina proprietor, 208. Berkeley, Sir William, governor of Virginia, 159; struggle with the Commonwealth, 160; begins second administration, 183; abuses in administration, 184; Bacon's rebellion, 185-187; expedition to the West, 211; Carolina proprietor, 208. Bermuda Islands, visited by English, 118; charters of 1612 and 1614, 120; settlement, 130, 251; population, 130; economic importance, 130; government, 130; during Puritan Revolution, 152; Somers Island Company dissolved, 206; a crown colony, 206; migration of settlers, 206; Scotch migration, 324. Bernard, Francis, Governor of Massachusetts, 440, 441, 442-443. Béthencourt, de, Norman voyager to the Canaries, 4. Biencourt, French official in Acadia, 85-86. Bienville, Governor of Louisiana: first administration, 276; under the Compagnie d'Occident, 279-280, 284; royal governor, 280-281. Bigot, intendant in Canada, 368, 375. Bill Williams Fork (River in Arizona), Farfán on, 73; Sedelmayr on, 304. Bills of credit, 544-545. Biloxi, Mississippi, founded by French, 267, 276: settlement moved to Mobile Bay, 276; judicial department of Louisiana, 279. Bimini, De León seeks, 40. Black Code of Louisiana, The, 280, 398. Blair, William, 229. Blathwayt, William, secretary of Lords of Trade, 182. Block, Adrian, Dutch trader, 165. Blommaert, Samuel, Patroon, 170; in Sweden, 175. Board of Admiralty, created, 543. Board of Trade, 346-347, 348, 354. Board of War and Ordnance, 543. Bobadilla, rule in West Indies, 17. Bodega y Quadra, expeditions up Pacific coast, 395; discovers Bodega Bay, 395. Boisbriant, French commander in Illinois, 284. Bonhomme Richard, sea-fight with the Serapis, 518-519. Book of the Tartars, 3. Boone, Daniel, on Watauga River,413; effort to colonize Kentucky, 416; opens "Wilderness Road," 417. Boonesborough, Kentucky, founded, 417. Boscawen, English admiral, 377, 380. Bosque, Fernando del, expedition across Rio Grande, 248. Boston, settled, 142; population, 331; resolutions against sending troops, 442; Massacre, 443; committee of correspondence, 446; Tea Party, 447-448; Port Act, 449; siege, 461, 471. Bourgmont, on Missouri and Kansas rivers, 1724, 284. Boyano, Spanish explorer in North Carolina, 1567, 64. Braddock, Major General Edward, campaign and defeat, 371-372. Bradford, New Jersey, 199. Bradford, Governor William, at Scrooby, 137; History of Plymouth Plantation, 137; elected governor of Plymouth, 139. Bradstreet, English lieutenant-colonel, expedition against Fort Frontenac, 378. Brandenburgers, in the West Indies, 253. Brandywine, Battle of, 499-500. Brant, Iroquois chief, 515. Brazil, Portugal's claims to, 11, 24; French attempts to colonize, 84, 251; Dutch colonization in, 166; Brazos River, Texas, Coronado on, 1541, 45; De Mézières on, 401. Bréboeuf, French Jesuit, work among the Hurons, 88. Breed's Hill, 461. Brewster, William, at Scrooby, 137. British East India Company, 70. Brooke, Lord, interest in the Caribbean, 133; holdings in Connecticut Valley, 149; obtains lands in New Hampshire, 157. Brooklyn, captured by the British, 484. Brownists, 135. Bruselas (Costa Rica), founding of, 31. Bucarely, Viceroy of New Spain, 1771-1779; sends explorers to Northern Pacific, 395. Buddhist priest, supposed visit to America, 499 A.D., 2. Buen Aire Island, settled by Dutch, 167. Buffalo Plains, Spanish expeditions to, 72, 73. Bunker Hill, Battle of, 461-462. Burgoyne, General John, at Boston, 441; New York campaign, 493-499. Burke, Edmund, on conciliation, 456. Burlington, New Jersey, body of laws, 201; description of, 225-226. Burma, Portuguese in, 24. Bustamente y Tagle, expedition down Arkansas River against Comanches, 291. Bute Ministry, policy of, 429-430. Button, Sir Thomas, explores Hudson Bay, 213. Buzzard's Bay, settled by Pilgrims, 139. Byllynge, Edward, proprietor West Jersey, 201, 202. Bylot, explores Baffin Bay, 213. Byng, English admiral, defeats Spanish fleet, 359. Byron, Commodore John, in American Revolution, 510. Cabildo, Spanish town council, 20; membership and functions, 20. Cabinet, development in the reign of Anne, 350-351; system, 353. Cabo del Engaño, discovered by Ulloa, 44. Cabot, John, explorations of, 26, 105-106. Cabral, Portuguese explorer, 24. Cabrillo, Juan Rodríguez, explores Pacific coast, 47. Cacaxtle Indians, in Texas, expedition against, 248. Cadereyta, Nuevo León, founded, 247. Cadillac, Lama the, founder of Detroit and of Louisiana, governor of Louisiana, 277-278, 282. Cadodacho Indians, La Harpe visits, 283. Cahokia, captured by Clark, 514. Cakchiquels, Indians of Guatemala, conquest of, 38. Calderón, Bishop of Cuba, visits Florida in 1674, 254. Cale, province sought by De Soto, 41. Calender Stone, Aztec, 27. Calicut, voyage to, 5. California (Lower and Upper): expedition of Cabrillo and Ferrelo, 47; on route of Manila trade, 68; raids of Drake and Cavendish, 70; new explorations, Cermeño and Vizcaíno, 70-71; Oñates expedition by land, 73; insular theory of California geography, 73, 241. California, Lower: Cortés's colony in, 42; Ulloa's voyage round the Peninsula, 44; seventeenth century efforts to occupy, 240-242; pearl fisheries, 240; Iturbi's voyage, 240; later attempts, 240-241; Kino and Atondo, 242; Jesuit occupation, 306-308; Salvatierra and companions, 306; expulsion of the Jesuits, 307, 386; Franciscans in, 386; Gálvez in, 386; Dominicans in, 391. California, Upper: threatened by Russia, 388; derision of Spain to occupy, 388; the Portolá expedition, 389; Junípero Serra, 389; San Diego and Monterey founded, 389; plans for expansion, 389; map, 390; a land route from Arizona, 391; San Francisco founded, 391; communication with New Mexico attempted, 391; explorations of Garcés, Escalante, and Domínguez, 392; Neve governor, 392; founding of pueblos San José and Los Angeles, 392; the halfway post at Yuma and the Yuma massacre, 393-394; Santa Bárbara and San Buenaventura founded, 394; northern explorations by sea, 394-395. Calvert, Cecilius, second Lord Baltimore, 126; receives proprietary grant of Maryland, 126; his powers and rights, 127, 128. Calvert, Charles, proprietor of Maryland, 188-189. Calvert, George, stockholder in Virginia Company, 125; early history, 125; becomes Baron of Baltimore, 125; application for Virginia grant, 125-126; death, 126. Calvert, Leonard, governor of Maryland, 129. Calvinism, in France, 78; in New York, 222. Cambridge Agreement, 142. Cambridge, settled, 145. Camden, fighting at, 525-526. Campbell Colonel William, at King's Mountain, 527. Canada, search for Northwest passage, Frobisher, Davis, Gilbert, 60, 108-109; early French voyages, 81-82; Acadia settled, 85-86; St. Lawrence Valley exploration, settlements, fur trade, seigniories, 86-93; Newfoundland fisheries, 106; Hudson's Bay Company, 212-214, 423; struggle for fur country, 257-261; in Wars of English and Spanish Successions, 262-267, 271-273; Vérendrye in the West, 287-288; in War of Austrian Succession, 364-366; in French and Indian War, 374-383; under British rule, 403-406, 419-424; the Montreal traders, 421-424; during American Revolution, 450, 462, 467, 470; Loyalists, 421, 472-476; 493, 538. See Acadia, Colonial administration, English colonies, French colonies, French and Indian War, fur trade, Hudson's Bay Company, Jesuits, Loyalists, Montreal, Northwest Company, Quebec, the intercolonial wars. Canada Company, 141. Canadian River, Oñate expedition to, 73. Canary Islands, discovery of, 3; other visits to, 4; acquired by Spain, 8; factor in trans-Atlantic navigation, 8; natives of as colonists in Florida and Texas, 255, 298. Cancer, Fray Luis, expedition to Florida, 61. Cano, Francisco del, explorer in Coahuila, 59. Cape Ann, settlement, 140. Cape Blanco, California, 5, 71. Cape Bojador, 2. Cape Breton Island, 273, 365-383; siege and defence of Louisbourg, 364-365. Cape Fear, 26. Cape Fear River, Ayllón at, 41. Cape Finisterre, battles off, 365. Cape Gaspé, 82, 87. Cape of Good Hope, discovery of, 5; trade route to Far East, 5. Cape Horn, discovery of, 165. Cape Mendocino, California on route of Manila galleon, 70. Cape Nun, early voyages to, 3-4. Cape St. Vincent, 4. Cape Verde, reached by Portuguese, 5. Cape Verde Islands, discovery of, 5. Capuchins, in Louisiana, 280. Carabajal, Luis de, governor of Kingdom of New León, 60; expeditions and colonies, 60-61; arrest and condemnation, 61. Caria, Island of, 25. Caribs, enslaved, 23; De León's war against, 40. Cárdenas, discovers Grand Canyon, 45. Cardona, Thomas, monopoly of pearl fishing, 240. Caribbean Sea. See West Indies, Lesser Antilles, and individual islands. Carleton, General Sir Guy, 487, 488. Carlisle Commission, 509. Carlisle, Lord, receives grant in the Caribbean, 132. Carlos III, attitude toward American Revolution, 515. Carmelites, in Louisiana, 280. Carolinas, Gordillo and Quexos in Chicora, 26; Ayllón's colony of San Miguel in, 40-41; De Soto in North Carolina Piedmont, 42; attempt of De Luna and Villafañe at Santa Elena (Port Royal), 61-62; Ribaut's Huguenot colony at Port Royal, 62, 84; Spanish post at Santa Elena, 64; exploration of Pardo and Boyano, 64; missions at Santa Elena and Orista, 64-65; Menéndez's expeditions up coast, 65; traders in, 102; Carolina traders cross the Alleghanies, 102; grant to Sir Robert Heath, 207; settlement of Albemarle district, 207; charters of 1663 and 1665, 207-208; the proprietors, 208; Locke's constitution, 208; settlements, 208, 254; effect on Spanish frontier policy, 254; development of the colony, 210; unrest at Charleston, 210-211; the Albemarle region, 211; Culpeper's rebellion, 211; under William III, 346; separation, 313; Yamassee War, 314; overthrow of proprietors, 314-315. See also Albemarle District, North Carolina, South Carolina. Carpenters' Hall, 452. Carpini, John de Plano, author of Book of the Tartars, 3. Carrero, Alonso, explorer in Central America, 32. Cartagena, despoiled in War of English Succession, 262; bombarded and besieged in War of Jenkins' Ear, 361, 363. Carteret, Sir George, grant in the Jerseys, 198; obtains East New Jersey, 198-199; Carolina proprietor, 208; interest in Hudson's Bay Company, 213. Carteret, Philip, governor of East New Jersey, 198-199. Cartier, Jacques, in the St. Lawrence, 81-82; map showing explorations, 83. Carver, Governor John, goes to Leyden, 137; removal to Plymouth, 137; confirmed as governor, 138; death, 139. Casa de Contratación, 19; duties and organization, 19; subordinate to Council of Indies, 20. Casas Grandes (Nueva Vizcaya), 56, 242. Casco Bay settlement, 140; submits to Massachusetts, 158; attacks on, 262, 263. Castañeda, explores coast of Central America, 29. Castile, kingdom of, 13-14; ownership of Spanish America, 19. Castilla del Oro, province of, settlement, organization, and jurisdiction of, 28-29. Catalonia, 13. Catawba Indians, hostile to French of Louisiana, 270, 369. Catherine de Medici, 78. Catherine II, of Russia, the League of Armed Neutrals, 519. Catholic Church, 13-14; Charles V protector of, 16; its agencies against the Reformation, 52; leaders, 78, 79; in Maryland, 128, 229; in New York, 223; in Canada under British rule, 420. See California, Canada, Louisiana, Florida, New Mexico, Texas, Missions. Catholic League, The, 79. Cattle industry, in Spanish colonies, 19, 21, 58, 75, 240; in the English colonies, 310, 334. Cavendish, Thomas, English freebooter, 70; circumnavigation of the globe, 108. Cavelier, Abbé Jean, brother of La Salle, urges colonization of Louisiana, 275. Cavelier, Robert, sieur de la Salle. See La Salle. Caymán Islands, granted to Providence Island Company, 133. Cebú, Philippines, settled by Spaniards, 68. Cedros (Cerros) Islands, 71, 307. Celaya, Mexico, founded, 59. Cempoalla, Cortés at, 33. Central America, exploration of eastern coasts, 23-26; Maya and Nahua civilizations, 26-28; Castilla del Oro, 28-29; Balboa and Pedrarias, 29; Panamá founded, 29; discovery of the Pacific and South Sea exploration, 29-31; map, 30; conquest of Costa Rica and Nicaragua, 31; of Guatemala, San Salvador and Honduras, 31, 37, 38, 39; of Yucatán, 38; exploration of the San Juan River, 31-32; the dukedom of Veragua, 32; continued struggle, 32. Cermeño, Sebastián Rodríguez, explores California coast, 71. Cerro de la Plata, Texas, 248. Ceuta, Moorish stronghold, 4. Ceylon, visited by the Polos, 3; acquired by Portugal, 24. Ceynos, oidor of New Spain, 49. Chagres, Central America, captured by England, 361. Chalchuites, mine of, 56. Challons, Henry, voyage of 1606, 116. Champlain, Samuel de, explorations, 85, 87; associated with Sieur de Monts, 86; sends expedition in search of Northwest Passage, 88; last days, 88. Chamuscado, Francisco Sánchez, expedition to New Mexico, 72. Chancellor, Richard, expedition to Russia, 106. Chapuis, Jean, expedition to New Mexico, 286. Chapultepec, Mexico, 28. Charcas (San Luis Potosí), Mexico, founded, 59. Charles I, of England, policy of, 112-114; the tobacco business, 124-125; end of personal rule, 152. Charles II, of England, grant to the Duke of York, 178; restoration, 179; general policy, 179; navigation acts, 180-181; policy of imperial defense, 181; fiscal system, 181; orders return of Governor Berkeley, 187; attitude toward Massachusetts, 189-190; grants charters to Connecticut and Rhode Island, 190; royal commissioners, 190-191; sends Edward Randolph, 192-193; annulment of Massachusetts charter, 193; royal commission to the colonies, 197; issues charter to Hudson's Bay Company, 213-214. Charles III, of Spain, reforms of, 384-385. See Carlos II. Charles V, emperor, 14, 16; his inheritance, 16; elected Holy Roman Emperor, 16; his European contests, 16; expansion of New Spain during his reign, 16; emigration policy, 21; sale of Spain's claim to the Moluccas, 46; abdication, 52. Charleston, South Carolina, founded, 210, 254; social conditions, 231; Spanish expedition against, 270; commerce, 335; defense against British, 471; captured by Clinton, 524-525. Charlestown, Massachusetts, settled, 142. Charles Town, South Carolina, 208. Charlotiana, proposed colony of, 411. Charlotte Bay, Menéndez at, 64. Chauvin, French fur trader, associated with de Monts, 85. Charnisay, struggle with LaTour in Acadia, 86. Cherokee Indians, unite against France, 270; French influence, 314; Cuming's Mission, 315; attack English during French and Indian War, 369, 378-379; cede lands, 412, 417; retard expansion, 414; war during the Revolution, 512-513. Cherry Valley, 514. Chesapeake Bay, Menéndez's plans for, 64; Jesuit mission at, 65. Chester, Governor of West Florida, 407. Chiametla, Mexico, Ibarra at, 56. Chiaha, Georgia, Boyano at, 64. Chiapas, Mexico, population in 1574, 75. Chichén Itza, Maya ruins, 27. Chickasaw Indians, French alliance with, 276; French war with, 281; hostile to English, 403, 407, 414; on the British side during Revolution, 514. Chickasaw Trail, 211-212, 369. Chico, conquistador in Jalisco, 36, 37. Chicora, region in Carolina, attempt to colonize, 26, 40-41. Chihuahua, Mexico, 41, 56; industrial development, 58; advance of settlement in, 242; Missions established, 242; discovery of the mines, 289; advance down the Conchos Valley, 290; capital of the Interior Provinces, 387. Chile, trade with, 66. China, early contact with America, 2; travelers' tales of, 3; Portuguese trading settlements in, 24; search for northwest passage to, 82, 88, 100; market for Russian traders, 388. Chipewyan Indians, trade with Hudson's Bay Company, 214. Chirinos, veedor of New Spain, 48. Choctaw Indians, hostile to French, 280, 281; French smuggling among, 406; at war with Chickasaws, 407; retard English expansion, 414; on the British side during Revolution, 514. Cholula, Mexico, Cortés at, 33. Chozas, Father Pedro, Franciscan Missionary in Georgia, 65. Christian, Col. William, 513. Christiansen, Dutch navigator, 165. Church, Benjamin, expedition against Acadia, 271. Cíbola (New Mexico), search for, 42-46. Cipango. See Japan. Claiborne, William, trouble with Maryland, 128. Clarendon, Earl of (Edward Hyde), Carolina proprietor, 208. Clark, Daniel, speculator at Natchez, 408. Clark, George Rogers, conquers Northwest, 514; assists Spanish commander at St. Louis, 516. Clamorgan, fur trader at St. Louis, explores Missouri River, 402. Clifford, English freebooter, 66. Clinton, Gen. Sir. H., at siege of Boston, 461; at Charleston, 471; captures forts on the Hudson, 498; in command of British forces in America, 509; evacuation of Philadelphia, 509; Monmouth, 509-510; reinforces Newport, 510; seizes points on the Hudson, 511; orders raids, 511; orders evacuation of Newport, 511; concentration at New York, 511; blockades Newport, 511; correspondence with Arnold, 511; captures Charleston, 524-525. Coahuila, province of, Vaca crosses, 41; Tlascaltecan Indians used as colonists in, 60; founding of, 248; development, 248-249, 292,387; map, 250. Coça, Alabama, Spanish colony at, 61, 62. See Coosa. Coddington, William, Rhode Island magistrate, 148; governor, 159. Codrington, English general, attacks Guadeloupe, 1703, 268. Codrington College, 339. Coíba, Island of, Balboa granted, 29. Colbert, controller general of finances of France, 81; policy with regard to New France, 81, 94. Coligny, Admiral, Huguenot leader, 52, 78-79. Colima, founded, 37. College of New Jersey, 339. Colleton, James, governor of Carolinas, 211. Colleton, Sir John, interest in Carolinas, 207-208. Colonial administration: Spanish, beginnings in the West Indies, 8, 19-23; establishment of the viceroyalty of New Spain, 47-50; under Philip II, 52-55; the merchant fleets, 66; administrative subdivisions, 75-76; frontier administration in the 17th century, 234-237; Jesuit control in Lower California, 306-307; reorganization of New Spain after 1763; the reforms of Charles III and Gálvez, 384-388; in Louisiana, 397-398; French, Colbert's policy, 81; in Canada, 85, 87, 90; reorganization, 91; Talon, 92; seignorial grants, 92; in West Indies, 93-96; in Louisiana, 276; the Company of the Indies, 278-280; the royal governors, 280-281; English, policy of the Early Stuarts, 113-114; regulation of tobacco industry, 122-125; during the Commonwealth and the Protectorate, 153; under the Later Stuarts, 179-183; William III's reorganizations, 343-350; under Anne, 350-352; under the Whigs, 353-357; organization of new possessions after French and Indian War, 403-423; on the Eve of the American Revolution, 425-426; Dutch, in New Netherlands, 166, 167-168; patroon system, 169-170; struggle for popular rights, 172-173. Colonial Currency Act, 431. Colorado River, exploration of, 45; Grand Canyon discovered, 45; Kino, Keller, Sedelmayr, and Consag at, 302, 304. Colorado, State; Spanish explorers in, 291-292. Columbia River, discovered by Heçeta, 395. Columbus, Bartholomew, in England, 7. Columbus, Christopher, early life, 7; sojourn in Spain, 7; commission, 8; discovery of America, 8-10; map showing voyages, 9; sojourn in West Indies, and return to Europe, 10; rule in West Indies, 16-19; second and third voyages, 16-17; charges against, 17; fourth voyage, 24; attempted colony on Veragua coast, 28. Columbus, Diego, rule and work of in West Indies, 17, 20. Comanche Indians, barrier to French expansion, 285; treaty with, 286; French advance through country of, 286. Commerce and Trade, with Africa, 5; with Asia, 5; Portuguese in the East, 24; slave trade, 5, 23, 107, 196, 197, 253, 385; of Spanish Colonies, 8, 16-19, 29, 46, 47, 75, 118, 164, 166, 234, 251-252, 268, 269, 273, 292, 307, 359, 384, 398, 400; Casa de Contratación, 19-20; trading voyages, 23-24; San Juan River route, 31-32; route of fleets, 62, 64; Spanish monopoly, 65-66; freebooters, 62, 66-67, 70; Puerto Bello, 32, 360, 361; Vera Cruz port, 66; the Manila galleon, 66-70, 307; Acapulco port, 86; pearl fisheries, 68, 71, 240, 243-244; the Pichilingues, 240; reforms of Chas. III, 385; Louisiana trade, 398; Spanish horse trade, 400; French West India Company, 91-92, 94, 96; Company of St. Christopher, 93, 94; Company of Hundred Associates, 87, 90; Company of New France, 91; Company of Isles of America, 94; Compagnie du Nord, 273; Crozat's grant, 276-278; Compagnie d'Occident, 279-284; Dutch commercial expansion, 164-166; in Java, 164; in Guiana, 166-167, 251-252; Dutch East India Company, 164-165; Dutch West India Company, 166, 252; in New Netherlands, 173-174; Danes in West Indies, 253; Russian trade in China, 388; Early English trade expansion, 105-107; East India Company, 70, 108, 447; Muscovy Company, 106; Eastland Company, 108; Venetian Company, 107; Newfoundland fisheries, 106; Northeast Passage, 106, 108, 164, 213; Hawkins in Brazil, 107; Company of Cathay, 109; Guiana, 130-132; Canada Company, 141; Council of Trade, 114, 182; Committee on Trade and Plantations, 153, 344; Navigation Acts, 153, 180-181, 348-349, 351, 354-355; Mercantilist System, 179; Admiralty Courts, 182-183, 349; Customs Officials, 183, 439; Council for Trade and Plantations, 182; Board of Trade, 346-348, 543; African Company, 196, 199; Hudson's Bay Company, 212-214; Asiento of 1713, 273, 289; Trade of New England, 217, 331; Rhode Island, 216; Massachusetts, 217; New York, 221-222, 331-332; Pennsylvania and New Jersey, 225-226; Delaware, 332-333; Virginia and Maryland, 188, 228-229, 333-334; South Carolina, 102, 230-231; English Florida, 407-408; Detroit, 422; of Bermudas, 130; of Barbados, 210, 340; of West Indies, 339-341, 356, 398; St. Eustatius Island, 341, 428; Leeward Islands, 340; smuggling, 359-360, 361, 385, 398, 406, 428; Grenville's policy, 429-437; Townshend Acts, 438-439; North's policy, 449-451; policy of First Continental Congress, 454-455; Board of Admiralty, 543. Commission for Foreign Plantations, trouble with Massachusetts, 145-146. Committees of Correspondence, 436, 445-447. Committee on Foreign Correspondence, 543. Committee on Trade and Plantations, 153, 344. Committee for Foreign Plantations, 153. Committee of Trade, Plantations, and Foreign Affairs, 153. Compagnie d'Occident, rule in Louisiana, 278-280; trade in the trans-Mississippi West, 282. Compagnie du Nord, competition with Hudson's Bay Company, 273. Company of Cathay, 109. Company of Hundred Associates, 87, 90. Company of the Indies. See Compagnie d'Occident. Company of Isles of America, organization, 93; activities and settlements, 94. Company of New France, surrender of rights, 91. Company of Royal Adventurers trading to Africa, 196. Company of St. Christopher, 93, 94. Compostela, capital of Nueva Galicia, 39, 45, 55. Conant, Roger, 141. Conchos Indians, 242. Conchos River, 72; Spanish advance down valley of, 290. Congregational Church, in New England, 220; in New York, 223; in East New Jersey, 224; in South Carolina, 231. Connecticut, early claimants, 149; migration of 1635-1636, 149; Pequot War, 149-150; "Fundamental Orders," 150; code of 1650, 155; member of New England Confederation, 156; incorporation of new towns, 158; charter of 1662, 190; attitude toward royal commissioners, 191; King Philip's War, 191-192; Dominion of New England, 194-195; charter restored, 195; population, 216; religion, 220; education, 220; restoration of charter, 334; protest against Grenville's policy, 432; navy, 518. Consag, Father Fernando, explores Gulf of California, 304, 307. Conspiracy of Pontiac, impedes English occupation of Ohio Valley, 409, 417. Continental Army, 464. Continental Congress. See First Continental Congress, Second Continental Congress. Convention of Aranjuez, 515. Conway Cabal, 503-504. Cook, Captain James, voyage to Nootka Sound, 395. Cooper, Anthony Ashley. Lord Ashley, Carolina proprietor, 207-208; interest in Hudson's Say Company, 213. Copala, Mexico, Ibarra seeks, 56. Coppermine River, discovered by Hearne, 424. Corazones, Sonora, settlement at, 45. Córdova, Francisco Hernández de, conquests in Central America, explores Yucatán, 25, 31, 32. Cornwallis, Edward, Governor of Acadia, 366. Cornwallis, Gen. Lord, captures Ft. Lee, 489; New Jersey campaign, 489-493; at Brandywine, 500; in command in South, 525; Camden, 525-526; operations in the Carolinas, 527-529; in Virginia, 530; Yorktown, 532. Coronado, Francisco Vásquez, governor of Nueva Galicia, 40; expedition to Cibola and Quivira (New Mexico and Kansas), 44-46; conquest of Pueblo Indians, 45. Corregidores, 14, 49. Corregimientos, 55, 76. Cortés, Hernando, 25, 31; conquests, 32-38; revolt of and departure from Cuba, 32; founds Vera Cruz, 33; at Mexico City, 33; contest for royal favor, 34; governor and captain-general, 34; spread of his conquests, 36-39; expelled from Vera Cruz, 36; march to Honduras, 38; return to Spain, 38; explorations on South Sea and in California, 42-44, 46; contest for leadership, 44; administrator, 47-48; residencia, 48; honored in Spain, 49. Cortés, Martin, second Marquis of the Valley, 53-54. Cortes, governing bodies in Castile and Aragon, 14. Costa Rica, conquest of, 31. Cotton, John, pastor of Boston church, 146; the Hutchinsonian Controversy, 148. Council for Foreign Plantations, 181. Council for New England, 136-137; grants patent to Plymouth, 319; land grants, 140; resigns charter, 146. Council for Trade and Plantations, 182. Council of Blood, 52. Council of the Indies, organization, duties, and authority, 19-20; promulgates New Laws, 50. Council of the Inquisition, 14; expulsion of Jews and Moors, 14. Council of State, English, 152, 153. Council of Trade of 1622, 114; of 1625, 114; of 1660, 182. Council of Trent, 52. Council of Virginia, 113. Coureurs de bois, 90, 100, 102, 257, 422. Courten, William, proprietor in Barbados and Carolina, 132, 133. Court of High Commission, 135. Couture, Jean, on Tennessee River, 102. "Cowpens," established on the English frontier. Cowpens, battle at, 528. Coxe, Daniel, New Jersey proprietor, 202. Craven, William, Lord Craven, Carolina proprietor, 208. Cree Indians, trade of Hudson's Bay Company with, 214. Creek Indians, Spanish missions among, 255; French influence, 314; English diplomacy and trade among, 316, 407, 412; retard English expansion, 414. Criminals, 336. Croghan, surveys in Ohio Valley, 413. Croix, Teodoro de, first commandant-general of the Interior Provinces, 387, 304; plans war on Apaches, 401. Cromwell, Oliver, heads military party, 152; member of Committee of Trade, Plantations, and Foreign Affairs, 153; Lord Protector, 154; conquers Jamaica, 253. Crown Colonies, British, established in 1763, 404. Crown Point, 313, 462, 487. Crozat, Antoine, trade monopoly in Louisiana, 276-277; government, 277; attempts at trade expansion, 278; surrender of patent, 278. Crusades, effect on travel and geographical knowledge, 3. Crúzate, Governor, attempts to reconquer New Mexico, 246. Cuartelejo, El, Colorado, Urribarri's expedition to, 291; Villazur's, 296. Cuauhtemoc, Aztec ruler, executed by Cortés, 33, 38. Cuba, explored by Columbus and Ocampo, 10, 17, 25; Cortés in, 32; decline of, 67; English attempt to conquer, 363. Cubero, governor of New Mexico, subdues Pueblos, 247; founds Albuquerque, 290; sends expedition to El Cuartelejo, 291. Cuernavaca, Mexico, estates of Cortés at, 53. Culiacán, founded, 39; visited by Vaca, 41; point of departure for Friar Marcos, 44; for Coronado, 45; for Ibarra, 56; population, 58. Culpeper, Thomas, Lord, proprietary grant in Virginia, 185; governor of Virginia, 187. Cumberland settlement, Tennessee, 419. Cuming, Sir Alexander, mission to the Cherokees, 315. Curaçao, settled by the Dutch, 167, 252; trade, 428. Cusihuiriáchic, Chihuahua, settled, 242. Customs officials, 183, 439. Dale, Sir Thomas, deputy-governor of Virginia, 119; policy, 121. Danes, in the West Indies, 253. Daniel, Robert, English colonel, 269. Davenport, Reverend John, a founder of New Haven, 156. Davidson County, North Carolina, 419. Davila, Gil González. See González. Davis, John, seeks northwest passage, 66, 109. Dawes, William, 460. Deane, Silas, mission to France, 506. De Chastes, in fur trading company, 85. De Caylus, French admiral, 365. Declaration of Independence, 476-481. Declaratory Act, 438. Deerfield, Massachusetts, massacre at, 271. Delaware province, economic and social conditions in the eighteenth century, 332-333; separation from Pennsylvania, 350. Delaware Indians, 416. Delaware, Lord, governor of Virginia, 118-119. Delaware River, Washington's retreat across, 489-492; opened by the British, 502. De León, Alonso, governor of Coahuila, 248; founds Texas, 249, 251. De León, Juan Ponce, explores coast, 17, 25, 26; war against the Caribs, 40; attempts to colonize Florida, 40. De León, Luís Ponce, governor in Mexico, holds residencia of Cortéz, 48. DeLepe, explorer, 24. Delgado, Marcos, explores western Florida, 249. DeLignery, 287, campaign in Wisconsin, 1715, 287. De Louvigny, victory over Foxes in Wisconsin, 1716, 275, 287. De Luna, Tristán, expedition to Florida, 61-62. De Medici, Catherine, 78. De Medici, Mary, 79, 80. De Mézières, Athanase, rule in Red River Valley, 398, 401. Denmark, joins League of Armed Neutrals, 520. Denonville, Governor, campaign against Iroquois, 258-259. Department of foreign affairs (United States), 555. De Soto, Hernando, in Central America, 31; governor of Florida, 41; expedition of, 41-42, 44; death, 42. D'Estaing, Comte, in command of French fleet, 510; failure at Newport, 510; in West Indies, 510-511; fails to relieve Savannah, 511, 524. Destruction of the Indies, The, work by Las Casas, 50. De Tracy, lieutenant-colonel of New France, 94. Detroit, founding of, 101; occupied by French, 267, 368; fur trading post, 422: during American Revolution, 513, 514. De Troyes, captures Hudson Bay posts, 261. Díaz, Bartholomew, explores African coast, 5. Díaz, Melchior, explores Colorado River, 45. Dickinson, John, member of the Stamp Act Congress, 436; author of the Farmer's Letters, 439: member of First Continental Congress, 452; attitude toward Declaration of Independence, 478; on committee to draw up Articles of Confederation, 550. Dieskau, Baron, 374. Dinwiddie, lieutenant-governor of Virginia, 369. Disallowance, 351-352. Dollard, resistance to Iroquois, 91. Dolores y Viana, Father, missionary in Texas, 299. Dominica Island, captured by French, 510; battle between Rodney and De Grasse, 532. Dominicans, in New Spain, 61; field of work, 236. Domínguez, Father Francisco, explores Utah Basis, 392. Donelson, pioneer in Kentucky, 419. Dongan, Thomas, governor of New York, 197-198; policy toward Indians, 258. Dorchester, settled, 142. Dorchester Heights, 471. Douro River, Portugal, 4, 13. Dover, New Hampshire, 140; Puritan settlers, 157; claimed by Massachusetts, 157. Drake, Francis, freebooter in West Indies, 66; raid on Pacific coast, 70; accompanies Hawkins, 107; attack on Nombre de Dios, 107; on Chagres River, 107; circumnavigates globe, 108; rescues Roanoke Island colonists, 110. Drake's Bay, California, 70. Ducasse, French naval commander, in intercolonial wars, 262, 268, 269. Duchesneau, intendant of New France, 97; recalled, 98. Ducour, French commander, surrenders Louisbourg, 377. Dudley, Thomas, deputy governor, 142; governor, 146. Duke's Laws, 197. Duluth, fur trader in Minnesota and Wisconsin, 100. Dunmore, Lord, governor of Virginia, 413; war with Indians of Ohio Valley, 417; difficulties in 1775, 462-463. Duquesne, Marquis, governor-general of Canada, 368; plans to occupy Ohio country, 368. Durango, Mexico, founding of, 56; industrial development, 58; capital of Nueva Vizcaya, 242. Durham, Massacre at, 266. Du Rivage, French explorer on Red River, 1719, 283. Dutch, destroy English settlement on Schuylkill River, 155; in American Revolution, 520-522; revolt of the Netherlands, 52; Dutch freebooters in the Caribbean, 66; commercial expansion of the Netherlands, 164; East Indian trade, 164; Henry Hudson, 165; Cape Horn route discovered, 165; the West India Company, 166; the Dutch in Brazil, Guiana, and the Antilles, 166, 251-252; New Netherlands, 167-174; the government, 167; Peter Minuit, 167-168; the patroon system, 169-170; frontier rivals, 170; Van Twiller and Kieft, 170-171; Indian wars, 172; Stuyvesant, 172; struggle for popular government, 172-173; industries, 173-174; conquest of New Sweden, 175-177; New Netherlands absorbed by the English, 177-178, 196-197; Dutch pirates on the Pacific, 240. Dutch East India Company, 164-165. Dutch Reformed Church, 223. Dutch West India Company, 166, 252. Du Tisné, explores Osage and Arkansas country, 283. Dyer, Mary, 189. East India Company, English, formed, 70, 105; tea concessions, 447. East Indies, commerce of, 70. Eastland Company, 106. East New Jersey, population, 221; social conditions, 223-224; religion, 224; education, 224. See New Jersey. Eaton, Theophilus, a founder of New Haven, 150. Eaton's Station, 513. Echagaray, ordered to explore Bay of Espíritu Santo, 249. Ecija, expedition from Florida to Virginia, 1609, 118-119. Edict of Nantes, 79. Edisto Island, ravaged by Spaniards, 1686, 255. Education, in New Spain, 50, 53; colleges and universities, 76; in New England, 220-221; in New York, 222-223; in East New Jersey, 224; in Chesapeake Bay region, 229; in South Carolina, 231; in English colonies in the eighteenth century, 338-339. Edwards, Jonathan, 338. Elcano, completes Magellan's voyage round the world, 25. Eleutheria Island, settled, 152. Eliot, John, missionary to Indians, 156. Elizabethtown, New Jersey, 199. Elizabeth, Queen of England, policy, 105; English expansion during reign, 107-111. El Paso district, beginnings of, 245; attached to New Mexico, 245. Emigration. See Immigration and Population. Encomiendas, origin of, 22; granting of in conquests, 31, 34, 40, 55; upheld by Cortés, 47-48; New Laws concerning, 50; cessation of, in West Indies, 67; in New Spain, 55, 75. Endicott, John, founds Salem, 141. England, the Tudor Period, 104-105; under the early Stuarts, 112-113; the Puritan movement, 135-136; the Restoration, 179; the mercantilist system, 179; the Triple Alliance, 359; in the War of Jenkins's Ear, 361-364; in the War of the Austrian Succession, 364-366; in the Seven Years' War, 369-383; new possessions after 1763, 403-424; controversy with American colonies, 425-555. English colonies in North America, general history: beginning of English expansion, 1485-1603, 104-110; the Tudor period, 104-105; commercial expansion, 105-107; the Cabots, 105; Newfoundland fisheries, 106; Muscovy and Levant companies, 106; Elizabethan sea-dogs, 107-108; search for a Northwest passage, 108-109; attempts to colonize Virginia and Guiana, 109-110; the colonies under the early Stuarts, 112-113; colonial administration, 113; the founding of Virginia, 114-125; the founding of Maryland, 125-129; the Bermudas, 129; Guiana, 130; the Lesser Antilles, 132; Providence Island Company, 133; the beginnings of New England, 135-150; the Puritan movement, 135-136; Plymouth colony, 136-141; attempts on New England coast, 141-142; Massachusetts Bay Colony, 142-146; Rhode Island and Connecticut, 146-151; the English colonies during the revolutionary period, 152-163; the old colonies under the later Stuarts, 179-195; colonial policy and administration, 179-181; machinery of government, 181-183; expansion under the later Stuarts, 196-214; New York, 196-198; the Jerseys, 198-202; Pennsylvania, 202-206; expansion in the islands, 206-207; the Carolinas, 207-211; Western trade and exploration, 211; Hudson's Bay Company, 212-214; English Mainland colonies at end of 17th century described— society, industry, education, religion, population, 216-232; the struggle with the French for the fur country, 257-261; the War of the English Succession, 261-267; the War of the Spanish Succession, 267-273; the English in the Piedmont, 309-328; the Westward Movement, 309-311; defense of the northern frontier, 311-312; reorganization of the Carolinas, 312-315; Georgia, the buffer colony, 315-316; the German and Swiss migration, 316-322; the Scotch-Irish, 322-326; significance of settlement of the Piedmont, 326-328; the English colonies in the middle 18th century, population, industry, labor systems, society, religion, education, 329-339; Barbados, Leeward Isles, and Jamaica, 339-341; the English colonial system, 343-357; reorganizations by William III, 343-350; development during the reign of Anne, 350-352; under the Whigs, 353-357; a quarter century of conflict with France and Spain, 359-383; Spain and the powers, 359-361; War of Jenkins' Ear, 361-364; War of the Austrian Succession, 364-366; the conflict in the Ohio Valley, 366-369; the French and Indian War, 369-382; the Peace of Paris, 382; the new British possessions, 1763-1783, 403-424; general provisions for defense, government, and fur trade, 403-406; occupation of the Floridas, 406-409; military occupation of the Illinois country, 409-410; western land schemes, 411-413; the westward movement into Tennessee, Kentucky, and the Upper Ohio country, 413-419; the province of Quebec, 410-421; the northern, fur traders, 421-424; the causes of the American Revolution, 425-456; the background of the conflict, 425-429; the policy of the Grenvile Ministry, 429-437; the repeal of the Stamp Act, 431-432; the Townshend Acts, 438-443; organized resistance, 443-447; the Tea Controversy, 447-449; Lord North's Coercive Policy, 440-451; the First Continental Congress, 451-456; the opening of hostilities, 458-463; the Second Continental Congress, 463-470; the Loyalists, 472-476; the Declaration of Independence, 476-480; the struggle for the middle states, 482-504; the war as an international contest, 505-522; the French Alliance, 505-512; the war in the West, 512-515; Spain in the war, 521-522; the dose of the war, 524-532; the treaty of peace, 532-538; governmental development during the Revolution, 539-555. Episcopal Church, in New England, 220; in New York, 222; in Pennsylvania, 226; in Virginia, 229; in Maryland, 229; in South Carolina, 231. Eric the Red, colonization of Greenland, 2. Escalante, Father Silvestre de, explores Utah Basin, 392. Escandón, Colonel José de, colonizes Gulf Coast, 299-300, 385. Escobar, Cristóbal, Jesuit provincial, urges colonization of Colorado River, 304, 307. Española (Haiti), 10; spread of settlements in, 17; gold mining, 19; other industries, 19; emigration to, encouraged, migration from to mainland forbidden, 21; decline of, 67. See also West Indies. Espejo, Antonio de, expedition to New Mexico, 72. Espinosa, Gaspar de, explores Central America, 29-30, 42. Espinosa, Fray Isidro Felix, Franciscan missionary and historian in Texas, 292, 293. Espíritu Santo, settlement in Texas, 36; Bay of, 249, 297. Esquivel, Juan de, colonizes Jamaica, 17. Estete, explores Nicaragua, 32. Estrada, royal treasurer of New Spain, 48; governor in Mexico, 48. Eutaw Springs, 530. Executive departments of United States government, 553, 554-555. See Second Continental Congress. Exeter, New Hampshire, settled, 157. Fabry de la Bruyère, expedition up Canadian River, 286. Fages, Pedro, expedition against the Yumas, 394. Falmouth burned, 470. Far East, travelers in, and books regarding, 3; change in trade route to, 5. Farfán, Marcos, explores Arizona, 73. Farmar, Major Robert, expedition to the Illinois, 406. Farmer's Letters, 439-440. Farnese, Elizabeth, 279, 359, 360, 361. Fenwick, John, 201. Ferdinand and Isabella, 13-14. See also Isabella, Queen of Spain. Ferrelo, explores north Pacific coast with Cabrillo, 47. Feudalism, in Maryland, 125-129. Finlay, James, Montreal fur magnate, 423. Finley, explorer in Kentucky, 413. First Continental Congress, call, 451-452; meeting, 452; Suffolk resolves, 452; plan of union, 452-453; declaration and resolves, 453-454; commercial agreements, 454-455; Association, 455; attempts to secure cooperation of other colonies, 455; beginnings of sovereignty, 539. Fisher, Mary, 189. Fishing industry of New England, 217, 331. Fletcher, Colonel Benjamin, governor of New York, 345. Florida Blanca, Count of, Spanish Minister of Foreign Affairs, 507-508; policy, 515. Floyd, John, prospector in Kentucky, 416. Florida, Indians, 23; explored, 125, 126; assigned to Narváez, 37; Spanish attempts to colonize: De León, 40; Ayllón, 40-41; De Soto, 42; Fray Luis Cancer, 61; De Luna, 61-62; French attempts to colonize, and expulsion of by Spain, 62-63, 83-84, 251; founding of St. Augustine, 62; map, 63; new settlements, 64; Jesuit missions, 64-65; Franciscan missions, 65; Pareja's work on Indian languages, 65, 253; missions in Apalachee district, 247; English encroachment, 253-255; Pensacola founded, 255, 275; during War of Spanish Succession, 269-271; siege of St. Augustine, 269-270; destruction of the Apalachee missions, 269-270; Spanish expedition against Charleston, 270; Indian uprising, 270; the Tuscarora War, 271; Pensacola captured by French, 295; ceded to England, 382, 384; captaincy-general of, 387. Florida, East, under British rule, 404; occupation and development, 408-409; refuge for Loyalists, 409. Florida, West, joined with Louisiana, 398; extent under British rule, 404; possession taken by British, 406; posts in, 406; boundary and the river forts, 406-407; center of control for Indians and for trade of the Southwest, 407; politics and government, 407; development under British rule, 407-408; immigration encouraged, 408; land speculation, 408; Loyalist refuge during the Revolution, 408. Fonseca, Archdeacon, head of Spanish department of Indian affairs, 16, 19, 34; victory of Cortés over, 34. Fonseca Bay, discovered, 29. Font, Father Pedro, Franciscan missionary with Anza, explores in California, 391. Forbes, English commander, expedition against Fort Duquesne, 377, 378. Fort Bute, captured by Gálvez, 515. Fort Casimir, 177. Fort Caroline, French fort in Florida, 62, 84. Fort Christina, 175. Fort Crêvecœur, Illinois, 98. Fort Edward, 495. Fort Elfsborg, 175. Fort Frederica, 316. Fort Frontenac, abandoned, 259; reoccupied, 265. Fort George, 462. Fort Good Hope, 170. Fort Independence, 493-494. Fort Jefferson, 514. Fort King George, 315. Fort Lee, captured by the British, 488-489. Fort Mercer, 503. Fort Miami, LaSalle at, 98. Fort Mifflin, 503. Fort Orange (Albany), 167. Fort Panmure, at Natchez, captured by Gálvez, 515. Fort Rosalie, at Natchez, 278, 280. Fort St. Louis, built by La Salle in Texas, 99. Fort Stanwix, 496. Fort Tombecbé, Alabama, 281, 406. Fort Toulouse, on Alabama River, fur depot and Jesuit mission, 278. Fort Washington, captured by British, 488. Fox, George, visit to New Jersey, 109; religious views, 202; visit to America, 203. Fox Channel, 213. Fox Indians, wars with, 284, 285, 287; massacre, 287. France, during colonial period, 52-53, 78-80, 88, 89, 279, 295, 359, 360, 363, 364, 375; causes of alliance with the United States, 505; policy of Vergennes, 505-506; Deane and Beaumarchais, 506; Franklin's influence, 506-507; American proposals, 507; Lafayette, 508; the alliance, 508; operations of D'Estaing, 510-511; Rochambeau, 511; alliance of 1779 with Spain, 515; peace treaty, 532-538; loans to the United States, 554. Franche Comté, 52. Francis I of France, 16. Franciscans, in New Spain: in Nueva-Vizcaya, 58; Monastery at Saltillo, 59; in Florida, 65; field of work, 236; in Chihuahua, 242; in New Mexico, 243, 245, 246-247, 290; take over work of the Jesuits in northeastern provinces, 386. See also Serra, Garcés, Missions. Franco-Spanish border, 300-301; Texas-Louisiana boundary, 300; New Mexico border, 300-301. Franklin, Benjamin, influence on education, 339; plan of union, 371; interest in the West, 412; agent for Pennsylvania and Massachusetts, 437; the intercepted letters, 448; member of Second Continental Congress, 463; Post Master General, 465; member of committee for drafting the Declaration of Independence, 479; diplomacy in France, 506-507; peace negotiations, 533-538; views regarding the Articles of Confederation, 550. Franklin, William, Governor of New Jersey, land scheme, 411; attempts to defeat Independence, 479. Frederick the Great and League of Armed Neutrals, 519. Freebooters in New World, 62, 66, 70. See Privateers. Freedom of the press, 356-357. Freeman's Farm, 497, 498. French colonies in North America, France during the colonial period, 78-81; early colonizing efforts, 81-84; first voyages, 81; Carriers and Roberval, 81-82; Ribaut and Laudonnière, 82-84; Acadia, 85-86; the fur monopoly, 85; Port Royal, 85; Charnisay and LaTour, 86; the English conquest, 86; the St. Lawrence Valley, 86-93; Quebec founded, 86; Champlain, 87-88; Company of Hundred Association, 87; English conquest, 87; Nicolet, 88; the Jesuits, 88; map, 89; Montreal founded, 90; the New Company, 90; Coureurs de bois, 90; reorganization, 91; centralist system established, 91; Laval, 91; Iroquois War, 91; the West India Company, 91; Talon, 92; Seigneurial grants, 92; the West Indies, 93-96; the West India Company, 94; map, 95; the Upper Lake region and the Mississippi Valley, 96-102; two lines of approach, 96; Upper Lake posts and missions, 96; Marquette and Joliet, 96-97; Frontenac, 97; La Salle's fur trade monopoly, 98; descends the Mississippi, 98; his colony in Texas, 98-99; explores in the Southwest, 100; Duluth, Le Sueur, and Perrot on the upper Mississippi, 100-101; the Illinois country, 101; on the Tennessee, 101-102; Anglo-French rivalry during Wars of English and Spanish Successions, 214, 257-273; the founding of Louisiana, 275-278; Iberville, 275; Spanish resistance, 275. Biloxi, 270; alliances with the tribes, 276; Bienville, 276; Crozat, 276; Natchitoches, Fort Toulouse, and Natchez, 278; Louisiana under the Company of the Indies, 278-280; the Mississippi Bubble, 278; New Orleans founded, 279; War with Spain, 279; government, 279; the Natchez War, 280; Louisiana under royal governors, 280-286; Bienville again, 281; the Chickasaw war, 281; the Illinois country attached to Louisiana, 281; the Missouri lead mines, 282; the French in the trans-Mississippi West, 282-286; La Harpe, DuTisné, Bourgmont, 283-284; advance toward New Mexico, 284-286; the western fur-trade, 284; Mallet, Fabry, Satren, Chapuis, 286; the far Northwest, 287-288; the Fox wars, 281; new Sioux posts, 287; Vérendrye and the Post of the Western Sea, 287-288; Franco-Spanish border conflicts, 289, 291-297, 300-301; the struggle with England, 359-383: the War of the Austrian Succession, 364-366; the conflict on the Upper Ohio, 366-369; the French and Indian War, 369-383; the fall of Quebec, 379; the Peace of Paris, 382; France expelled from America, 363. French and Indian War: approach of, 366-369; preparations in Acadia, 366; activities on the Ohio, 366-369; the Ohio Company, 367; the French frontier strengthened, 367-368; French occupation of the upper Ohio, 368-369; Washington's mission, 369; the southern frontier, 369; Virginia prepares, 369-370; Washington's first campaign, 370; apathy of colonial legislatures, 370-371; the Albany convention, 371; preparations for war, 371; the council of governors, 371-372; Braddock's campaign, 372; harrying of the frontiers, 372-374; map of the western frontier, 1763, 373; operations in Acadia, 374; the Crown Point campaign, 374; the Niagara campaign, 374-375; diplomatic revolution, 375; French preparations, 375; English preparations, 375-376; fall of Oswego, 376; Pitt becomes the moving spirit, 376; Louisbourg and Ft. William Henry, 376; English victories in India, 376, 377; preparations and plans, 1758, 377; capture of Louisbourg, 377; Abercromby's defeat, 377-378; Frontenac and Duquesne, 378; Kerlérec and the southern Indians, 378; the Cherokee War, 378-379; operations in the West Indies, 379; the campaigns of 1759; Niagara captured, 379; the fall of Quebec, 379-380; important naval operations, 380; the French fail to recapture Quebec, 381; capture of Montreal, 381; George III becomes king, 381; operations in the West Indies and the Philippines, 382; the Peace of Paris, 382. French West India Company, 91-92, 94, 96; settlements in the West Indies, 252. Fresnillo, Mexico, mine of, 56. Frobisher, Benjamin and Joseph, Montreal fur magnates, 423. Frobisher, Martin, voyages in search of a northwest passage, 66, 108-109. Frontenac, Count, governor and lieutenant-general of New France, 96, 259, 263; sends Joliet in search of the Mississippi, 96; founding of Fort Frontenac, 97; change in government and resulting friction, 97; recalled, 98; reappointed, 259, 263; conduct of French campaign in War of the English Succession, 263, 264; his Indian policy, 263; reopens the fur trade, 265. Fuenleal, Sebastián Ramirez de, president of Audiencia of New Spain, 49. Fuerte River Valley, Sinaloa, Jesuit missions in, 239. Fuller, William, heads rebellion in Maryland, 162. "Fundamental Orders" of Connecticut, 150. Fur Trade: early French in Acadia, 85; of St. Lawrence Valley, 87-90, 213-214; coureurs de bois, 90; of Mississippi Valley, 98-102; rivalry of French and English, 102; in New England, 155,158, 217; of the Dutch, 165-166, 167, 171, 173-174; of Carolinas, 211; Hudson's Bay Company, 214-215, 260-261; in New York, 222; in Pennsylvania, 226; of South Carolina, 231, 255; struggle for the northern fur country, 257-261; French sphere of influence, 257; English policy, 257-258; French policy under La Barre and Denonville, 258-259; temporary French ascendency, 261; the Alabama border, 270; in English colonies in the 18th century, 331, 332, 334, 335, 367; in French Louisiana, 270, 276-278; in trans-Mississippi West, 284-285, 300, 396; in the Saskatchewan Valley, 287-288; Russian, on the Pacific coast, 388; in Louisiana under Spain, 398, 400-402; in New British possessions after 1763, regulations, 404-406, 421-422; in West Florida, 407; in the Ohio Valley, 409; in Canada, 421-423; the Northwest Company, 423; competition with Hudson's Bay Company, 423-424. Fusang, conjecture concerning location, 2. Gadsden, Christopher, member of the Stamp Act Congress, 436. Gage, General Thomas, 410, 459, 461. Gali, Francisco de, ordered to explore Pacific Coast, 70. Galissonière, Marquis de la, governor of Canada, 368. Galloway, Joseph, 452-453. Galveston Bay, La Harpe at, 283. Gálvez, Bernardo de, governor of Louisiana, 398,401; operations on the lower Mississippi, 515; captures Mobile and Pensacola, 516. Gálvez, José, visitador general to New Spain, 385; Minister of the Indies, 387; reform of the revenue system, 385; tobacco monopoly, 385; in Lower California, 386; organized expedition to Alta California, 386, 387; pacification of Sonora, 386; plans for intendant system, 386-387; creation of new dioceses, 387; captaincy-general of Havana, 387. Gama, Vasco da, voyage to Calicut, 5, 24. Gámara, seeks La Salle's colony, 249. Garay, governor of Jamaica, explorations, 25-26, 37. Garcés, Father Francisco, Franciscan missionary, explorations from San Xavier del Bac, 391; with Anza, opens land route to California, 391; seeks route from New Mexico, 391, 393; founds mission-pueblo at Yuma, 393; massacred, 393. Gaspee affair, 444-445. Gates, General Horatio, at Crown Point, 487; intrigues with Congress, 493; in command against Burgoyne, 496-499; Conway Cabal, 503-504; in the South, 525; defeated at Camden, 525-526. Gates, Sir Thomas, governor of Virginia, 118. Geography, growth of knowledge, 1-4. George I, 353; colonial system under the Whigs, 353-357. George II, colonial system under the Whigs, 353-357. George III, becomes king, 381; policy, 429; proclamation of rebellion in America, 460-470; the American Revolution, 425-555. Georgia, De Soto crosses, 42; Spanish post in Guale (northern Georgia), 1566, 64; Boyano explores, 1567, 64; Jesuit missions in Guale and Orista, 1568, 64-65; Franciscan missions on coast, 573-597, 65; destroyed in uprising, 1597, 65; restored to resist English, 253-254; Yamassee revolt against Spaniards, 255; English attack on missions, 255; English traders among Creeks, 255; Anglo-Spanish border raids during War of Spanish Succession, Spanish frontier contracted, 270; early English movement into, 315; Azilia, 315; motives of Oglethorpe, 315; charter, 315; government, 316; early English settlements, 316; defense, 316; German migration, to, 321; Scotch-Irish migration to, 326; economic conditions, 335; defense against Spaniards during War of Jenkins' Ear, 361-362, 363-364; trouble with the governor, 444; attitude toward the Association 458; Cherokee War, 512-513; conquest by British, 534; reconquered by Greene, 529-530. Georgian Bay, explored, 87, 88. Germaine, Lord George, 470, 493. German mercenaries, 470, 478. German migration to America, causes, 316-317; early movement to Pennsylvania, 317-318; migration to New York, 318-319; later migration to New York, 318-319; later migration to Pennsylvania, 319; to New Jersey, 319; to Maryland, 319-320; to Virginia, 320; to North Carolina, 320; to South Carolina, 321; to Georgia, 321; to New England, 321-322; to Nova Scotia, 322. Germantown, battle of, 502. Germany, 16. Geronymite friars, in West Indies, 23. Gibraltar, Anglo-Spanish conflict over, 359, 360. Gila River, 45; plans for exploration, 304; Garcés on, 391; Yuma mission on, 393. Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, voyage of, 66; attempts to found a colony, 109. Gillam, Zachariah, voyages to Hudson Bay, 213. Gist, Christopher, explores Ohio Valley, 367. Glen, governor of South Carolina, 369. Goa, India, Portuguese in, 24. Godyn, Samuel, 170. Golfo Dulce, Cortés visits, 38. Gómez, Stephen, explores North Atlantic coast, 26. Gondomar, Spanish ambassador in England, 132. González, Dávila, Gil, expeditions in Central America, 29-30, 31, 38. Gordillo, explores Atlantic coast, 26. Gorges, Lord Edward, land grants, 140, 146. Gorges, Sir Ferdinando, sends vessels to New England, 136; land grants, 140, 146, 157; interest in Canada and Laconia companies, 141; loss of estates, 157-158. Gorges, Sir Robert, land grant, 140; attempted settlement at Weymouth, 140. Gorges family, opposition to Massachusetts Bay Company, 141. Gourgues, Dominique de, attacks Spaniards in Florida, 64, 84. Governor's Island, 171. Granada, Nicaragua, founding of, 31; population, 75. Granada, Spain, conquest of kingdom of, 13. Gran Quivira (Kansas), expedition of Coronado to, 45; of Humana, 72-73; of Oñate, 73; of Alonso de Vaca, 243. Grand Canyon of the Colorado, discovered, 45. Grant, Colonel, expedition against Cherokees, 379. Grant, James, first English governor of East Florida, 408-409. Grasse, De, French admiral, in the West Indies, 530-531; defeats Graves, 531; defeated by Rodney, 532. Graves, Admiral, 531. Graydon, John, English vice-admiral, commander of West Indian fleet, 268. "Great Awakening," 338. Great Bridge, 471. Great Khan, visits of Europeans to court of, 3. Greene, Nathanael, in command of Rhode Island volunteers, 461; loses Ft. Washington, 488-489; at Trenton, 491; at Brandywine, 500; at Germantown, 502; in command in the South, 527; retreat, 528; Guilford, 528-529; reconquest of South Carolina and Georgia, 529-530. "Green Sea of Darkness," Arabian notion of, 2. Greenbrier Company, 411. Greenland, discovery and colonization, 2-3. Grenada, acquired by England, 404; occupied by the French, 510; restored to Great Britain, 537. Grenville, Sir Richard, freebooter, 60; expedition to Roanoke Island, 110. Grenville Ministry, 430-436. Grijalva, exploring expeditions, 25, 32. Grimaldi, Spanish minister, 388. Groseilliers, fur trader in Great Lake region, influence in establishment of the Hudson's Bay Company, 213. Guachichile Indians, Coahuila, 59. Guadalajara, seat of Audiencia, 27, 40, 50, 55, 58, 75, 387; seat of Province of Santiago de Jalisco, 249. Guadalajara, New Mexico officer leads pearl hunting expedition in Texas, 244. Guadeloupe Island, international contests over, 93, 252, 262, 382. Guadiana (Durango), diocese of, 242. Guale (Georgia), Spanish presidio in, 64; Jesuit mission in, 64-65. Guanajauto, mines, 58; founding of City of Santa Fé de, 58. Guanajá Islands, 25. Guatemala, Maya civilization, 27; conquest of, 31, 37-38, 39; expedition of Niño to, 42; Audiencia of, 50; population, 75. Guerrero (state), Mexico, Zacatilla founded in, 37. Guiana, 66, 80; tales about, 110; English interests in, 130, 132; early English expeditions to, 132; Spanish opposition to English settlement, 132; Dutch colonization, 166-167; English, Dutch, and French posts, 251-252. Guilford, Connecticut, 150. Guilford, New Jersey, 199. Guilford, battle of, 528-529. Guillen, Father, Jesuit missionary in California, 307. Guise, Francis and Henry, 53, 78, 79. Gutiérrez, Alonso, governor of Veragua, 32. Guzmán, Nuño de, governor of Victoria Garayana (Pánuco), 37, 48; president of Audiencia of Mexico, 38, 48; conquest of Sinaloa (Nueva Galicia), 39, 40; claim to Cibola, 44; enmity to Cortés, 48. Haiti, Columbus's expedition to, 10; named Española, 10. See Española. Halifax, Lord, 354, 366. Halifax, Nova Scotia, founding, 366. Hamilton, English major-general in War of Austrian Succession, 268. Hamilton, British commander at Detroit, raids of, 513, 514; captured, 514. Hampton Court Conference, 136. Hancock, John, trouble with customs officials, 441-442; distributes arms, 460; president of Second Continental Congress, 463, 541. Hapsburgs, French hostility to, 80. Harcourt, Robert, attempts to colonize Guiana, 132. Harlem, battle of, 485. Harper's Ferry, founded, 320. Harrod, pioneer settler in Kentucky, 413, 416. Harrodsburg, Kentucky, 416, 417. Hartford, Dutch fort at, 149; founding of the town, 149. Havana, Cuba, founded, 19; decline of, 67; captaincy-general and intendancy of, 387; Louisiana attached to, 398; Audiencia of, 398. Harvard College, 220-221, 339. Harvey, Sir John, governor of Virginia, 124-125. Hawkins, John, English freebooter, 66; slave trade, 107. Hawkins, William, voyages to Guiana and Brazil, 107. Hazard, Samuel, plan for western colony, 411. Hearne, Samuel, explorations, 423-424; reaches Arctic Ocean and discovers Lake Athabasca, 424. Heath, Sir Robert, grant in the Carolinas, 207. Heçeta, Bruno de, expedition up North Pacific coast, 395. Henderson, Judge Richard, land speculator in Kentucky, 413; founds Transylvania, 417-418. Henley House, Hudson's Bay Company post, 423. Hennepin, Recollet missionary among the Illinois, 97, 101; in Minnesota, 98; meets Duluth, 100. Henry, Alexander, Montreal fur magnate, 423. Henry, Patrick, buys Spanish horses in the West, 400; in the Parson's Cause, 429; Virginia Resolutions, 435-436; member of First Continental Congress, 452; heads armed resistance, 462-463; sends militia to Kentucky, 513. Henry VII, policy, 104; Cabot, 105-106. Henry the Navigator, prince of Portugal, 4-5; his objects, 5; explorations, 5; map showing, 6; beginning of slave trade, 5. Henry IV, of France (Henry of Navarre), 53; Huguenot leader, 78, 79; reforms of, as king, 79; assassination, 79. Henry VII of England, 7. Herkimer, Colonel Nicholas, 496. Hermandad, local police, 14; recognized as state agency by Ferdinand and Isabella, 14. Hessians, in American Revolution, 489-491. Heyn, Piet, capture of Bahía, 166; capture of Vera Cruz fleet, 252. Hidalgo, Father Francisco, missionary in Texas, 249, 292. Hill, General Sir John, expedition against Quebec, 272. Hillsboro, North Carolina, 415. Hillsborough, Earl of, colonial secretary, 406, 413, 419, 441. Hispaniola, English corruption of Española, which see. Hoboken, New Jersey, 198. Holburne, English vice-admiral in French and Indian War, 376. Holland. See Netherlands, Dutch. Honduras, conquest and settlement, 24, 31, 38-39 Hooke, Sir Humphrey, leases in Virginia, 185. Hopkins, Ezek, 464, 517. Hopkins, John B., 465. Horses, Spanish trade in with English colonies, 400. Hortalez et cie, 506. Howard of Effingham, Lord, governor of Virginia, 187-188. Howe, Admiral Lord, attempt at conciliation, 483; at Philadelphia, 503; and D'Estaing, 510. Howe, General Sir William, at Boston, 461; New York campaign, 483-486, 488-489; failure to coöperate with Burgoyne, 493; Philadelphia campaign, 499-503; recalled, 509. Huasteca country (Tamaulipas), conquered by Cortés, 37. Hubbardtown, 495. Hudson Bay, exploration of, 212-213. Hudson, Henry, exploration 1609, 165; discovery of Hudson Bay, 213. Hudson's Bay Company, established, 213; trading houses, 214; methods, 214; French rivalry, 214, 288; struggle for fur country, 257-261; posts, 260-261; in Wars of English and Spanish Successions, 273; activity following Peace of Utrecht, 423; Hearne's explorations, 423-424; rivalry with Northwest Company, 424. Huehuetoca, Canal of (Mexico), 53. Huguenots, in France, 78, 79; colonizing efforts, 62, 82-83; in New England, 216; in South Carolina, 230. Humana, Gutiérrez de, expedition to New Mexico and Quivira, 72-73. Hundred Associates. See Company of the Hundred Associates. Hurdaide, Captain Diego, commander in Sinaloa, 237, 239. Huron Indians, wars with Iroquois, 258, 259. Hurtado, Juan P., expedition against Apaches, 290. Hutchinson, Anne, doctrines, 148; controversy in Boston congregation, 148; banishment, 148; at Portsmouth and Newport, 148. Hutchinson, Thomas, 443, 444, 448. Ibarra, Diego de, Conquistador of Zacatecas, 55; cattle business, 58. Ibarra, Francisco de, miner at Zacatecas, 55-56; list of mines opened, 56; governor of Nueva Vizcaya, 56; explorations, colonies, mines in northern Mexico, 56, 58; death, 58. Iberville, founder of Louisiana, 102, 261, 265, 266, 270, 275, 276. Iceland, discovery and colonization, 2. Illinois, La Salle in, 98; Sulpicians and Jesuits (Cahokia and Kaskaskia), 101; Tonty's fur trade, 101; St. Denis' post at Cairo, 102; Indians of, 258; a judicial department of Louisiana, 280, 281; prosperity under Company of the Indies, 281-282; Fort Chartres, Ste. Genevieve, Vincennes, 281-282; Missouri lead-mines, 282; English plans to occupy, 409; conspiracy of Pontiac, 409-410; the Loftus expedition, 410; establishment of English government, 410; Quebec Act, 411; character of population, 420; conquered by G.R. Clark, 514. Imago Mundi, possible influence on Columbus, 2, 7. Immigration and population, Spanish colonies, 21, 75; Sinaloa and Sonora, 240, 305-306; Chihuahua, 289; New Mexico, 73, 243, 244, 290; California, 391-393; French Canada, 93, 94; Quebec, 419; Loyalists in Canada, 421, 538; French West Indies, 93, 94; Louisiana, 279, 395-396; the Illinois country, 281; Bermudas, 130; Lesser Antilles, 133, 340, 341; Barbados, 216, 340, 341; English mainland colonies, about 1700, 216; Virginia, 121, 227; Maryland, 127, 128, 227; New England. 138, 143, 216, 217: New Jersey, 200-201, 221; New York, 221; Pennsylvania and Delaware, 206, 224; the Carolinas, 208, 230; West Florida, 407-408; Ohio Valley, 413-419; German and Swiss migration, 316-322; Scotch, Irish, 322-326; English colonies in middle 18th century, 329-330; on the eve of the Revolution, 425-426; dispersion of the Loyalists, 538; New Netherlands, 167; New Sweden, 175. Indé, Mexico, mines of, 56. Indented servants, 122, 229, 336, 409. Independents, 135, 137. See Pilgrims. India, visited by the Polos, 3; travelers' tales regarding, 3; discovery of new route to, 51; Portuguese empire in, 24; British administration of, 34; during the French and Indian War. See French and Indian War; Events of the War in India. Indian Ocean, Ptolemy's conception of, 1. Indiana Company, 418. Indians, in Spanish colonies, so-named by Columbus, 10; Spanish policy in West Indies, 22-23; rebellion in 1495, 22; slavery 23, 31, 37, 56, 60-61, 72, 75; Maya and Nahua civilization, 26-28; native caciques used in conquest, 39; Mixton War, 40; Pueblo civilization in New Mexico, 46; New Laws concerning, 50, 53; native alcaldes, 55; Tlascaltecans as colonists, 50-60; decline in West Indies, 67; rebellion at Ácoma, 73; schools for, 76; missions as frontier defense, 236; Yaqui wars, 239; Pueblo revolt in New Mexico, 245; wars on North Mexican frontier, 245-246, 248; in Eastern Texas, 251; Apalachee revolt, 254; Yamassee revolt, 255; Moqui and Zuñi resistance, 290; Navajo, Yuta, and Comanche depredations in New Mexico, 290-291; captives sold as slaves, 291; the Jumanos, 243, 244, 285, 291; destroy Vulazur's parry, 296; Apache wars in Texas, 298-299; the Tonkawa missions, 299; Pima revolt in Arizona, 305; Yuma massacre, 393-394; Spanish policy in Louisiana, 400-401; war on Apaches, 401; hostilities in New Netherlands, 171-172; in French colonies; Huron and Iroquois wars, 88, 91, 258-259, 265; Anglo-French rivalry for northern tribes, 257-259; Abenaki wars, 262-265; Frontenac's policy, 263; competition for southern Indians, 269, 270, 276; Natchez war on French, 278, 280; the Chickasaw War, 281; French among Western tribes (Asinais, Orcoquisas, Cadodachos, Bidayes, Touacaras, Wichitas, Osages, Missouris, Pawnees, Otos, Iowas, Kansas, Mandaos), 282-284; Winnebagoes,296; Apache-Comanche barrier to French advance, 285, 286; Fox Wars, 287; Sioux posts, 287; Vérendrye among Manfan Cheyennes, Crows, Little Foxes, Bows, 288; in English colonies: early attacks in Virginia, 117-119, 122; relations with Pilgrims, 138-139; land title theory of Roger Williams, 147; Wilhams and the Narragansetts, 147; Pequot War, 159-160; English missionary work among, 156; Opechancanough's War, 185; the Susquehanna War, 185-186; King Philip's War, 191-192; Iroquois treaty with Dongan, 198; Penn's treaty, 205; war in the Carolinas, 210; policy of Hudson's Bay Company, 214; the English among the Creeks, 255; English war on Apalachees, 270; Indian slavery in Carolina, 270; the Tuscarora War, 271, 320; barriers to Westward Movement, 310-414; Yamassee War, 314; Creeks and Cherokees, 314, 316; alliances on Georgia frontier, 362; during French and Indian War, 372; Kerlérec and southern Indians, 378; Cherokee War, 378; English policy after 1763, 404-407; Pontiac's War, 409-410; land cessions in West, 412; ravages in Kentucky, 416; Lord Dunmore's War, 417; policy of Continental Congress, 465-466; in American Revolution, 496, 512-515. See names of individual tribes. Indigo, 535. Innocent IV, Pope, legate sent to the Great Khan, 3. Inquisition, The, 52; Council of the, 14. Intendancies, in New Spain, 387. Intolerable Acts, 449-451. Iriarte, seeks La Salle's colony, 249. Irish, in New England, 216; in New York, 222. See Scotch-Irish. Iroquois Indians (Confederation, The Six Nations), 86, 91; Dongan's treaty with, 198, 257, 258-259, 265, 365, 369; cession of 1765, 412; in the Revolution, 514-515. Isabella of Spain, aids Columbus, 7, 8, 16. Island Flats, 513. Italy, 13, 16. Iturbi, Juan de, pearl hunting voyages, 240; believes California an island, 240. Jack, Col. Samuel, 512. Jackson, William, English privateer, 252. Jalisco, conquest of, 37, 39. Jamaica, Island, under Spain, 17, 67; granted to Providence Island Company, 133; English conquest, 153, 234, 253; committee for, 153; conditions in the eighteenth century, 340-341. Jamaica Pass, 484. James I of England, general policy, 112, 113; treaty with Spain, 114; the London Company, 123; non-conformists, 136. James, Duke of York, proprietor of New York, 178; Lord High Admiral, 182; proprietary grant of New Netherlands, 196-197; attitude toward representative government in New York, 197-198; interest in Hudson's Bay Company, 213. See James II. James II, consolidation of colonies, 194; "Glorious Revolution," 194-195; difficulties with Carolina settlers, 210-211. See James, Duke of York. Jamestown, founded, 116-117; Spanish resistance, 118, 251. Janos, Chihuahua, founded, 242. Japan, early contact with America, 2; Polo's knowledge of, 3; Portuguese trading settlements in, 24. See Cipango. Java, visited by the Polos, 3; Dutch in, 164. Jay, John, member of First Continental Congress, 452; in Spain, 533; peace negotiations, 534-538; secretary of foreign affairs, 555. Jefferson, Thomas, member of Second Continental Congress, 463; writes Declaration of Independence, 479, 480. Jeffreys, Herbert, acting governor of Virginia, 187. Jenkins, Thomas, 361. See also The War of Jenkins' Ear. Jérez, Mexico, founded, 59. Jesuits, in Spanish colonies; general field, 236; Nueva Vizcaya, 58; Florida (Georgia, South Carolina, Virginia),64-65; Sinaloa and Sonora (Fuerte, Mayo, Yaqui, Sonora valleys), 237-240; map, 238; Chihuahua, 242; in Pimería Alta (Arizona), 301-396; Lower California, 305-307; expulsion, 1767, 386; in French colonies: Canada, 87-88, 90, 91; on the Maine border, 271; on lakes Michigan and Syperior, 96; in the Illinois country, 101, 280, 282; Father Piquet's mission in New York, 368; Louisiana (Alabama), 278; in Maryland, 127-128; expelled, 162. Jews, in New England, 216; in New York, 223. Jiménez, discovers Lower California, 42. John the Great, ruler of Portugal, 4. Johnstone, George, governor of West Florida, 407,408. Joliet, exploration of the Mississippi, 96-97. Jones, John Paul, appointment, 465; the Bonhomme Richard and Serapis, 518-519; at Texel, 520-521. Jonquiére, Marquis de la, governor-general of Canada, 368. Johnson, William, Indian agent, 365, 372, 374, 379. Jordan River, Cape Fear, Ayllón at, 40. Jumano Indians, Texas, expeditions to, 243, 244, 285. Kalb, Baron de, 508, 525-526. Kanawha, battle of the, 513. Kaskaskia, 410; captured by Clark, 514. Kaunitz, Austrian Minister of State, 375. Keller, Father, Jesuit missionary and explorer in Arizona, 304. Kelsey, Henry, expedition to Winnipeg, 214. Kent Island, 128. Kentucky, beginnings of, 416; Indian ravages, 416; Lord Dunmore's war, 417; Henderson and Transylvania, 417-418; Virginia's claim of sovereignty over, 418; organization as Kentucky. County, Virginia, 418; in the Revolution, 513. Kentucky County, Virginia, erected, 418. Kerlérec, Governor of Louisiana, 285, 301, 378. Kerr, English commodore, in war of the Spanish Succession, 268. Kidd, Captain, pirate, 350. Kieft, William, director-general of New Netherlands, 171; trouble with Indians, 171-172; the Council of Twelve, 171. King Philip's War, 191-192. King William's War. See War of the English Succession. King's College, 339. "King's posts," fur trade at, in English colonies, 421. King's Mountain, battle, 527. Kingston, Jamaica, founded, 262. Kino, Father Eusebio, Jesuit missionary and explorer, 301-304; in Lower California, 241-242; his map of Pimería Alta, 303; missions and ranches established in Arizona, 302; search for land route to California, 302; his death, 304; aid given to Lower California, 306. Kirke, Captain, expedition against French, 87, 141. Kittery, Maine, claimed by Massachusetts, 157. Kocherthal, Joshua von, 318. Knights of Alcántara, 14. Knights of Calatrava, 14. Knights of Santiago, 14; Otomi chief made member of, 39. Knollys, English freebooter, 66. Knowles, Admiral Charles, attack on Española, 366. Kublai Khan, visit of the Polos to, 3. Labadists, 318. La Barre, governor of New France, 94, 258, 261. Labrador, 420. La Clede, fur trader, founds St. Louis, 396. Laconia Company, 141. La Cosa, explorations of, 24. Lafayette, Marquis de, enlists in the American cause, 508; influences France to send a second expedition, 511; in Virginia, 530; in Yorktown campaign, 531. La Harpe, Bénard de, French explorer and trader in the West, 283-284, 295. La Junta missions, Chihuahua, 245, 290. Lake Athabasca, discovery, 424. Lake Chápala, Mexico, 36. Lake Erie, La Salle on, 98. Lake Michigan, French posts on, 96. "Lake of New Mexico," Coahuila, 59. Lake Ontario, discovered, 87. Lake Superior, trading posts on, 90, 287; Jesuit missions on, 96. Lake Tezcuco, Cortés's fleet on, 33. La Navidad, fort built by Columbus, in Española, 10. "Land of War," Central America, 39. Land grants and speculation in the Ohio Valley, 411-413. Langlade, Charles, French trader leads attack on English, 368. La Paz, California, attempts to colonize, 42, 71, 240-242, 307. La Plata River, discovered by Vespuccius, 24. La Pointe, Jesuit mission on Lake Superior, 96. Larios, Father Juan, Franciscan missionary, in Coahuila and Texas, 248. La Salle, Jean Cavelier, Sieur de, 97, 98; at Fort Frontenac, 97; in Illinois, 98; descends Mississippi, 98; colony in Texas, 98-99, 249, 283; assassination, 100. Las Casas, Father Bartolomé de, 23; opposition to the encomienda, 23, 50; conquest of Guatemala, 39. Las Casas, Francisco de, lieutenant of Cortés in Honduras, 38. La Tour, Charles de, rule in Acadia, contest with Charnisay, 86. Laud, William, Archbishop of Canterbury, tyranny, 113; heads commission to handle dependencies, 114; struggle with Massachusetts Bay Colony, 142-143, 145-146. Laudonnière, French colonizer in Florida, 62, 84. Laurain, French explorer on the Missouri River, 282. Laurens, Henry, sent to the Netherlands, 521; his capture, 522. Laval, Abbé, bishop in Canada, 91. La Vérendrye, fur trade monopoly, 287; his "Post of the Western Sea," 287-288. Law, John, the Mississippi Bubble, 278-279. Lazarus (Philippine) Islands, 67. Lea, Captain Charles, attempts to colonize Guiana, 132. League of Armed Neutrals, 519-520. League of Hanover, 360-375. Leake, Captain John, 271. Lee, Arthur, diplomat, 506; attempts to get Spanish assistance, 507. Lee, Charles, 411, 464, 488, 489, 490, 509. Lee, Richard Henry, member of Western Land Company, 411; member of the First Continental Congress, 452; Independence Resolution, 478. Leeward Islands, made a province, 206; granted an assembly, 206; extension of power, 206; social and economic conditions in the eighteenth century, 340. Legazpi, Miguel López de, expedition to Philippines, 68; conquest of islands, 68. Leisler's Rebellion, 198, 263. Le Jeune, French Jesuit superior at Quebec, 88. Le Moyne, Charles, 275; seignorial grant, 93. León, Alonso de. See De León. León (Cerralvo), City of, 60, 61, 247. León, Nicaragua, founding of, 31. León, kingdom of in New Spain, 13. Lesser Antilles, slave hunting in, 23; English settlements in, 132-133; Dutch colonization, 167; subdivisions, 247. See individual islands. Le Sueur, fur trader in Minnesota and Wisconsin, 101; quoted, 97. Levant Company, 107. Levasseur, French trader, occupies Tortuga, 94. Levis, Chevalier de, 375, 381. Lewis, Colonel Andrew, 417. Lewis and Clark, exploration of, 402. Lexington, battle of, 460-461. Leyva, expedition to New Mexico, 72-73. Lief, son of Eric, discovery of Vinland, 2. Linares, Duke of, viceroy of New Spain, 293. Linares, Diocese of, 387. Lincoln, General Benjamin, organizes New England militia, 495; operations in Georgia, 524; at Charleston, 524-525; secretary of war, 554. Lindsay, explorer in Ohio valley, 413. Line of Demarcation, 11. Link, Father, Jesuit explorer in Lower California, 307. Lisbon, Columbus' reception at, 10. Little Rock, Arkansas, La Harpe visits vicinity, 284. Littleton, James, Commodore, 269. Livingston, Robert R., member of committee for drafting the Declaration of Independence, 479; secretary of foreign affairs, 555. Llano River country, Texas, mineral deposits, 298, 299. "Llanos de Cíbola" (Buffalo Plains), 45. Lloyd, Thomas, president of the Pennsylvania council, 205. Loaisa, expedition to Far East, 46. Locke, John, prepares a constitution for the Carolinas, 208. London Company, Charter of 1606, 116; Charter of 1609, 117-118; Charter of 1612, 120; charter annulled, 123. London Gazette, 408. Long Island, early English settlements, 150-151, 222; granted to Duke of York, 196-197; battle of, 483-484. López, Fray Nicolás, Franciscan missionary, 245. Lords of Trade, 182. Loreto, California, founded, 306; capital moved from, 392. Los Adaes, mission founded, 295; presidio and capital of Texas, 297, 298. Los Angeles, California, founding of pueblo of, 392-393. Loudoun, English commander, 376. Louis XVI, attitude toward American Revolution, 505-506. Louisiana, Under France, founding of, 275-278; Pensacola founded, 275; Biloxi founded, 276; Iberville's Indian alliances, 276; Bienville's first administration, 276; Crozat's grant, 276-278; attempts at commercial expansion, 278; Indian difficulties, 278; population, 278, 279, 281; map, 277; under Company of the Indies, 278-280; the Mississippi Bubble, 278-279; New Orleans founded, 279; war with Spain, 279; organization of the government, 279-280; ecclesiastical divisions, 280; the Natchez War, 280; under the royal governors, 280-282; Bienville's second administration, 280-281; Chickasaw War, 281; the Illinois district, 251-252; slavery, 282; Missouri lead mines, 282; Under Spain, 1762-1783, 395-402; ceded to Spain, 382-383, 395; state of the province, 395-306; population, 396; industries, 396; dissatisfaction with the cession, 306; expulsion of the Spanish governor, Ulloa, 397; O'Reilly, administration of, 397-398; first governors, Unzaga and Gálvez, 398; encouragement of commerce, 398, 400; the English danger, 400; Texas border abandoned, 400; fur trade continued, 400-401; De Mézières and the control of the Red River tribes, 401; plans for war on Apaches, 401; opening of routes to Santa Fé and the upper Missouri, 402. Louisiana-Texas boundary question, 300, 301. Louisbourg, Cape Breton Island, siege and defense of, 364-365. Lovelace, Francis, governor of New York, 197. Loyal Company, The, 367. Loyalists, formation of the group, 459; accompany the British army to Halifax, 471; element in the colonies, 472-473; classification of, 473; religious aspects, 473-474; their argument, 474; persecution of, 474-475; congressional attitude toward, 475-476; in the Cherokee War, 512-513; in the Southwest, 513-514; in New York, 514-515; at King's Mountain, 527; attempts of British to protect, 536, 537; dispersion, 538; in Florida, 408, 409; in Canada, 421. Lucenilla, attempt to colonize California, 241. Lumbering in New England, 217, 331; in North Carolina, 334; in South Carolina, 335. Lutherans, 222, 226. Lybyer, cited on trade routes, 5. Lyford, John, 140-141. Lyman, General, colony in West Florida, 408. Lynn, settled, 142. Lyttleton, Governor of South Carolina, 378. McAfees, the, pioneers in Kentucky, 416. McDonald, Donald, 471. Machias Bay settlement, 139. Machin, Robert, English voyager to Madeira, 4. Machuco, Diego, explores Nicaragua, 32. Madagascar, French attempt to colonize, 80. Madeira, visited by Englishmen, 4. Magdalena Bay, California, 71. Magellan, Ferdinand, voyage of, map showing, 6; discovery of Straits, 25; conflict aroused by his voyage, 46. Maine, early settlements, 136, 319, 140; Canada and Laconia companies, 141; land grants, 157; settlements claimed by Massachusetts, 157; northern part granted to the Duke of York, 196-197; frontier defense, 312-313; German migration to, 321, 322; Scotch-Irish migration to, 325. Malabar, Portuguese at, 24. Malacca, 24. Malay Peninsula, 24. Maldonado, oidor of New Spain, 49. Mallet brothers, expedition to New Mexico,285-286. Malocello, discovery of the Canary Islands, 3. Manchester, founded, 325. Mandan Indians, Dakota, reached by Spaniards, 402. Mandeville, French Commander, 278. Manhattan Island, purchase and settlement, 167. Manila, Philippines, Audiencia of, established, 68; captured by British, 382; restored to Spain, 382. Manila galleon, 66, 68; route of, 68, 70, 307. See also Acapulco. Manoa, fabulous city of Guiana, 110. Manors, in Maryland, 128. Manufactures, in New England, 217-218; in Pennsylvania, 226; in the Chesapeake Bay region, 229; in middle eighteenth century, 330. Mansker, pioneer in Kentucky, 413, 419. Maracaibo, plundered by Jackson, 252. Maracaibo, Gulf of, 23, 24. Marcos, Friar, discovery of Cíbola, 44. Margil, Antonia, Franciscan missionary in Texas, 293, 295. Maria Theresa, 364, 375. Marine Committee, 543. Marion, Francis, 527-529. Maritime science, advance of in 15th century, 4. Markham, William, deputy-governor of Pennsylvania, 204. Marquette, Jesuit Missionary, on the Mississippi, 97; death, 97. Marqués Cabrera, governor of Florida, sends expedition against English, 255. Martha's Vineyard, granted to the Duke of York, 196-197. Martin and Castillo, pearl hunting expedition in Texas, 243-244. Martinique Island, 93, 252, 262, 382. Mary, Queen of Scots, 53. Maryland, Baltimore's application for a grant in Virginia, 125-126; founding, 125-129; charter, 126-127; first settlers, 127; trouble with Virginia, 127-128; early social conditions, 128; government, 128-129; under Puritan control, 102; economic conditions, 188; Charles Calvert, 188-189; Notley's administration, 189; rebellion of 1689, 189; dispute with Pennsylvania over boundary, 203; population, 227; settled area, 227; plantation system, 228; commerce, 228; system of labor, 229; social conditions, 229; religion, 229; education, 229; German migration to, 319-320; social and economic conditions in the eighteenth century, 333-334; under William III, 346; trouble with the governor, 444; navy, 518. Mason and Dixon's line, 203. Mason, John, land grants, 140, 146, 157; interest in Canada and Laconia companies, 141; death, 146. Massachusetts, charter, 141-142; Cambridge agreement, 142; the "Great Migration," 142; towns settled, 142; form of government, 143; the New England towns, 143-145; representative system introduced, 145; struggle with Laud, 145-146; controversy with Roger Williams, 146-147; controversy with Anne Hutchinson, 148; Body of Liberties, 154-155; member of the New England Confederation, 156; claims New Hampshire and Maine settlements, 157-158; fur trade, 158; difficulties with Charles II, 180-190; reception of royal commissioners, 191; King Philip's War, 191-192; complaints against, 192; trouble with Randolph, 192-193; annulment of the charter, 193; temporary government, 193; acquisition of Mason's rights, 193-194; Dominion of New England, 194; administration of Andros, 194; overthrow of Andros, 194-195; population, 216; commerce, 217; manufactures, 217; religion, 220; superstitions, 220; education, 220; literature, 221; treaty with Maine Indians, 271; German migration to, 322; Scotch-Irish migration to, 324; charter of 1691, 344; protests against Grenville's policy, 431-432; resists the Stamp Act, 436; protests against the Townshend Acts, 440-441; trouble with Governor Bernard, 440-442; convention, 442; trouble with Hutchinson, 444; the tea controversy, 448; Government Act, 449-450; resistance to the Regulating Act, 459-460; fighting around Boston, 460-461; navy, 518. Massachusetts Bay Colony. See Massachusetts. Massanet, Father Damian, Franciscan missionary in Coahuila and Texas, 249, 251. Massasoit, chief of the Wampanoags, treaty with Plymouth, 138-139. Matagorda Bay, LaSalle's colony on, 99, 100. Matehuala, Mexico, founded, 59. Mauro, Fra, map of the world, 5. Maximilian I, 16. May, Cornelius, 165-166. Maya Indians, 26-27. See Mexico. Mayflower Compact, 138. Mayhew, Thomas, missionary to Indians, 156. Mayo Valley, Sonora, Jesuit missions in, 239. Mazapil, Mexico, founded, 59. Mazarin, administration of government of France, 80-81. Mecklenburg Resolves, 463; declaration of independence, 463. Medellin, Mexico, founded, 36. Medina-Celi, Count of, influence in favor of Columbus, 7. Medina River, western boundary of Texas, 297. Mediterranean, trade route to Far East, 5. Memphis, DeSoto near, 42. Méndez, Father, Jesuit missionary to Mayos, 239. Mendoza, Antonio de, viceroy, crushes revolt in Nueva Galicia, 40; sends expedition to explore Pacific, 46-47; outfits expedition for Florida, 61; achievements as administrator, 50; sent to Peru, 50; death, 50. Mendoza, Hurtado de, expedition on west coast, 42. Mendoza, Juan Domínguez de, expedition to Jumanos in central Texas, 245. Menéndez de, Áviles, destroys Huguenot settlement, 62; colonizes Atlantic coast, 64; explores Alleghanies, 64; expedition to Chesapeake Bay, 65. Mennonites, in Pennsylvania, 206. Mercado, Ginés Vásquez de, search for treasure in Durango, 55. Mercantilist system, 179-180. Merry Mount, 139. Mexico, the Nahuas (Aztecs), 27; Nahua history, 27; the Triple Alliance, 28; Conquest of the Valley of Mexico, 32-35; Cortés, 32; the march to Mexico, 33; loss and recapture of the city, 33; Cortés's contest with Velásquez, 34; made governor and captain-general, 34; the spread of the conquest, 36-40; factors, 36; Vera Cruz, Oaxaca, and Tehuantepec, 36; Olid in Michoacán, 36; Colima and Jalisco, 37; Amichel and Pánuco, 37; Olid, Casas, and Cortés in Honduras, 38; Yucatán, 38; Guzmán in Sinaloa, 39; Querétaro, 39; the Mirton War, 40; establishment of the viceroyalty, 47-50; Cortés as administrator, 47; his powers curtailed, 48; first and second audiencias, 48-49; Cortés made Marquis of the Valley, 49; Mendoza first viceroy, 49; New Laws, 50; Mendoza sent to Peru, 50; Mexico under Philip II, 52; Luis de Velasco, second viceroy, 53; Martín Cortés, second Marquis of the Valley, 53; the adelantados, 54; audiencia and diocese of Nueva Galicia, 55; the Zacatecas Mines, 55; Francisco de Ibarra, 55-58; Nueva Vizcaya founded, 56-58; Querétaro, Guanajuato, and Aguas Calientes, 58; San Luis Potosí and Southern Coahuila, 59; Tlascaltecan colonies, 59; Parras, 60; Nuevo León, 60; New Spain at end of 16th century, 75; frontier administration in the 17th century, 234-237; the governors, 234; central control, 235; frontier autonomy, 235; the missions, 236; the Jesuits in Sinaloa and Sonora, 237; Fathers Tápia and Pérez, 237; Captain Hurdaide, 237; missions in Fuerte, Mayo, Yaqui and Sonora valleys, 238-239; Spanish settlements on the Pacific coast, 240; efforts to occupy Lower California, 240-242; pearl fishing, 240; Iturbi's voyages, 240; later attempts, 240; the settlement of Chihuahua, 242; mines of, 289; the Conchos Valley, 290; Diocese of Guardiana, 242; Coahuila occupied, 247-249; the Nuevo León frontier, 247; Zavala's rule, 247; Monclova founded, 248; the College of the Holy Cross of Querétaro, 248; Pimería Alta, 301; Kino, 301-302; a land route to California, 302; missions and ranches, 302-303; the Arizonac Mines, 304; Keller and Sedelmayr, 304; the Pima revolt, 305; the Northwestern frontier in 1763, 305-306; the Jesuits in Lower California, 306-307; Salvatierra and his companions, 306; readjustment following the Seven Years' War, 384-387; Reforms of Charles III and Gálvez, 384-386; Rubí's tour, 385; expulsion of the Jesuits, 386; the Provincias Internas, 386-387; new dioceses, 387; the intendancies, 387. Mexico City (Tenochtitlán), 27; Chapultepec, 28; siege and capture by Cortés, 33; rebuilt as a Spanish city, 34; markets established, 47; seat of audiencia and viceroyalty, 48-49; canal of Huehuetoca, 53; population, 75; seat of archbishopric, 76; of University, 53, 67. Mexico, Gulf of, mapping of coast, 25-26, 249, 255, 385. Michillimackinac, fur trade, 422. Michoacán, 37; Guzmán's march through, 39. Middlebrook, 493. Middletown, New Jersey, 198. Miera y Pachecho, Captain Bernardo de, expedition to Utah Basin, 392. Milan, 53. Milford, founded, 150. Milhet, Jean, delegate to France with protest on the Louisiana cession, 396. Mines and mining, in northern Mexico, 55-56, 58. Minisink, burned, 515. Minho River, 13. Minuit, Peter, director-general of New Netherlands, 167, 169; in Sweden, 175. Missions, part in Spanish colonial expansion, 235-237. See also Dominicans; Jesuits; Franciscans; California; Florida; Georgia; New Mexico. In French Colonies, see Canada, Catholic Church, Jesuits, Illinois, Louisiana. Mississippi Bubble, 278-279. Mississippi Company, 411. Mississippi River (Rio del Espíritu Santo), discovery of, 26, 41, 42; plans to occupy its mouth, 249. Mississippi Valley, French approach to, 96, 102; work of the Jesuits, 96-97, 101; Joliet and Marquette, 96-97. La Salle, 98; Duluth, 100. Missouri lead mines, 282. Mixton war, 40. Mobile, new site for St, Louis, 276; judicial department of, 279; during English rule, 403, 407-408; captured by Gálvez, 516. Mobile Bay, 42, 249, 255, 276. Molasses Act, 356. Moluccas, 42; Spain claims sold to Portugal, 46. Monclova, city of, 246, 247. 248, 296, 297. Monckton, Lieutenant-Colonel, 372, 374. Mongolia, visit of the Polos to, 3. Monhegan Island settlement, 140. Monk, George, Duke of Albermarle, Carolina proprietor, 208; interest in Hudson's Bay Company, 213. Monmouth, battle of, 509-510. Montcalm, Marquis de, in French and Indian War, 375, 376, 377, 380. Monte Cristi, 428. Montejo, Francisco de, conqueror of Yucatán, 36, 38. Montemayor, Luis de, governor of Nuevo León, 61. Monterey, Mexico, 59; founding of, 61; Franciscan monastery at, 61. Monterey, California, 2; founding, 389; made capital 392. Monterey Bay, California, 47, 71, 305, 380. Montezuma II, Aztec ruler, 28; death of, 33. Montgomery, English colonel, 379. Montgomery, Richard, 470. Montgomery, Sir Robert, grant of Azilia to, 315. Montreal, Canada, 82, 90, 257, 263, 265, 272, 419; association of Montreal, 90; captured by the English, 381; center of fur trade, 422. Montserrat Island, occupied by English, 133, 252; in Leeward Isles government, 206; social conditions, 340; restored to Great Britain, 537. Moore, Commodore John, 379. Moore, Governor of South Carolina, destroys Apalachee missions, 270. Moore's Creek, 471. Moors (Mohammedans, Berbers), expulsion from Portugal, 4; from Spain, 13, 14, 53; Moqui pueblos, 46, 72; discovery of, 45; revolt of the Indians, 45. Moraga, Lieutenant, founds San José, California, 392. Moral, Father, Franciscan missionary in Florida, 254. Moravian missionaries, among Delawares in the West, 416. Morgan, Gen. Daniel, 495, 528. Moro Castle, Havana, captured by British, 382. Morris, Robert, financier of the Revolution, 554. Morristown, winter quarters of Washington's army, 492. Morton, Thomas, founds Merry Mount, 139; driven out, 139; opposition to Massachusetts Bay Company, 141. Moscoso, explores Arkansas and Texas, 42, 61. Moultrie, Colonel Wm., 471, 472. Moya Contreras, viceroy of Mexico, plans for exploration, 70-71. Mulattoes and mestizos, in population of the New World, 306. Munck, Jens, explorations in Hudson Bay, 213. Muscovy Company, 106. Mystic, settled, 142. Nahua civilization, 26-28. Nanipacna, Alabama, Spanish settlement at, 62. Nantasket settlement, 140. Nantes, Edict of, 79. Nantucket, granted to the Duke of York, 196-197. Naples, 16, 52, 361. Narragansett Indians and Roger Williams, 146, 147; attitude in King Philip's War, 191-192. Narváez, Pánfilo de, sent to arrest Cortés, 33; governor of Florida, 37; attempted conquest of Florida, 41. Nashborough (Nashville), founded, 419. Nashborough Association, 549. Natchez, founded, 278; a judicial department of Louisiana, 279; under the English, 406, 407, 408; captured by Gálvez, 515. Natchez Indians, 278; war with French, 280. Natchitoches, founded by St. Denis, 278; judicial department of Louisiana, 279; rule of De Mézières at, 401. Naval stores, 355-356. Navidad, port in Mexico, 40, 47, 68. Navigation acts, of 1650 and 1651, 153; of 1660, 180; of 1696, 348-349; under Anne, 351; later acts, 354-355. Navy of the United States, organized, 464; vessels provided by New England, 517; congressional provision for, 517; early operations, 517-518; state navies, 518; Penobscot expedition, 518; operations of John Paul Jones, 518-519, 520-521; decline of the navy, 519. Navy Department, of the United States, 554-555. Needham, James, reaches the upper Tennessee, 1673, 211. Negro slavery, 23, 56, 273, 276, 279, 282. Netherlands (Holland), 16; revolt against Spain, 52; independent state, 53; struggle with Spain, 164; commercial expansion, 164; search for northeast passage, 164; trade to Far East, 164-165; explorations of Henry Hudson, 165; discovery of Cape Horn, 165; trade on Hudson River, 165-166; settlements in Brazil, Guiana, and the Antilles, 166-167; New Netherlands, 167-174; struggle with the Swedes on the Delaware, 175, 177; absorption of New Netherlands by English, 177-178; alliance with England and France, 359; treaty of Seville, 360; attitude toward American Revolution, 520; St. Eustatius, 520; the Scotch brigade and the Jones incident, 520-521; British seizures, 521; secret agreement of Amsterdam, 521; declaration of war, 521-522; loans to the United States, 554. See New Netherlands. Neve, Felipe de, governor of California, 392. Nevis Island, occupied by English, 133, 252; in Leeward Isles government, 206; taken by French, 268; social conditions, 340; captured by De Grasse, 532; restored to Great Britain, 537. Neville, John, English vice-admiral, 262. Nevome Indians, Sonora, 239. New Albion, Drake's name for California, 70. New Amsterdam, 167-169; surrender to the English, 197. Newark, New Jersey, 199. New Brunswick, 421. New Company, successor to Company of Hundred Associates, 90. Newcastle, Duke of, 353-354. New England, supposed visit of North men, 3; Confederation, 156-157; settled area in 1700, 216; population, 216; agriculture, 216-217; fur trade, 217; fishing, 217; lumbering, 217; ship-building, 217; commerce, 217, 331; manufactures, 217-218; standard of living, 218; social standards, 218; religion, 220; superstitions, 220; education, 220-221; literature, 221; French and Indian attacks, 271; population, 329; settled area about 1750, 329; farming, 330-331; lumbering, 331; ship-building, 331; fisheries, 331; ships furnished during the Revolution, 517-518. See the individual colonies. Newfoundland fisheries, 106; English attacks on, in the War of the Spanish Succession, 271, 272, 420. New Gothenborg, 175. New Hampshire, early settlements, 140; land grants in, 157; attempt of Randolph to take it from Massachusetts, 193; a royal colony, 194; population, 216; Scotch-Irish migration to, 325. New Jersey, granted to the Duke of York, 197; granted to Carteret and Berkeley, 197; government of East New Jersey, 198-199; difficulties with New England men, 199; Quakers in West New Jersey, 199, 201; division of New Jersey, 201; government of West New Jersey, 201; trouble with the Duke of York, 201; Burlington, 202; proprietors of East New Jersey, 202; German migration to, 319; economic and social conditions in the eighteenth century, 332; under William III, 345; surrender of proprietary rights, 350; a royal colony, 350. See West New Jersey, East New Jersey. New Haven, founded, 150; government, 150; code of 1656, 155; member of the New England Confederation, 156; confederation and expansion, 158. New Laws, for Spanish America, 50, 55. New Mexico, Pueblo Indians, 44, 46, 234, 245; Coronado's expedition, 40, 46; exploration in later 16th century, 72-73; colonization, 73-74; founding of Santa Fé, 73, 243; isolation, 242; in the 17th century, 243-247; missions, 243; Benavides's report, in 1630, 243; missionary and trading expeditions, 243-244; in 1680, 244-245; beginnings of El Paso, 245; revolt of Pueblo Indians, 234, 245-247; La Junta missions, 245, 290; Mendoza's expedition to Jumanos, 245; advance of French toward, 285-286, 300-301; Moqui and Zuñi resistance, 290; new settlements, 290; population, 290; Indian depredations, 290-291; advance to northeast stimulated by French, 291; explorers in Colorado, 291-292. New Netherlands, early settlements, 167; government, 167; administration of Peter Minuit, 167, 169; patroon system, 169-170; the frontiers strengthened, 170; administration of Van Twiller, 170-171; Kieft's administration, 171-172; Indian war, 172; administration of Stuyvesant, 172-173; economic development, 173-174; conquest of New Sweden, 175, 177; absorption by England, 177-178, 196-197. New Netherlands Company, 165-166. New Orleans, founded, 279, 293; slavery and agriculture, 279; population, 279; judicial department of Louisiana, 279; under Spanish administration, 398; emigration to, 408. Newport, Sir Christopher, voyage to Virginia, 1607, 116-117; voyage of 1609, 118. Newport, Rhode Island, founded, 148; siege of, 510; evacuated by British, 511; occupied by Rochambeau, 511. New Providence Island, occupied by English, 206; captured by French and Spanish, 268, 269. New Spain. See Spanish colonies in North America; Mexico. New Sweden, the New Sweden Company, 175; founding of Fort Christina, 175; administration of Governor Printz, 175; renewed colonization, 175,177; conquest by the Dutch, 177. New Sweden Company, 175. Newtown (Cambridge) settled, 145. New York, province granted to James, Duke of York, 196-197; seizure by the English, 197; administration of Nicolls, 197; administration of Lovelace, 197; struggle for representative government, 197-198; administration of Dongan, 198; Leisler's rebellion, 198; attempt to regain control of the Jerseys, 201; deed to East New Jersey, 202; dispute with Pennsylvania, 203; population, 221; industries, 221-222; social conditions, 222; religion, 222-223; education, 222-223; large estates, 223; German migration to, 318-319; Scotch-Irish migration to, 325; economic and social conditions in the eighteenth century, 331-332; a royal colony, 344-345; protest against Grenville's policy, 432-433; assembly dissolved, 438-439; attitude regarding the Association, 458. See New Netherlands. New York City, charter granted by Governor Nicolls, 197; in the eighteenth century, 332; captured by the British, 482-484. See New Amsterdam. Nicaragua, conquest of, 29-30, 31, 32, 42; audiencia of, 50. Nicaragua, Lake, 29, 32. Nicholson, Francis, lieutenant governor of New York, and the Leisler rebellion, 198; expedition against Montreal, 272. Nicolet, Jean, French explorer in Wisconsin, 88. Nicolls, Richard, governor of New York, 197; sends colonists to New Jersey, 198. Nicoya, Gulf of, Central America, 29, 31. Nicuesa, founder of Nombre de Dios, 28. Niña, one of Columbus' ships, 8. Ninety-Six, 527, 529. Niño, Andrés, expedition of, 29-30, 42. "Noche Triste," 33, 36. Nochistlán, Nueva Galicia, 40. Nombre de Dios (Porto Bello), 24; colony at, 28; founding of, 29, 56; port for Spanish merchant fleet, 66; population, 75. Nootka Sound, explored, 395. North, Lord, prime minister, 443; coercive acts, 449-451; conciliatory resolution, 455-456; attempts conciliation, 508-509; sends Carlisle commission to America, 509. North, Captain Robert, attempt to colonize Guiana, 132. North Carolina (for Spanish activities in See Carolinas); population, 227; settled area, 227; economic conditions, 228-229; religion, 229; separation from South Carolina, 313-315; German migration to, 320; Swiss migration to, 321; Scotch-Irish migration to, 326; social and economic conditions in the 18th century, 333-334; a royal colony, 354; the Regulators, 414-415; protest against Grenville's policy, 433; in the Revolution, 471, 512-513, 528-529. See Albemarle District, Carolinas. Northern Mystery, 68. Northmen, early maritime exploration, 2; appearance in England, 2; discovery and colonization of Iceland, and of Greenland, 2-3; discovery of Vinland, 2-3. Northwest Company, fur trade of, 423. Northeast passage, sought by the English, 106, 108, 213; sought by the Dutch, 164. Nova Scotia, 3, 26, 272, 421; English policy of defense, 312-313; German migration to, 322. See Acadia. Nuevo Almadén (Coahuila), 61, 247. Nueva Andalucía, Central America, 29. Nueva Andalucía (Sonora), 239. Nueva Galicia, conquest of, 39; Mixton War, 40; audiencia and diocese of, 55, 56; growth of, 58. Nueva Vizcaya, founding of, 56, 58; development, 58; Franciscans and Jesuits in, 58; conflicts with Nuevo León, 61; capital, 242. Nuevo León, Kingdom of, Tlascaltecan Indians as colonists in, 60; extent of, 60; development under Carabajal, 60, 61; administration of Montemayor, 61; conflicts with Nueva Vizcaya, 61; frontier, 247; Zavala's rule, 247. Nuevo Santander (Tamaulipus), settlement of by Escandón, 299-300. Oaxaca, Mexico, 36, 53, 75. Ocampo, circumnavigates Cuba, 17, 25. O'Conor, Hugo, comandante inspector in North Mexican provinces, 386. Oglethorpe, James, motives, 315; founding of Georgia, 316; in war of Jenkins' Ear, 361-362, 363-364. Ohio Company, The, 367. Ohio River Valley, Spaniards in, 64; French in, 98, 101, 102, 257, 281-282, 368-369; English in, 102, 211, 367; struggle for, 367-378; development under English rule, 403-419. Oidores, 48. Ojeda, explorer, 23, 28. Ojuelos, Mexico, 59. Oklahoma, region, early Spanish explorations, 42, 45, 243; French trade and exploration, 286, 300; later Spanish activities, 398; English intruders before Revolution, 401. Oldham, John, 140-141; opposition to Massachusetts Bay Company, 141. Olid, Cristobal de, lieutenant of Cortés, 36; in Michoacán and Colima, 36-37; expedition to Honduras, 38. Olivares, Father Francisco, missionary in Coahuila and Texas, 249, 292, 293. Oñate, Cristóbal de, a founder of Nueva Galicia, 40, 55. Oñate, Juan de, colonizer of New Mexico, 73; explorations of, 74; displaced by royal governor, 73; believes California an Island, 240. Oneida Indians, 265. Onondaga Indians, 259, 265. Opechancanough's War in Virginia, 160. O'Reilly, Alexander, installs Spanish régime in Louisiana, 397-398, 407. Orinoco River, 171; Raleigh's exploration of the delta, 110. Oré, Fray Luis de, Franciscan missionary in Florida, 253. Oriskany, Battle of, 496. Orista, South Carolina, Jesuit mission in, 64. Orleans, Isle of, surrendered to Spain, 383. Ormuz, capture of, 24. Orozco, conquistador with Cortés, 38. Oswego, founded, 313. Ortega, Francisco de, founds colony at La Paz, 240. Osage Indians, 283, 284. Ostend East India Company, 360. Ostimuri, Sonora district, 305, 306. Otermin, effort to reconquer New Mexico, 245, 246. Otis, James, opposition to writs of assistance, 429; circular letter, 436; member of the Stamp Act Congress, 436. Oto Indians, French among, 284. Ottawa, River explored, 87; Indians, 258. Oxenham, English freebooter, 66. Pacific Ocean, fifth century voyages, 2; discovery by Portuguese, 24; by Balboa, 25; Magellan crosses, 25; explorations on Central American coast, 29-30; on Mexican coast, 37, 42-44; on California coast, 44, 46-47, 70-71, 240-241, 306-307, 389-394; crossed by Saavedra, 42; by Villalobos, 47; Legazpi conquers Philippines, 67-68; Urdaneta discovers return route, 68; the Manila galleon, 68; the Strait of Anian, 70; raids of Drake and Cavendish, 78; islands of Rica de Oro and Rica de Plata, 71; Dutch voyages and raids, 164, 165, 240; French interest in, 100, 285; Vérendrye's effort to reach, 287-288; Anson's raid, 363; in Seven Years' War, 382; Russian trade and voyages, 383; Spanish exploration of the Northern Pacific, Pérez, Heçeta, and Bodega, 395; Cook at Nootka Sound, 395. Padouca Indians, French among, 283. Paine, Thomas, "Common Sense," 477. Palenque, Maya center, 27. Palma, Salvador, Yuma chief, 393. Palos, Spain, port of sail of Columbus, 5. Panamá, 24, 25; founding, 29; Audiencia of, 49, 50; population, 75. Panay, Philippines, 68. Panton, Leslie, and Company, merchants of Pensacola, 407. Pánuco, slave-hunting, 23; district of, separated from Mexico, 33; headquarters for Carabajal, 66. Pánuco River, 25, 37. Paoli, 500. Paquimé (Casas Grandes), Ibarra at, 56. Paraguay, 306. Paramaribo, 23. Pardo, Juan, explores Alleghanies, 1568, 64. Pareja, Father, Franciscan missionary and writer in Florida, 253. Paria, Central America, 29. Parma, Duchess of, 52. Parral, Mexico, town, garrison, and mission, 242. Parras, colony established at, 60; administered by Urdiñola, 60; Santa Maria de, Jesuit mission, 60. Parras, Laguna de, 59. Parrilla, Diego Ortiz, Colonel, in Texas, 299; explorations, 385. Parson's Cause, 429. Pastorius, Francis Daniel, 318. Patroon system, 169-170. Pátzcuaro, Mexico, 36. Pauw, Michael, 170. Pawnee Indians, 23, 283; horse market for Atlantic coast colonies, 400. Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, 366. Peace of Paris, 382-383. Peace of Ryswick, 266-267. Peace of Utrecht, 273, 361. Pearl Coast, The, 24. Pearl fisheries, 68, 71, 240, 243-244. Pearls, Isle of, 29. Pecos River, 45, 46, 72. Pedrarias de Ávila, governor of Castilla del Oro, 29-31; expeditions, 29, 31-32; governor of Nicaragua, 31. Pemaquid, Maine, 262, 265. Pembroke and Montgomery, Earl of, receives West Indian grant, 132. Peñalosa, ex-governor of New Mexico, proposes attack on Spanish colonies, 249. Penn, Admiral William, conquers Jamaica, 153, 253. Penn, William, grant of Pennsylvania, 203; his powers, 204; founding of Philadelphia, 204; frame of government, 204; first sojourn in America, 204-205; activities in England, 205; attempts to relieve friction in Pennsylvania, 205; restored to his proprietorship, 346; grants Charter of Privileges, 350; interest in New Jersey, 199; settles dispute over lands in West New Jersey, 201; lands in West New Jersey, 201; holdings in East New Jersey, 202. Pennsylvania, the Quaker faith, 202; coming of the Quakers, 202-203; Penn's grant, 203; powers of the proprietor, 204; founding of Philadelphia, 204; frame of government, 204; arrival of Penn and establishment of the government, 204-205; friction in the colony, 205; growth, 205; population, 224; economic conditions, 226; religion, 226; education, 226-227; German migration to, 317-318, 319; Swiss migration to, 321; Scotch-Irish migration to, 325-326; economic and social condition in the eighteenth century, 332-333; under William III, 345; Charter of Privileges, 350; protest against Grenville's policy, 433; navy, 518. Penobscot expedition, 518. Penobscot River settlements, 139. Pensacola (bay and settlement), bay discovered by De Soto, 42; De Luna's expedition to, 61-62; Ichuse settled, 62; plans to reoccupy, 255-256; Pensacola founded, 275; captured by French, 279-295; under English rule, 403, 407, 408; reoccupied by Gálvez, 518. Pequot War, 149-150. Pérez, Captain Juan, with Portolá expedition, 389; voyage up Pacific coast, 395. Pérez, Fray Juan, influence in favor of Columbus, 7. Pérez, Martín, Jesuit missionary in Sinaloa, 55, 237, 239. Pernambuco, captured by Dutch West India Company, 252. Perrot, Nicholas, posts of, in Wisconsin, 101. Peru, 29, 46, 49, 50, 66; viceroyalty of, 75. Peter the Great, 388. Petit Guave, West Indies, 262, 268. Petition of Right, 112. Pez, Andrés de, explorer of Gulf of Mexico, 249, 255. Philadelphia, founding, 204; description of, 226; in the eighteenth century, 332-353; First Continental Congress, 452; Second Continental Congress, 463; captured by the British, 500-501; evacuated by the British, 509. Philip II, of Spain, emigration policy, 21; inheritance, 52; agent of the Catholic church in the Counter-Reformation, 52-53; Spain's weakness under, 53; decision to colonize Florida, 62; to establish trade with Philippines, 67; war with France, 79; policy toward England, 105. Philip III, of Spain, policy regarding Virginia, 119. Philip V, of Spain, 359. Philippines, Spanish claim to, 46; expeditions to, 46-47; occupation of, 54; conquest of, 67-68; Legazpi's expedition, 68; the Manila galleon, 66, 68, 69; discovery of return route from, 69; captured by English, 382. Phips, Sir William, expedition against Port Royal, Acadia, 264; expedition against Quebec, 264; orders rebuilding Fort Pemaquid and fort on the Saco, 265. Pichilingues, pirates in the Gulf of California, 240. Picólo, Francisco Maria, S.J., in Lower California, 306. Pickens, General Arthur, 529. Piedmont, settlement of, 309-329; significance, 326-328. Piernas, Pedro, lieutenant-governor at St Louis, 398. Pilgrims at Scrooby, Gainsborough, and Austerfield, 137; removal to Leyden, 137; Use at Leyden, 137; causes of removal from Holland, 137; Mayflower Compact, 138. See Plymouth Colony. Pillars of Alexander, 1. Pillars of Hercules, 1. Pima Revolt, 305. Pimería Alta (Sonora and Arizona), Jesuits in, 301-306; exploration and settlement in Arizona, 302; Kino's map, 303; decline and revival of the missions, 303-304; Arizonac mines, 304; work of Keller and Sedelmayr, 304; plans to occupy the Gila and Colorado, 304-305; the Pima revolt, 305; the northwestern frontier in 1763, 305-306. Pimienta, captures English settlement, on Providence Island, 252. Piñadero, attempt to colonize Lower California, 241. Pineda, explores Gulf of Mexico, 26, 37. Pinta, one of Columbus's ships, 8. Pinzón, explores coasts, 24, 25. Pious Fund of California, 306, 389. Piquet, French missionary in New York, 368. Piracy Act, 349-350. Pirates. See Freebooters. Pitt, William, 376, 381; opposition to the Stamp Act, 437. Pitt-Grafton Ministry, 438. Pizarro, conqueror of Peru, De Soto with, 41 Placentia Bay, Newfoundland, 271. Plantation Duties Act of 1673, 181. Platte River, Humana expedition to, 1594, 73-74; French traders on, 285-286, 300; Spanish plans to settle on, 295; Villazur expedition destroyed, 1720, 296; horse market for English colonies, 400; Spanish fur trade on, 402. Plowden, Sir Edmund, grant on Long Island, 150. Plymouth Company, charter, 116; attempts to colonize, 136. Plymouth Colony, Mayflower Compact, 138; settlement at Plymouth, 138; economic development, 138-139; trouble with western settlers, 139; expansion, 139; government, 139-140; trouble with settlers at Cape Ann, 140-141; with Morton's settlers, 141; member of New England Confederation, 156; the Dominion of New England, 194; education, 220; consolidation with Massachusetts, 340. Pocahontas, 121. Pocock, English admiral, captures Havana, 382. Polo, Marco, Matteo, and Nicolo, in the East, 3, 7. Pond, Peter, fur trader, 423. Pontchartrain, French Minister of Marine, 275. Pontgravé, French fur trader, 85, 86. Pontiac, conspiracy of, 409, 417, 422. Pope Alexander VI, assignation of discoveries between Spain and Portugal, 11. Pope Innocent IV, sends legate to the Great Khan, 3. Popé, Indian leader of Pueblo revolt, 245-246. Population. See Immigration and Population. Port Royal, Acadia, 85, 86. See also Acadia. Port Royal, South Carolina, 62, 210. Port Royal, Jamaica, destroyed, 262. Port Royal Sound, Huguenot settlement on, 84. Porter y Casante, attempt to colonize California, 240. Portezuelos, Mexico, 59. Porto Bello. See Puerto Bello. Portolá, expedition to California, 389; founds San Diego, 389; Monterey, 389; discovers San Francisco Bay, 389. Portoláni, 4. Porto Rico, Island, 17, 19, 67, 253. Porto Santo, Island, 7. Portsmouth, New Hampshire, settled, 140; Puritan settlers in, 157; claimed by Massachusetts, 157. Portsmouth, Rhode Island, founded, 148. Portugal, rise of, 4-5; Henry the navigator, 4; exploration and discoveries, 5-6; map showing expansion, 6; reception to Columbus, 10; line of demarkation, 11; Magellan, 25, 46; purchase of Moluccas, 46; a Spanish province, 53, 68; spice trade, 67; incorporated with Spain, 107; joins League of Armed Neutrals, 520. Post Office, English colonial, 35; during the Revolution, 465. Pownall, Thomas, western land scheme, 411. Pragmatic Sanction, 360. Presbyterians, in New Jersey, 202, 226; in South Carolina, 231. Prescott, Colonel William, 461. Prester John, supposed Christian king in interior Africa, 5. Preston, Colonel, 417. Prevost, Colonel, 406. Prevost, General Augustine, 524. Prideaux, expedition against Niagara, 379. Princeton, battle of, 492. Princeton College, pillaged by Hessians, 489. Printing press, established in Mexico, 50. Printz, Johan, governor of New Sweden, 175. Privateers, 465,518. Privateers, English, French, and Dutch, in Spanish waters, 252, 271; Spanish retaliation, 252. Privy council, 113, 114, 343-344, 347-348, 354. Prize courts, 542. Prizes, 465. Proclamation of 1763, creates crown colonies, 404; discourages expansion, 411; provisions for government and fur trade, 420, 421. Protestant Reformation, 16, 52; in France, 78-79. Providence Island, occupied by English, 133; English expelled by Spaniards, 134, 252. Providence Island Company, 133-134. Providence Plantation, founding, 147; government, 143. See Rhode Island. Provincias Internas (New Spain), organization of, 386-387. Ptolemy, his conception of the world, 1, 2. Puaray, New Mexico, 72. Puebla, Mexico, population, 75. Pueblo Indians, of New Mexico, 46; revolt of, 245-247. Puerto Bello, 32, 360, 361. Puritan Revolution, attitude of English colonies, 152. Purry, Jean, 321. Putnam, Colonel, plants colony on Mississippi, 408. Putnam, Israel, 459, 461, 464. Pym, John, interest in the Caribbean, 133. Quakers, Massachusetts persecution, 189; in New Jersey, 198-202, 226; in Pennsylvania, 202-206, 226; in Connecticut, 220; in Rhode Island, 220; in New York, 223; in North Carolina, 229; in South Carolina, 231. Quartering Acts, 434-436, 438, 450. Quebec Act of 1774, 413, 450-451. Quebec, 257, 264, 272; founding, 86; occupied by English, 87; Jesuit schools in, 88; during intercolonial wars, 257, 264, 272, 379; British regulation of fur trade, 404-406, 421-424; province of, under British administration, 419-421; population in 1763, 419; first British settlers, 419; civil government established, 420; Proclamation of 1763, 420; Quebec Act, 420, 421; boundaries extended, 420; Loyalists in, 421; fur trade under the British, 421-424; American expedition against, 487. See French and Indian War. Queen Anne's War. See War of the Austrian Succession. Queres Indians, New Mexico, 246. Querétaro, a buffer province, conquest of, 39; natives as agents of subjugation, 39; battle of, 58; founding of town, 58; College of the Holy Cross at, 249. Quexos, slave hunter and explorer, 26. Quiché Indians, Guatemala, conquest of, 38. Quincy, Josiah, defense of British soldiers, 443. Quiroga, oidor of New Spain, 49; bishop of Michoacán, 49. Quivira (Kansas), 45, 72, 73, 243. Radisson, French fur trader, 90, 260; influence in establishment of Hudson's Bay Company, 213. Raleigh, Walter, English freebooter and colonizer, 66, 251; interest in Mediterranean commerce, 107; charter of 1584, 109; attempts to colonize Roanoke Island, 110; expedition to Guiana, 110; final attempt to colonize Guiana, 132; death, 132. Ramón, Domingo, founds colony in Texas, 293, 295, 296. Randolph, Edward, royal agent, 192; collector of the customs, 193; attempt to enforce trade laws, 194; imprisonment, 194; surveyor-general of the customs, 344. Randolph, Peyton, 463. Rappahannock River, Spanish mission on, 65. Rawdon, Lord Francis, 529. Recollet friars, activities in Canada, 87. Red River, Spanish and French on, 42, 283,284. Reformation, The. See The Protestant Reformation. Regidores, members of cabildo, 20; manner of obtaining office, 20. Renault, mining on the Missouri, 282. Requisitions upon states, 545. Restoration, the, 179. Restraining Act, 456. Revere, Paul, 460. Revillagigedo, viceroy of New Spain, 305. Revolution in English colonies, background of the contest and nature of the causes, 423-429; legislation during the Grenville Ministry, 429-436; repeal of the Stamp Act, 436-438; the Townshend Acts, 438-443; beginning of organized resistance, 443-447; the tea controversy, 447-449; North's coercive policy, 449-451; First Continental Congress, 451-456; opening of hostilities, 458-463; Second Continental Congress, 463-470; progress of the war, 470-472; Loyalists, 472-476; Declaration of Independence, 476-481; contest for New York, 482-489; New Jersey campaign, 489-493; struggle with Burgoyne, 493-499; contest for Philadelphia, 499-504; the French alliance, 505-512; the war in the West, 512-515; Spain in the war, 515-517; the war on the sea and the Dutch alliance, 517-522; the war in the South, 524-530; the Yorktown campaign, 530-538; the treaty of peace, 532-538; governmental development during the Revolution, 539-555. Ribas, Pérez de, missionary and historian in Sinaloa, 239. Ribaut, Jean, French colonizer; in Carolina and Florida, 62, 84. Rica de Oro, Island, 71. Rica de Plata, Island, 71. Rice, 231, 313, 334-335, 356. Richelieu, Cardinal, administration of, government of France, 79-80; colonial policy, 80. Rio del Espíritu Santo. See Mississippi River. Rio Fuerte, Sinaloa, 42, 56. Rio Grande, 45, 73; pueblo region of, 46; population on, in 1680, 244-245; crossed by expedition from the south, 248. See New Mexico, Nuevo León, Coahuila, Texas. Rivas, explorer of Gulf of Mexico, 249. Rivera y Moneada, with Portolá in California, 389. Rivera, Juan Maria, explores in Colorado, 291-292. Rivera, Pedro de, inspects frontier of New Spain, 297, 298,304. Rhode Island, founding, 147; confederation, 159; code, 159; government, 159; charter, 190; attitude toward royal commissioners, 191; King Philip's War, 191-192; Dominion of New England, 194-195; charter restored, 195; population, 216; commerce, 216; religion, 220; education, 220; restoration of the charter, 344; protest against Grenville's policy, 432; opposes the Stamp Act, 436; British occupation, 489. See Providence Plantation, Roger Williams; Anne Hutchinson. Rich, Sir Nathaniel, interest in the Caribbean, 133. Rich, Robert, Lord Warwick, interest in colonization, 133; land grants in New England, 140, 149; assists Reverend John White, 141. Rising, John, governor of New Sweden, 177. Roanoke, lost colony of, 110. Roanoke Island, 66, 251. Robertson, James, pioneer in Tennessee, 415, 416, 419; defense of Watauga, 513. Roberval, French colonizer, 82; commissioned viceroy and lieutenant-general of Canada, 82. Robinson, Rev. John, at Scrooby, 137. Rochambeau, Comte de, 511. Rockingham Ministry, 437-438. Rocky Mountains, 282. Rodney, Admiral, in the West Indies, 382, 511, 530-531; defeats de Grasse, 532. Rodrigo del Rio de Losa, expedition to open mines of Nueva Vizcaya, 56; cattle ranches of, 58. Rodríguez, Fray Agustín, expedition to New Mexico, 72. Roe, Sir Thomas, expedition to Guiana, 132. Rolfe, John, 121. Rosicrucians, 318. Roxbury settled, 142. Royal council, Spanish, 14; divided into three councils, justice, state, and finance, 14. Rowley, William, English vice-admiral, 365. Rubí, Marqués de, inspects outposts of New Spain, 385-386. Ruí, Captain Francisco, in Missouri. Rubruquis, William de, sent to court of Great Khan, 3. Rump Parliament, 152. Rupert, Prince, interest in Hudson's Bay Company, 213. Russia, 3, 375, 382, 384; expansion across Siberia, 388; expeditions of Bering on Pacific, 388; fur traders on Aleutian Islands, 388; rumors of activities of, 394. Rutherford, Gen. Griffith, 512-513. Rutledge, Edward, member of the First Continental Congress, 452; defense of Charleston, 471; on committee to draw up Articles of Confederation, 550. Rutledge, John, member of the Stamp Act Congress, 436; member of the First Continental Congress, 452. Saavedra, Alvaro de, expedition across the Pacific, 42, 46. Saavedra, Hernando, in Honduras, 38. Saba Island, settled by Dutch, 167; captured by English, 206, 531. Sable Island, 81, 85. Saco Bay, settlement, 140. Sagres, on Cape St. Vincent, 4. St. Augustine, Florida, founding, 62; Franciscan monastery at, 65; siege of, in War of the Spanish Succession, 269-270; attacks on, in War of Jenkins' Ear, 362, 364; under English rule, 403, 408, 409. St. Bartholomew's, massacre of, 79. St. Christopher Island, settled by French, 93, 94, 252; by English, 132-133, 252; in the Leeward Isles government, 206; in wars, 261, 268; social conditions, 340; captured by De Grasse, 532; restored to Great Britain, 537. St. Clair, Gen. Arthur, in Burgoyne campaign, 494-495. St. Croix Island, French settlement of, 85. St. Denis, Louis Juchereau de, founds Natchitoches, 278; expeditions to Mexico, 278, 282-283, 293; imprisonment, 283, 295; raises French expedition, 297. St. Eustatius Island, settled by the Dutch, 167, 252; captured by the English, 206, 262; trade, 341, 428; in the Revolution, 520; captured by the English, 530-531. St. John, French fur trading post, 86. St. John's River, 62. St. Joseph, Michigan, captured by Spaniards, 516. St. Julien, Peter, South Carolina trader, 369. St Kitts. See St. Christopher. St. Lawrence River, exploration of, 81, 82; French settlement, 86-90. St. Leger's expedition, 493, 496. St. Louis, Missouri, La Clede's post at, 396; emigration to from Illinois, 396; Spanish régime installed, 397-398; a center for Indian control and fur trade, 401, 402; communication with Santa Fé, 402; British expedition against, 516; counter expedition to Michigan, 517. St. Louis of France, sends Rubruquis to Great Khan, 3. St Louis, Alabama, French settlement, 276; moved to Mobile, 276. St. Lucia Island, captured by English, 510; attempted capture by De Grasse, 531; given to France, 537. St. Marks Bay, Narváez at, 41. St. Martin Island, settled by the Dutch, 167; captured by English, 531. St. Mary's, Maryland, 127. St. Thomas Island, Danes on, 253. St. Vincent Island, occupied by French, 510; restored to Great Britain, 537. Salamanca, University of, 76. Salazar, royal factor of New Spain, 48. Salem, Massachusetts, founded, 141; suffering at, 142; Roger Williams controversy, 146-147; witchcraft, 220. Salmerón, oidor of New Spain, 49. Saltillo, Coahuila, settlement of, 59; Franciscan monastery at, 59. Salvatierra, Juan Maria, Jesuit missionary in Lower California, 306. San Antonio Mission, California, 389. San Antonio, Florida, presidio of, 64. San Antonio, Texas, founded, 293-295; strengthening of, 298. San Bernabé, Lower California, 307. San Blas, naval base for California, 389. San Bruno, Lower California, 242. San Buenaventura Mission, California, 394. San Carlos Mission, California, 389. San Diego, California, founded, 389. San Diego Bay, California, discovery of, 47; exploration of, 71. Sandoval, Gonzalo de, lieutenant of Cortés, 36, 37. Sandys, Sir Edwin, and Virginia, 120. San Esteban (Tampico), founding of, 37. San Felipe, Sinaloa, 58, 59; development of, 58; Jesuit school for boys, 237. San Felipe, South Carolina, 64. San Fernando, Villa of, Texas, founded, 298. San Francisco, California, founding of, 391. San Francisco Bay, California, 47, 71, 389. San Francisco Xavier, Sonora, 239. San Gabriel Mission, California, 391. San Gerónimo, Sonora, founding of, 45; destruction of, 56; refounding, 59. San José, pueblo, California, 392. San Juan, Sinaloa, mines of, 56; revolt of Indians at, 58. San Juan, Sonora, mines, 239. San Juan, Porto Rico, founded, 17; captured by English, 66; decline of, 67; captured by Dutch West India Company, 252. San Juan River, Nicaragua, exploration of, 31-32. San Luis, Nicolás de, Otomi Chief, conquest of Querétaro, 39. San Luis Obispo Mission, California, 391. San Luis Potosí, conquest and settlement of, 59; growth of, 59. San Mateo, Florida, 64. San Miguel de Gualdape, South Carolina, settlement of, 41. San Miguel el Grande (Allende), Mexico, 59. San Pedro mines, Mexico, 59. San Sabá, Texas, mines, 248; mission, 299. San Salvador, Central America, conquest, 31, 37-38; population, 75. San Salvador Island, discovered and named by Columbus, 8, 10. San Xavier (San Gabriel) River, Texas, mission and presidio on, 299. Santa Ana, Father, missionary in Texas, 299. Santa Bárbara mission and presidio, California, 394. Santa Bárbara, Mexico, mines of, 56; expedition from, 72. Santa Catalina Island, California, 71, 255; mission, 255. Santa Clara Mission, California, 392. Santa Cruz de Tlatelalco, Mexico, College of, founded, 50. Santa Cruz Island, 252. Santa Elena (Port Royal) South Carolina, 61-62, 64, 65, 253. Santa Fé Mission, Florida, 2, 69. Santa Fé, New Mexico, 73, 243, 246, 290. Santa Fé de Guanajauto, founding of, 58. Santa Lucia, Florida, 64. Santa Maria, one of Columbus' ships, 8; wreck of, 10. Santa Maria de Lagos, Mexico, 59. Santa Maria de Parras, Coahuila, 60. Santangel, Luis de, influence in favor of Columbus, 7; loan to the Castilian treasury, 8. Santa Cruz, Franciscan College of, at Querétaro, 249. Santiago de Cuba, founded, 17, 18; decline of, 67; captured by Jackson, 252; English attempt to conquer, 363. Santo Domingo, 17, 67; establishment of audiencia, 20; population, 75; attacks on during King William's War, 262. Saratoga, campaign, 497, 498. Sardinia Island, 13, 359. Satren, Pierre, expedition to New Mexico, 286. Sault Ste. Marie, 88; Jesuit mission, 88, 96. Saunders, English vice-admiral, 379, 380. Savannah, founding, 316; attempted relief by D'Estaing, 511; captured by the British, 524; failure to recapture, 524. Saybrook, 149. Saye and Sele, Lord, interest in the Caribbean, 133; holdings in the Connecticut Valley, 149; obtains lands in New Hampshire, 157. Sayle, Captain William, governor of the Bermuda Islands, leads colony to Segatoo, 152; leads settlers to old Charles Town, 208. Schenectady, New York, 263. Schouten, William Cornelius, discovers Cape Horn, 165. Schuyler, Captain John, 264. Schuyler, Peter, 265. Schuyler, Gen. Philip, appointment, 464; in command of the northern department, 487; defense of northern New York, 493-496; superseded by Gates, 496. Schuylkill River, settlement, 155. Scotch, in New Jersey, 202; at Port Royal, 210; in New England, 216; in New York, 222. See Scotch-Irish. Scotch-Irish, causes of migration, 322-323; seventeenth century migration, 324; the great migration, 324; to New England, 324-325; to New York, 325; to Pennsylvania, 325-326; to the Southern Piedmont, 326; in North Carolina, 415. Second Continental Congress, delegates, 463; nature of the work of the congress, 463-464; military and naval preparations, 464; prizes and privateers, 465; finance, 465; post office established, 465; Indian policy, 465-466; enforcement of the Association, 466-467; letter to the people of Canada, 467; attempts to influence public opinion in the British Empire, 468; statement to the army, 468; petition to the king, 468-469; reply to Lord North, 469; abandons Philadelphia and goes to Baltimore, 490; second abandonment of Philadelphia, 502; provides a navy, 517; its nature, 539; original powers of the delegates, 540; causes of weakness, 540; business, 541; organization and conduct of business, 541; early acts, 541-542; judicial functions, 542; military affairs, 542-543; naval affairs, 543; foreign affairs, 543-544; financial affairs, 544-545; creates executive offices, 553. Secretaries of State, 347, 351, 353. Sedelmayr, Father Jacob, Jesuit missionary and explorer in Arizona, 304, 307. Segatoo (Eleutheria) Island, settled, 152. Segura, Father, Jesuit, founds missions in Florida, Georgia, Carolina, and Virginia, 1568-1570, 65. Seignorial grants in New France, 92, 93. Seneca Indians, 259; in St. Leger's army, 496. Sénégal, Africa, coast of, explored, 5; retained by British, 1763, 382. Separatists, 135. Sena, Junípero, 386; president of the California missions, 389; member of Portolá expedition, 389; goes to Mexico, 389; death, 394. Seven Years' War, 375, 384. See French and Indian War. Sevier, John, Tennessee pioneer, 415, 416; defense of Watauga, 513; at King's Mountain, 527. Seville, 10; treaty of, 366. Shaftesbury. See Cooper. Shawnee Indians, 417. Sheffield, Lord, land grant to, 140. Shelby, Isaac, 527. Shenandoah Valley, settlement, 320. Sherman, Roger, member of First Continental Congress, 452; on the committee for drafting Declaration of Independence, 479; on committee to draw up Articles of Confederation, 550. Ship-building, 217, 331, 332. Shirley, governor of Massachusetts, 364. 374, 375-376. Shrewsbury, New Jersey, 198. Sicily, 16, 359, 361. Sieur de Argaud, New World project, 275. Sieur de Monts, fur trader. 85, 86. Silao, Mexico, founded, 58. Silva, Father Juan de, Franciscan missionary in Florida, 65. Sinaloa, conquest of, 39; development of, 56, 305-306, 387; Jesuits in, 237-240; map of, in seventeenth century, 238. Sinclair, British commander at Mackinac, expedition against St. Loins, 516. Sioux Indians, French among, 287. Six Nations. See the Iroquois Indians. Slavery, beginning of the traffic, 5; slaves in Spain, 13; enslaving of the Indians, 22, 23, 31, 37, 56, 60-61, 72, 75, 270, 298; practiced by Mayas and Nahuas, 27; negro slavery, 23, 56, 273, 276, 279, 281, 282, 361; in French settlements, 94; St. Thomas, slave-trading station, 253; English monopoly of slave-carrying trade, 385; Dutch slave trade, 196; English slave trade, 196, 197; in tobacco colonies, 229; in South Carolina, 230, 334-335; in Georgia, 316; Rhode Island slave trade, 331; in various colonies, 336; in the West Indies, 339-341. Sloughter, Henry, governor of New York, 198, 344-345. Smith, James, explorer on the Tennessee, 413. Smith, John, in Virginia, 117; explorations on the New England coast, 136. Smuggling, 350-360, 361, 385, 398, 406. Smythe, Sir Thomas, interest in Mediterranean trade, 107; in Virginia Company, 120. Society for Propagating the Gospel, 338. Solís, Juan de, explorer, 25. Sombrerete, Mexico, 55, 56. Somers, Sir George, wrecked on Bermuda Islands, 129; forms Somers Island Company, 130. Somers Island Company, 130; dissolved, 206. Sonora, Mexico, 41; Jesuits in, 237, 230-240; map, 238; development, 305-306, 387; Indian disturbances, 1768-1771, 386. See Pimería Alta. Sons of Liberty, 436. Sosa, Castaño de, alcalde-mayor in Nuevo León, 60; expedition to New Mexico, 72. Sothell, Seth, 211. Soton, French trader on the Tennessee, 102. South America, explorations of Portuguese in, 5; Columbus' discovery of mainland of, 17; explorations of coasts of, 23-24, 25; Spanish conquests, 50. Southampton, on Long Island, settled, 151. South Carolina (for early history see Carolinas) in later 17th century, population, commerce, religion, education, society, 230-231; separation from North Carolina, 313-315, 354; Spanish resistance to English advance, 253-256; Yamassee revolt against Spaniards of Georgia, 255; English raids on Georgia missions, 255; South Carolina traders among the Creeks; Anglo-Spanish border, struggle during War of Spanish Succession, 269-271; expeditions against Florida, 269-270; Spanish attack on Charleston, 270. South Company, 174-175. South Sea. See Pacific Ocean. Spain, during the conquest, 13-16; unification of, 14; Charles V, 15-16; under Philip II, 52-53, 67; decline in the 17th century, 232; relations to the Powers, 1715-1739, 359-361; attitude toward American Revolution, 507-508; in American Revolution, 515-517; operations on lower Mississippi, 515; repulse of British at St. Louis, 516; expedition against St. Joseph, 516; capture of Mobile and Pensacola, 516-517; in League of Armed Neutrals, 520; loans to United States, 554. Spanish Armada, defeat of, 52-53. Spanish Colonies in North America, general history, the discovery, 7-11; the founding of New Spain, 13-50; occupation of West Indies, 16-19; beginnings of colonial administration and policy, 19-23; exploration of mainland coasts and search for strait, 23-26; Maya and Nahua civilization, 26-28; conquest of Central America, 28-32; conquest of Valley of Mexico, 32-36; spread of conquest in southern Mexico and Central America, 36-40; exploration of Florida, Cíbola, Quivira, California and Philippines, 40-47; establishment of viceroyalty of New Spain, 47-50; expansion in later 16th century, 52-76; New Spain under Philip II, 52-55; the mines of northern Mexico, 55-61; occupation of the Atlantic seaboard (Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, Virginia), 61-65; foreign intrusions in the Atlantic, 65-67; the Philippines and California, 67-71; New Mexico founded, 72-75; Spanish achievement in the sixteenth century, 75-76; expansion in the 17th century, 233-256; frontier administration, 234-235; the missions, 235-237; Jesuits in Sinaloa and Sonora, 237-240; efforts to occupy Lower California, 240-242; Chihuahua settled, 242; New Mexico in the 17th century, lost and regained, 243-247; Coahuila founded, 247-249; first attempts in eastern Texas, 249-251; struggle with rivals in the West Indies, 251-253; with the English on the Carolina border, 253-256; New Spain in the Wars of English and Spanish successions, 261-262, 267-271; French intrusions in Louisiana, Texas, and New Mexico, 275-286; expansion and frontier conflict during early 18th century, 289-307; development of Chihuahua and New Mexico frontier, 289-290; explores in Colorado and Utah Basin, 291-292; the province of Texas, 292-300; French intrusion, 295-297; 300-301; occupation of Pimería Alta, 301-306; the Jesuits in Lower California, 306-307; Spanish colonies during intercolonial wars, 359-383; Florida lost, Louisiana acquired, 382; readjustments after Seven Years' War, 384-388; Charles III and José de Gálvez, 384-387; expulsion of Jesuits, 386; the Provinciali Internas, 386-387; new dioceses, 387; the intendancies, 387; the Russian menace, 388; Alta California founded, 380-394; communication with New Mexico, 391-392; explorations in Northern Pacific, 394-395; Louisiana under Spain, 395-402; ceded, 382, 395; hostility to transfer, 396; O'Reilly's coup d'état, 397; development of the province, 397-402; Spain in the American Revolution, 515-517; Gálvez's conquests, 515-516; English campaign against St. Louis, 516; Florida restored to Spain, 535-538. Spice Islands, 24, 46, 68. Spillberg, Dutch freebooter on the Pacific, 240. Spotswood, Governor Alexander, expedition to the Blue Ridge Mountains, 313. Springfield founded, 149. Squanto, 138-319. Stamford founded, 150. Stamp Act, 433; opposition and resistance to, 434-436; repealed, 437. Stamp Act Congress, 436-437. Standish, Captain Miles, at Leyden, 137; commanding expedition to Cape Ann, 141. Staple Act of 1663, 180-181. Stark, Gen. John, 461, 495-496. State governments, organization, 546; types, 546; variations from type, 547; selection of judiciary, 548; courts, 548; state of Vermont, 548; western state-making, 549. Statute of Henry VIII regarding trials for treason, 442. Stephen, negro, with Vaca, 44. Stirling, Sir Thomas, 484, 490, 500. Stone, William, governor of Maryland, 162. Stoner, pioneer in Kentucky. 413, 417. Stony Point, captured by Wayne, 511. Strabo, his conception of the world, 1. Strait of Anian, 24, 25, 67-68. Straits of Magellan, 25. Stuart, John, British Indian superintendent, 407, 412. Stuyvesant, Peter, director of Curaçao 172; director-general of New Netherlands, 172; struggle over representation, 172-173; conquest of New Sweden, 177; difficulties with the English, 177-178. Suaque Indians, Sinaloa, 239. Suffolk Resolves, 452. Sugar, 340-341. Sugar Act, 430-431. Sullivan, Gen. John, at Long Island. 484; in Northern New York, 487; at Trenton, 490, 491; at Brandywine, 500; at Germantown, 502; at Newport, 510; expedition against the Iroquois, 515. Sully, French minister, 79. Sulpicians, in the Illinois country, 91, 101. Sumter, Thomas, South Carolina leader in the Revolution, 526, 527, 529. Superstitions in New England, 220. Surinam, 197. Swannendael, Dutch settlement, 170. Swanson and McGillivray, traders in Florida, 407. Sweden, alliance with France, 80; expansion movement, 174-175; settlements on the Delaware, 175; conquest of New Sweden by Dutch, 175-176. Swiss migration to South Carolina, 321; to North Carolina, 321; to Georgia, 321. Sylvius, Æneas, General History and Geography, 7. Tabasco, Mexico, 33. Tacuba, Mexico, 28. Tadoussac, fur trading settlement, 85, 87. Tagus River, 10, 13. Talon, first intendant of New France, 92; administrative activities, 92-93, 96. Tamaulipas, Mexico. See Hausteca, Pánuco, Nuevo Santander. Tamaral, Father, Jesuit missionary in Lower California, 307. Tampa Bay, DeSoto at, 41. Tampico (San Estéban), Mexico, 37. Tangaxoan, Tarascan chief, 36. Tano Indians, 246. Tápia, Cristóbal de, attempt to investigate Cortés, 34. Tápia, Fernando de, Otomi chief in, conquest of Querétaro, 39. Tápia, Gonzalo de, Jesuit missionary in Sinaloa, 237. Tarahumare Indians, 242; revolt of, 246. Tarascans, Mexican tribe, 28, 36. Taraval, Father, Jesuit missionary in Lower California, 307. Tarleton, Sir Banastre, 525, 526, 528. Tartary, travelers' report of, 3. Tea controversy, 447-449. Tegesta, Florida, 64. Tehuantepec, Mexico, 36. Tehueco Indians, Sinaloa, 239. Tejas (Texas) Indians, 245. Tennessee, settlement of eastern, 414-416; stimulated by North Carolina troubles, 414-415; the Watauga settlement, 415; the Watauga Association, 415-416; middle, 418-419; Cumberland settlement, 419; Davidson County, North Carolina, 419. Terán, Domingo de, governor of Texas, 251. Terreros, Don Pedro de, gift to Apache missions, 299. Texas, Pineda coasts, 26; Vaca crosses, 41; Moscoso in, 41; Coronado in Panhandle, 45; Espejo crosses, 72; Castaño de Sosa crosses, 72; Oñate crosses Panhandle, 73; La Salle's colony in, 98-100; Tonty in, 99; map, 99; expeditions from New Mexico to Jumanos, 243-244, 246; beginnings of El Paso, 245; the La Junta missions, 245; Azcué crosses Rio Grande, 248; Cerro de la Plata, 248; Bosque-Larios expedition, 248; the Querétaro friars, 248-249; search for LaSalle's colony, 249; eastern Texas occupied (De León and Massanet), 249-251; and then abandoned, 251; map, 250; Hurtado in western Texas, 291; advance of the Coahuila frontier, 292; plans to reoccupy Texas, 292; new French intrusion, 278, 283; St. Denis in Mexico, 278, 292; eastern Texas reoccupied (Ramón, Espinosa, Margil), 293; San Antonio founded (Olivares, Alarcón), 293-295; map, 294; French invasion (Blondel), 279, 295; the Aguayo expedition, 296-297; Texas won for Spain, 297; expansion of Texas, 297; Rivera's inspection, 297; San Antonio strengthened, 298; Apache wars, 298; Tonkawa and Apache missions, 298-299; the Gulf coast occupied (Nuevo Santander), 299; western boundary, 300; the Texas-Louisiana boundary, 300; the Lower Trinity fortified, 301; readjustment after 1763, 385; explorations of Parrilla and Escandón, 385; Rubí's tour, 385; eastern outposts abandoned, 385, 400; Gil Ybarbo, 400; De Mézières among the northern tribes, 401; Croix, Ugalde, and the Apache War, 401; communication with Louisiana and New Mexico (Vial), 402. Thirty Years' War, 80. Thomson, Charles, secretary of Second Continental Congress, 541. Three Rivers, Canada, 257, 419. Ticonderoga, captured, 462; an American base, 487; abandoned, 493-494. Tidewater, Atlantic, settled in 16th and 17th centuries, 52-231, passim. Tierra Firme, Las Casas' Utopian colony in, 23. Tiguex, 45. Tlascala, resistance to Cortés, 33. Tlascaltecan Indians (Tlascalans), 28, 59; used as colonists, 59-66. Tobacco industry in English colonies, 121, 122-125, 130, 183-184, 188, 228, 313, 333-334; Tobago Island, 252; granted to the Earl of Pembroke and Montgomery, 132; captured by De Grasse, 531; given to France, 537. Tobar, discovers Moqui pueblos, 45. Tocobago, Florida, 64. Toledo, victory over English at St. Kitts, 252. Tololotlán, Rio de, Mexico, 37. Tolosa, Juan de, founder of Zacatecas, 55. Toltecs, Nahua tribe, settle in Valley of Mexico, 27. Toluca, Merico, 53, 75. Tonkawa, missions in Texas, 209. Tonty, soldier with La Salle, 8, 9; fur trader, 265, 275, 276. Tópia, Mexico, 56. Tordesulas, Treaty of, 11. Tories. See Loyalists. Torres, Admiral Don Rodrigo de, 363. Tortola Island, captured by the English, 207. Tortuga Island, occupied by French, 94; occupied by the English, 133. Toscanelli, Florentine geographer, influence on Columbus, 7; map, 7. Touacara Indians, Oklahoma. 283. Townshend Acts, 438-443. Townshend, Charles, policy, 438. Trans-Alleghany settlement, English, before the French and Indian War, 413; Boone, Croghan, Finley, and other pioneers, 413-414; the Appalachian barrier, 414; the Indian barrier, 414; Indian cessions, 414. Transylvania, Kentucky, 417, 418, 549. Treasure ships, Spanish, routes of, 62. Treasury, United States, 465. Treasury Board, United States, 544. Treaty of Tordesulas, 11; of Breda, 86, 197; of 1604 between England and Spain, 114; of 1650 between New Netherlands and New England Confederation, 177; of Pyrenees, 232; of Ryswick, 266-267; of Utrecht, 273; of Aix-la-Chapelle, 366; of Paris, 1763, 382-383; of Lochaber, 412; of alliance with France, 508; at end of American Revolution, 532-548. Trent, Council of, 52. Trenton, battle of, 491. Treviño, Baltasar, founder of Zacatecas, 55. Tribunal de la Santa Hermandad, 53. Trinidad, Guatemala, population, 75. Trinidad Bay, California, discovery of, 395. Trinidad Island, West Indies, 262; granted to the Earl of Pembroke and Montgomery, 132. Trinity River, Texas, 301, 400. Trujillo, Honduras, 38, 252. Tryon, Governor of North Carolina, 415. Tunica Indians, 410. Turkish Empire, rise of, supposed effect on trade routes, 5; opposition of Charles V to westward advance of, 16. Turk's Island, settled, 152; attacked, 269. Turnbull Dr., colonizes East Florida, 309. Tuscarora War, 271, 320. Twenty Reasons, by Father Las Casas, 50. Ugalde, Juan de, campaigns against Apaches, 401. Ugarte, Juan de, Jesuit missionary and explorer in Lower California, 306. Ulloa, Antonio de, Spanish governor of Louisiana, 396-397. Ulloa, Francisco de, explores Pacific coast, 44. Unalaska, rebellion of natives, 388. Underwood, Captain John, raids Newfoundland, 271. United Empire Loyalists, 538. See Loyalists, Canada. University of Mexico, 76; founding of, 53. See Education in Mexico. Unzaga y Amezaga, Luis de, Spanish governor of Louisiana, 398. Urdaneta, Fray Andres de, discovers return route from Philippines, 68. Uraba, Gulf of, 38. Urdiñola, Francisco de, settlement of Saltillo, 59; lieutenant-governor of Nueva Vizcaya, 60; commission to conquer New Mexico, 60. Ursulines, The, in New France, 88. Usselincx, William, in the Dutch West-India Company, 166; in Sweden, 174-175. Utah Basin, explorers and traders in, 291-292, 392. Utatlán, Guatemala, submission to Cortés, 38. Utrecht, Peace of, 273, 361. Uxmal, Maya settlement, 27. Urribarri, Juan de, expedition to El Quartelejo, 291. Vaca, Alonzo de, expedition to Quivira, 243. Vaca, Alvar Nuñez Cabeza de, treasurer of colony of Florida, 41; journey across continent, 41, 42; application for governorship of Florida, 41. Valcárcel, Antonio de, alcalde mayor of Coahuila, founds Monclova, 248. Valcour Island, battle of, 487-488. Valley Forge,. 503. Valverde, governor of New Mexico, expedition across Arkansas River, 295-296. Vandalia colony, 412-413, 418. Vane, Governor Harry, in the Hutchinsonian controversy, 148; member of Committee of Trade, Plantations, and Foreign Affairs, 153. Van Noort, Oliver, circumnavigation of the globe, 164. Van Rensselaer, Kiliaen, patroon, 170. Van Twiller, Wouter, director-general of New Netherlands, 170. Vargas, Diego de, reconquest of New Mexico, 246-247. Varkens Kill, settled, 155. Vaudreuil, governor-general of New France, 375, 381. Vaughan, Sir William, land grant in Newfoundland, 125. Velasco, Father, Jesuit missionary, in Sinaloa, writes grammar, 237. Velasco, López de, author of geographical work on Spanish colonies, 75. Velasco, Luis de, second viceroy of New Spain, 53; promotes expansion, 59, 61-62, 67, 71. Velasquez, Diego, governor of Cuba, 17; exploring expeditions, 25, 32; his contest with Cortés, 33, 34. Venables, conquest of Jamaica, 253. Venetian Company, 107. Vera Cruz, founding of, 33, 36, 47; port of departure for expeditions to Florida, 61, 62; port for Spanish merchant fleet, 66; population, 75; capture of fleet by Heyn, 252. Vera Paz, Central America, 39. Veragua, Central America, 28; dukedom of, 32; Audiencia of, 49. Vérendrye. See La Vérendrye. Vergennes, Comte de, French minister, policy toward the American Revolution, 505-506, 507; perfects an alliance, 508; sends De Grasse to America, 530; dealings with John Adams, 532-533; treaty of peace, 534-538. Vermont, German migration to, 322; Scotch-Irish migration to, 325; organization of, 548-549. Vernon, Admiral Edward, 361, 363. Verrazano, exploring expedition, 81. Vespucius, Americus, explorations of, 24. Vetch, Colonel Samuel, 272. Vial, Pedro, explorations in Southwest, 402. Viceroyalties in Spanish America, New Spain and Peru, 75-76. Victoria Garayana. See Pánuco. Vila, Captain Vicente, explores Northern Pacific, 389. Villafañe, attempt to colonize Florida, 61-62. Villalobos, López de, expedition to Philippines, 47, 67. Villazur, expedition to Platte River, 1720, 279, 284, 291, 296. Villiers, lieutenant-governor of Arkansas Post, 398. Vincennes, founded, 282; captured by Clark, 514; reoccupied by British, 514; retaken, 514. Vining, E.J., identification of Fusang, 2. Vinland, discovery of, 2. Virgin Isles, 341. Virginia, Jesuit mission in, 1570, 65; Council of, 113; settlement of, 115-128; charter of 1606, 116; Jamestown founded, 116-117; John Smith, 117; charter of 1609, 117-118; the starving time, 118; governorship of Gates, 118; under Lord Delaware, 118-119; Spanish resistance to, 118-119; under Sir Thomas Dale, 119-121; charter of 1612, 120; first governorship of Berkeley, 160; Indian War of 1644, 160; struggle with the Commonwealth, 160; government under the Commonwealth, 160, 162; growth, 162; House of Burgesses, 120, agricultural development, 120-121; immigration, 121-122; massacre of 1622, 122; crown regulation of tobacco industry, 122-123; a royal colony, 123; population, 123; plantations, 123-125; attitude of Charles I, 124; under Governor Harvey, 124-125: royal tobacco monopoly, 125; trouble with Maryland, 127-128; economic distress, 183; population in 1680, 183; Dutch attacks, 184; abuses in the second administration of Governor Berkeley, 184; proprietary grants, 185; Indian War, 185-186; Bacon's rebellion, 185-186; Jeffreys in control, 187; Culpeper, 187; Howard, 187-188; population, 227; settled areas, 227; plantation system, 228; commerce, 228-229; labor system, 229; religion, 229; education, 229; German migration to, 320; Scotch-Irish migration to, 326; social and economic conditions in the eighteenth century, 333-334; under William III, 345; protests against Grenville's policy, 433; resolutions, 435-436; opposition to Townshend Acts, 442; trouble with the governor, 444; rebellion in 1775, 462-463; struggle with Lord Dunmore, 471; navy, 518; Yorktown campaign, 530-532. Vizigoths, kingdom of, in Spain, overthrown by Mohammedan Berbers, 13. Vizcaíno, Sebastián, California expeditions, 71. Wager, Charles, English Commodore, 268. Walker, Sir Hovenden, expedition against Quebec, 272. Wall Street, 172. Wallen, pioneer in Kentucky, 413. Walpole, Robert, 353, 360. Walpole, Thomas, interest in Vandalia, 413. Wampanoags, 138-139. War department, of United States, organized, 554-555. War between England and Spain, 1654-1655, 153. Wars between the English and Dutch, 1652-1654, 153; 1667, 1672-1673, 184. War of the Palatinate, 261. War of the Austrian Succession, 364, 366; French attack on Acadia, 364; capture of Louisbourg, 364-365; border warfare, Acadia to New York, 365; naval activity, and battles off Cape Finisterre, 365-366; Knowles's attack on the Spaniards in West Indies, 366; peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, 366. War of the English Succession (King William's War) in the colonies, map, 260; four years of war in the Caribbean Sea, 261-262; the war on the Canadian frontiers, 262-266; the Maine frontier, 262; French attack on New England frontier and the English defense, 263; English expedition against Montreal, 263-264; capture of Port Royal, Acadia, 264; English expedition against Quebec, 264; Schuyler's expedition, 265; attacks of Abenakis and of the French, 265; the New English frontier, 266; massacre at Durham, 266; activities on Hudson Bay, 266-267; operations of Iberville, 266; peace of Ryswick, 260-267. War of Jenkins' Ear, 361-364; in the West Indies, 361, 363; on the Georgia frontier, 361-263, 363-364; attack on St. Augustine, 362, 364. War of the Polish Succession, 360-361. War of the Spanish Succession, French expansion during the peace of Ryswick, 267; the Spanish succession, 267; Second Treaty of Partition, 267; English decision for war, 267-268; war areas (in America), 268; West Indies, indecisive struggle, 268-269; on the Florida border, 269-271; on the Canadian border, 271-272; in the Hudson Bay country. 273; Peace of Utrecht, 273. Ward, Artemus, 464. Warren, Joseph, distributes arms, 460. Warwick, Lord. See Rich, Robert. Warwick, Rhode Island, settled, 159. Washington, George, bearer of Dinwiddie's message to the French in Ohio, 369; organizes plan of defense, 373-374; member of Western Land Company, 411; in northeastern Kentucky, 416; member of the First Continental Congress, 452; commander of the continental army, 464; siege of Boston, 471; New York operations, 482-487, 488-489; New Jersey campaign, 489-493; struggle for Philadelphia, 499-502; Valley Forge, 503; Conway Cabal, 503-504; reception of Lafayette, 508; Monmouth, 509-510; draws cordon about New York, 511; equips a fleet, 517; on control of the sea, 530; communicates with De Grasse, 531; plan to trap Cornwallis, 531; assembly of forces, 531-532; Yorktown, 532. Washington County, North Carolina, organized, 1416. Watauga settlement, 412; Association, 415-416; attacked by Cherokees, 512, 513; attempt at statehood, 549. Watertown, settled, 142. Watling's Island, 10. Waxhaws, 525. Wayne, Gen. Anthony, 500, 511. Webb, Colonel Daniel, 376. Weiser, Conrad, interpreter to Indians, 365. Welles, Maine, claimed by Massachusetts, 157. Welsh, settlers in North Carolina, 415. Wessagusset, 140. West, Joseph, governor of the Carolinas, 208; trouble with Yeamans, 210; political difficulties, 210. West Indies, discovery of, 9-10; Spanish colonies founded, 16-19; rule of Columbus in, 16-17; gold discovered, 17; Santo Domingo founded, 17; spread of Spanish settlement, 17-19, 251; map, 18; Spanish administration, 19-23; the towns, 20; immigration, 21; agriculture, 21; Indian policy, 22; depopulation, 19, 22, 67; French, Dutch, and English intrusions, 65-66, 80; Spanish decline, 67; French colonies, 93-96; Company of St. Christopher's, 93; French West India Company, 94; Elizabethan Sea-dogs in, 107-108; English colonies in the Lesser Antilles, 132-133; Providence Island Company, 133; English expansion in, 152; Jamaica conquered by England, 153, 253; Dutch settlements in, 166-167; Dutch West Indian Company, 166; English expansion and reorganization, 206-207; unrest in Barbados, 207; Spanish conflict with rivals in 17th century, 251-253; privateers, 252; Spanish retaliation, 252; Danes and Brandenburgers, 253; during War of English Succession, 261-263; during War of Spanish Succession, 268-269; society in English colonies in the 18th century, 339-341; the planters, 339; Barbados and Leeward Islands, 340; Jamaica, 340-341; emigration from, 341; smuggling, 341; piracy, 349-350; the Molasses Act, 356; the West Indies during the War of Jenkins' Ear, 361-363, 365; during War of Austrian Succession, 366; during French and Indian War, 379, 382; Spanish reorganization, 387-388; trade with Louisiana, 398; English province of Grenada organized, 404; relation of trade to American Revolution, 430-431, 454; war activities during American Revolution, 510-516, 517-520, 530, 532; in the Treaty of 1783, 537. Western Sea, efforts to find route to, 287-288. Western (Lazarus) Islands, 67. West New Jersey, population, 224; settled area, 224-225; social conditions, 224-225; religion, 226; education, 226-227. See New Jersey. Westsylvania, 418. Weston, Thomas, gives financial aid to the Pilgrims, 317; his settlement at Wessagusset, 139; aid from Plymouth, 139. West Point, 511-512. Westward movement, English, characteristics, 309-312; into the Piedmont, frontier defense, 312-313; reorganization of the Carolinas, 313-315; founding of Georgia, 315-316; German and Swiss migration, 316-322; Scotch-Irish migration, 322-326; significance of the settlement of the Piedmont, 326-328; into the Trans-Alleghany West, 403-419. Wethersfield founded, 149. Weymouth, George, voyage to New-England, 116. Weymouth settlement, 140. Whigs, 458, 459, 463. See Revolution. White, Governor John, of Roanoke, 110. White, Reverend John, forms association, 141. Whitefield, George, 338. White Plains, 485, 487. Wichita, Kansas, Oñate at, 73. Wichita Indians, 45. See Quivira. Wiehawken, New Jersey, 198. Wilderness Road, opened by Boone, 417. William and Mary College, 229, 338-339. Williams, Roger, at Boston, 146; at Salem, 146; at Plymouth, 146; preaching at Salem, 146-147; his trial, 147; founding of Providence, 147; separation of church and state, 147; government, 147; keeps Narragansetts out of Pequot War, 150; obtains revocation of Coddington patent, 159. William III, first reorganization of the colonial system, 343-346; second reorganization, 346-350. See War of the English Succession. William of Orange (the Silent), 52. Windward Islands, 252. Williamson, Col. Andrew, 513. Williamsburg, made capital of Virginia, 345. Willing, James, raids in the Southwest during the Revolution, 513-514. Willoughby, Sir Hugh, expedition to Russia, 106. Wilmington, made base by Cornwallis, 529. Wilson, James, attitude toward Declaration of Independence, 478. Windsor, founded, 149. Windward Islands, organized into a province, 206. Winslow, John, 375. Winter, English freebooter, 66. Winthrop, Fitz-John, 263. Winthrop, John, governor of Massachusetts Bay Colony, 142; arrives at Salem, 142; moves to Charlestown, 142; religious controversies, 147-148. Winthrop, John Jr., erects Fort Saybrook, 149. Witchcraft in New England, 220. Wolfe, Major-General, capture of Quebec, 379-380. Woolen Act of 1698, 349. Wrenn, Ralph, English commodore, 262. Wright, Commodore, English commander in the Caribbean Sea, 262. Writs of assistance, 428-429. Wyoming Valley massacre, 514. Yale College, 339. Yamassee Indians, revolt against Spaniards, 255; War in South Carolina, 314. Yaqui Indians, missions among, 239. Yaqui River Valley, Sonora, 45, 56; Jesuit missions in, 239. Yazoo, judicial department of Louisiana, 279; immigration to, 408. Ybarbo, Antonio Gil, leader in eastern Texas, 400. Yeamans, Sir John, expeditions to Carolina, 208; claims the governorship, 210; governor, 210. Yeardley, Sir George, governor of Virginia, 120. York (Maine), claimed by Massachusetts, 157. Yorktown campaign, 530-532. Yucatán, exploration of, 25; inhabitants of, 27; conquest of, 38-39. Yuma, mission pueblos at, 393; massacre of Spaniards at, 393-394; punishment for, 394. Zacatecas, mines of, 55, 56; development of, 59; population, 75. Zacatula, Mexico, ship-building port, 37, 42. Zaguaripa, Mexico, Ibarra at, 56. Zaldívar, Vincente, pioneer in New Mexico, 73. Zárate Salmerón, Gerónimo de, Franciscan missionary in New Mexico, 243. Zavala, Martin de, conquistador of Nuevo León, 247. Zenger case, 356-357. Zultepec, Mexico, 75. Zumárraga, Bishop of Mexico, 48. Zuñi, New Mexico, pueblos, 44, 45, 46. 72. Zuñiga, Governor of Florida, 269. Zuñiga, Spanish ambassador to England, 118-119.