PREFACE. (continued 3)
Reading edition
2 ¼ 2 Shot, ranged close together, to 500
4 ⅓ Single Shot 1600
4 ¼ Do. 1500
7 ⅓ Do. 2150
7 ¼ Do. 2020
2 ¼ One round shot, and 1 round of grape, 600
will range with effect together, to
4 ¼ One round of grape shot, alone, to 1000
2 ¼ One double headed, or bar shot, 800
will range to the first graze
Ranges with 5½ Inch Shells, from a 24 Pounder Iron Gun, Length of Gun 9½ Feet—Weight 49 ct. 26 lbs.
Elevation. 2 Pounds. 2 lbs. 8 oz. 3 Pounds.
Flight. Range to Flight. Range to Flight. Range to
First Graze. Extreme. First Graze. Extreme. First Graze. Extreme.
Deg. Sec. Yards. Yards. Sec. Yards. Yards. Sec. Yards. Yards.
1 1 213 1139 2¾ 562 1456 1 277 1424
2 1¾ 384 1267 1½ 442 1413 1¾ 526 1464
3 2¾ 565 1413 2½ 647 1553 2¼ 740 1600
4 2¼ 750 1479 3¾ 896 1639 3½ 880 1679
5 3¾ 836 1670 4 915 1510 5 1182 1733
6 4 896 1495 5 1140 1657 6¼ 1384 1787
7 6½ 1180 1492 6 1205 1481 6¼ 1410 1749
8 6¾ 1305 1526 6½ 1259 1544 7 1520 1744
9 7½ 1329 1527 7 1341 1561 7¾ 1722 1938
9½ 6¾ 1229 1453 — — — 8½ 1748 1881
Ranges with 4⅖ Shells from a 12 Pounder, Medium.
Elevation. 8 Ounces. 12 Ounces. 1 lb. 8 oz.
Flight. First Graze. Extreme. Flight. First Graze. Extreme. Flight. First Graze. Extreme.
Deg. Sec. Yards. Yards. Sec. Yards. Yards. Sec. Yards. Yards.
1 1½ 156
2 2 293 2½ 350 707
3 2½ 363 From 3½ 355 From 758 From
4 3½ 462 800 4 679 1100 849 1400
5 4 587 to 3½ 641 to 1075 to
6 4 621 1200 5 941 1300 1150 1600
7 4½ 898 6 1020 1300
8 5 781
Ranges with French Brass Field Guns, with Round Shot.
Nature. Charge. Elevation. Range in Toises.
Lines of Tangt. Scale. Deg. Min.
12 Pr. 4 lbs. L. M. — 58 300
2 1 3 350
10 1 39 400
14 1 49 450
16 1 56 480
8 Pr. 2½ lbs. L. M. — 58 300
6 1 24 350
12 1 51 400
16 2 8 450
20 2 24 480
4 Pr. 1½ lbs. L. M. — 58 250
4 1 20 300
8 1 40 350
12 2 — 400
16 2 20 450
18 2 40 480
The above are in French weights and measures.
GUNPOWDER.—Proportions of the different Ingredients for making Gunpowder, by different Powers in Europe:
Eng. France. Swed. Poland. Italy. Russia.
Saltpetre 75 75 75 80 76½ 70
Sulphur 10 9½ 9 8 12½ 11½
Charcoal 15 15½ 16 12 12½ 18½
Pounds 100 100 100 100 100 100
Proofs of Powder.—The first examination of powder in the king’s mills, is by rubbing it in the hands to find whether it contains any irregular hard lumps. The second is by blasting 2 drams of each sort on a copper plate, and in this comparing it with an approved powder; in this proof it should not emit any sparks, nor leave any beads or foulness on the copper. It is then compared with an approved powder, in projecting an iron ball of 64 lbs. from an 8 inch mortar, with a charge of 2 ounces. The best cylinder powder generally gives about 180 feet range, and pit 150; but the weakest powder, or powder that has been redried, &c. only from 107 to 117 feet.
The merchants’ powder, before it is received into the king’s service, is tried against powder of the same kind made at the king’s mills; and it is received if it gives a range of ¹/₂₀ less than the king’s powder with which it is compared. In this comparison both sorts are tried on the same day, and at the same time, and under exactly the same circumstances.
The proof of fine grained, or musquet powder, is with a charge of 4 drams from a musquet barrel, to perforate with a steel ball a certain number of ½ inch wet elm boards, placed ¾ inch asunder, and the first 39 feet 10 inches from the barrel: the king’s powder generally passes through 15 or 16, and restoved powder from 9 to 12. The last trial of powder is by exposing about 1 pound of each sort, accurately weighed, to the atmosphere for 17 or 18 days; during which time, if the materials are pure, it will not increase anything material in weight, by attracting moisture from the atmosphere.
In this exposure 100 lbs. of good gunpowder should not absorb more than 12 oz. or somewhat less than one per cent.
Powder Marks.—The different sorts of powder are distinguished by the following marks on the heads of the barrels.
Nᵒ. ½ Cylinder Marked in Red.
L G
Nᵒ. 2 Cylinder
S G
Nᵒ. 3 Cylinder
F G
S A—The dust from Nᵒ. 3, and F G cylinder.
R A—For rifle arms.
⁴/₇ Cylinder mixed—Marked white L G.
³/₇ Restoved
L G or F G in blue, is powder made of pitcoal.
Nᵒ. ½ L G Marked in yellow, is restoved.
Nᵒ. 3 F G
The red L G, F G, or S G, denotes powder entirely made of the cylinder charcoal, and is that which is now always used on service. The white L G being a mixed powder, is not so uniform as the other, and is therefore generally used in filling shells, or for such other purposes as do not require much accuracy. All powder for service is mixed in proportions according to its strength, so as to bring it as much as possible to a mean and uniform force.
French Gunpower.—The French proof ball is of brass, and weighs 60 lbs. French: the diameter of the mortar 7 inches 9 points, or ¾ of a line, and has one line of windage. The chamber holds exactly 3 ounces; and their best powder must give a range of 90 toises, and their restoved powder a range of 80 toises, to be received into the service. But the powder they now make, when new, will give a range of 100 and 120 toises; and Mr. Lombard calculates all his tables from experiments made with powder giving 125 toises with the eprovette.—The above dimensions and weights are all of French standard.
GUN METAL—is composed of 8 or 10 lbs. of tin to 100 lbs of copper.—The largest proportion of tin is used for mortars
H aircloth—Weight 30 lbs.—length 15 feet—breadth 11 feet.
HAND BARROW.—Weight 13 lbs.—length 5 feet 4 inches.
HANDSPIKES.—Common, weight 11 lbs. length 6 feet.
HARNESS.—For men, one set, 26 lbs. length, 12 feet.—Wheel harness for a pair of horses, such as is used in the service of artillery, about 1 cwt.
HORSES.—An allowance of 3 feet is generally made for the breadth of each horse standing at picket; and about 9 feet for the length of a horse.
A light dragoon horse, mounted and accoutered complete, carries about 2 cwt. 1 qr. and 14 lbs. without forage.
Horses in the service of artillery should not be made to draw above 3 cwt. each, besides the weight of the carriage.
Horses for this service should never be lower than 14¾ hands. The contractor is obliged to furnish them of this height for government.—A horse is generally supposed equal to five men.
Military horses walk about 400 yards in 4½ minutes.
Trot the same distance in 2 minutes 3 seconds, and gallop it in about 1 minute.
With great burthens, less weight must be allowed for each horse to draw, than with medium burthens; as it cannot be supposed that, of a team of 8 horses, the leaders can draw so much as the horses nearer the carriage; and this disadvantage must increase as the team lengthens. A team of
4 horses may draw 6 cwt. each—Total 24 cwt. including the carriages.
6 ” ” ” 5 ” ” ” 30 ”
8 ” ” ” 4½ ” ” ” 36 ”
12 ” ” ” 4 ” ” ” 48 ”
See also the word Load.
It is usual in heavy carriages to reckon all their weight exceeding 12 cwt. as part of the load.
Horses allowed for drawing Field Artillery Carriages.
All the horse artillery carriages are drawn by 4 horses each, except 12 prs. which have 6 each. Park Carriages—12 pr. medium, and 6 pr. heavy, 6 horses each—6 pr. light, and 5½ howitzer, upon the new construction, are allowed each 4 horses, but upon the old only 3 each.
Ammunition waggon, common pattern, 3 horses.
” ” Flanders pattern, 4 ”
Forge cart, 2 ”
Ammunition cart, 2 ”
HOWITZERS.—Dimensions and Weight of Brass Howitzers.
Nature. Length Weight. Length of Bore. Chamber.
Length Diameter. Powder contained in
at top bottom
Inch. diam. Ft Inch cwt qrs lbs Inches Inches Inches Inches lbs oz
10 3 11½ 25 3 14 29.9 12.6 5.776 4.12 7 0
8 3 1 12 3 12 24.7 8.61 4.6 3.40 3 8
5½ Heavy 10 0 0 3 0
5½ Light 2 2¾ 4 0 2 18.47 6.02 3.2 2.45 1 0
4⅖ 1 10 3 0 13 15.21 4.52 2.73 2.24 0 8
French Howitzers, in their own Weights and Measures.
Ft. In. lbs. lbs. oz.
8 Inches diameter. 1110 weight. 1 12 charge.
6 Inches 2 3 length. 670 1 12 full.
Table containing the Natures of Howitzers used by different Powers in Europe.
Nations. Natures. Shells.
Wt. (lbs.)
Prussian 25 Pr.[9] 62
10 — 27
7 — 14
Danish 18 — 36
10 — 20
Saxon 16 — 32
8 — 16
Hanover 30 — 61
16 — 33
English 4⅖ Inch 8
or 4 Pr.
5½ Inch 16
or 8 Pr.
8 Inch 46
or 23 Pr.
French 6 Inch 23
or 12 Pr.
8 Inch 43
or 22 Pr.
Ranges with a light 5½ inch Howitzer. 1798.
Elevation. 4 Ounces. 8 Ounces. 12 Ounces. 1 Pound.
Flight. Range to first graze. Extreme Range. Flight. Range to first graze. Extreme Range. Flight. Range to first graze. Extreme Range. Flight. Range to first graze. Extreme Range.
Deg. Sec. Yards. Sec. Yards. Sec. Yards. Sec. Yards.
P. B. 1 96 1½ 140 1 159
1 1 66 1½ 143 2 334 1½ 325
2 1 85 From 1½ 184 From 2 351 From 2 490 From
3 1½ 100 400 2 258 700 2½ 506 1000 3 668 1100
4 1½ 110 to 2½ 307 to 3 500 to 4 728 to
5 2 115 600 2½ 376 1000 3 509 1350 5½ 918 1400
6 2 168 yards. 3 408 yards. 3½ 581 yards. 5 823 yards.
7 2 194 3½ 529 5 872 6 975
8 2½ 226 4½ 630 6½ 975 7 1044
9 2½ 282 5 645 7 911 8 1049
10 2½ 279 5 642 7 1021 8 1104
11 2½ 260 5½ 697 7½ 1177 8 1173
12 3 315 5½ 715
Ranges with a heavy 5½ inch Howitzer. 1793.
Elevation. 2 Pounds. 3 Pounds.
Flight. Range to first graze. Extreme Range. Flight. Range to first graze. Extreme Range.
Deg. Sec. Yards. Yards. Sec. Yards. Yards.
1 2 453 3 479
2 4 595 5 722
3 4 666 5 921
4 5 847 5 1000
5 5 957 From 7 1325 From
6 7 1173 1400 8 1530 1400
7 9 1449 to 9 1577 to
8 8 1355 1900 9 1721 2000
9 8 1585 9 1801
10 10 1853 9 1791
11 9 1793 12 1013
12 10 1686
L evelling—Table shewing the Difference between the True and Apparent Level.
Distance. Difference of level. Distance. Difference of level.
Yds. Inches. Mls. Ft. In.
100 0.026 ¼ 0 0½
200 0.103 ½ 0 2
300 0.231 ¾ 0 4½
400 0.411 1 0 8
500 0.643 2 2 8
600 0.925 3 6 0
700 1.260 4 10 7
800 1.645 5 16 7
900 2.081 6 23 11
1000 2.570 7 32 6
1100 3.110 8 42 6
1200 3.701 9 53 9
1300 4.344 10 66 4
1400 5.038 11 80 3
1500 5.784 12 95 2
1600 6.580 13 112 2
1700 7.425 14 130 1
15 150
16 175
This table will answer several useful purposes.
First.—To find the height of the apparent level above the true, at any distance.—If the given distance be contained in the table, the correction of level is found in the same line with it; but if the exact distance be not found in the table, then multiply the square of the distance in yards, by 2.57, and divide by 1,000,000, or cut off 6 places on the right, for decimals; the rest are inches: or multiply the square of the distance in miles, by 66 feet 4 inches, and divide by 100.
Second.—To find the extent of the visible horizon, or how far can be seen from any given height, on a horizontal plane, as at sea, &c.—The height of the observer’s eye above the horizon being known, the extent of his visible horizon is found in the column opposite, under the word Distances.
Third.—To find the distance of any object when it first comes in sight, its height being, known.—For the distance of any object will be the extent of the visible horizon of the observer, added to the visible horizon of the point he observes. It is necessary in this case for the observer to know only the height of that part of the object which is kept from his view, by the curvilinear figure of the globe.—Knowing the distance of an object, its height may be found in the same manner.
If the height or distance exceed the limits in the table; then, first, if the distance be given, divide it by 2, 3 or 4, till the quotient comes within the distances in the table; then take out the height answering to the quotient, and multiply it by the square of the divisor for the height required. But when the height is given, divide it by one of these square numbers, 4, 9, 16, 25, &c. till the quotient come within the limits of the table, and multiply the quotient by the square root of the divisor.
LOAD.—Artillery carriages, or waggons, are frequently loaded with 14 cwt. for 3 horses, and 20 cwt. for 4 horses. This, however it may answer on an English road, is a great deal too much for general service. No doubt a carriage of one construction will travel easier than of another, with the same weight; and where the mechanical advantage thus gained is greatest, the heaviest weight may be put, with the same number of horses; but in the carriages usually made for the service of artillery, 4 cwt. per horse, beside the weight of the carriage, is the utmost they ought to be allowed to draw.
The French ammunition waggons, which are drawn by 4 horses, are always charged with 1200 pounds only.
The regulations for home service in 1798 state the load for a bread waggon at 2400 lbs. and for a cart of entrenching tools at 400 lbs. Men used to bear loads, such as porters, will carry from 150 to 250 pounds.
A horse will carry about 300 lbs. and a mule about 250 lbs.—See also the word Horses.
M agazines—The present practice is not to make large powder magazines for batteries, but to disperse the barrels of powder, or cartridges here and there in small magazines, about 6 or 7 fathoms, in the rear of the battery; as it appears better to loose a small quantity from time to time, than to run the risk of the whole being destroyed, by a single shell falling into the magazine. These small magazines or entrenchments, will hold about one or two tons of powder; and are about 8 or 9 feet square. They ought to be well covered from the fire of the place, and always in the rear of one of the merlons. When they cannot be sunk in the ground, they should be secured by sand bags or gabions. They should be made with attention, as should the communication from them to the battery. Two magazines of this kind will be required for a battery of six pieces.
Permanent Powder Magazines.—According to Vauban’s plan, powder magazines are commonly made 10 fathoms long, and 25 feet wide, in the clear. The foundation of the longest sides, is 9 or 10 feet thick, and 6 feet or more deep, according to the nature of the ground. The side walls raised upon these are 8 or nine feet thick; and if there is not to be an upper story, 8 feet will be sufficient height above the foundation. By this means the flooring maybe raised above the ground, free from damp, and there will remain 6 feet from the floor to the spring of the arch. The arch is formed of layers of bricks, arched one over the other, and ought to be 3 feet thick at the top. The exterior surface of the arch terminates with, an angle at top, like a roof; which angle must be of such magnitude as to make a thickness of 8 feet over the key stone of the arch. The foundation at the gable ends is 5 feet thick, and the same depth as the sides; these ends are built up 4 feet thick, from the foundation to the top of the roof. The long sides are supported by counterforts, 6 feet thick and 4 feet long; and placed 12 feet asunder. The ventilators are placed, one in the centre of each space between the counterforts, and are made with a die across them of 1½ feet. These ventilators are also closed with plates of iron. The magazine is lighted by a window in each end, high up, which are opened and shut by means of a ladder. These windows are secured, each by two shutters, made of plank 2 or 3 inches thick; and the outer one covered with sheet iron, and both fastened with strong bolts. The entrance to the is closed by two doors, one of which opens inwards, and the other outwards; the outward one is covered with sheet iron. The entrance of the magazine should, if possible, be placed towards the south. A wall of 1½ feet thick, and 10 feet high, is built round the magazine, at 12 feet distance. A magazine of the above dimensions will contain about 94,800 lbs. of powder, in piles of 3 barrels each; for a greater number piled above each other destroys the barrels, damages the powder, and occasions accidents.
MATCH.—The slow match used by the English is made by contract: one yard of it will burn about 8 hours. The French slow match is usually made by soaking light twisted white rope for three days in a strong lye. It burns about 3 feet in 6 hours.
Slow match was made at Gibraltar, during the last siege, in the following manner: eight ounces of saltpetre were put into a gallon of water, and just made to boil over a slow fire; strong blue paper was then wetted with the liquor, and hung to dry. When dry, each sheet was rolled up tight, and the outward edge pasted down, to prevent its opening; half a sheet, thus prepared, will burn 3 hours.
Quick Match.
Compositions.
Worsted Match.
Worsted 10 oz.
Mealed powder 10 lbs.
Spirits of wine 3 pints.
Water 3 ”
Isinglass ½ pint.
Cotton Match.
Cotton 1 lb 12 oz.
Saltpetre 1 8
Mealed powder 10 —
Spirits of wine 2 quarts.
Water 3 pints.
The worsted or cotton must be laid evenly in an earthen or other pan, and the different ingredients poured over it, and about half the powder: being left a short time to soak, it is afterwards wound smoothly on a reel, and laid to dry, remaining half of the powder is then sifted over it; and it is ready for use when dry.
Note. The French have lately made their slow match by soaking the rope in a solution of sugar of lead and rain water: in the proportion of ¾ of an ounce of sugar of lead to one pint of water; and this, they esteem as preferable to the old sort.
MARCHING.—The Quick step, 108 paces per minute, each of 30 inches; making 270 feet per minute.
Wheeling Step, 120 per minute, of 30 inches each; making 300 feet per minute.
Side Step.—12 inches—75 per minute.
Ordinary Step.—75 per minute, 30 inches each.
Dundas.
The usual rate of marching for cavalry is 17 miles in 6 hours; but this may be extended to 21, or even 28 miles in that time.
D’Antoni.
Rates to be paid for Carriages on the March.
One shilling per mile for every carriage with 5 horses, or
with 6 oxen, or
with 4 oxen and 2 horses;
nine pence per mile for any cart with 4 horses, and so in proportion for less carriages; or a further sum, not exceeding 4d per mile for every carriage with 5 horses, or with 6 oxen, or with 4 oxen and 2 horses; or 3d per mile for every cart with 4 horses; and so in proportion for less carriages, as the same shall be fixed and ordered by the justices of the peace. The waggons, &c. not to carry more than 30 cwt.
Regular ferries are only to be paid for on the march at half the ordinary rate.
Mutiny Act.
Marching Money.—Innkeepers are obliged to furnish troops on the march with diet and small beer, for the day of their marching in, and two days afterwards; unless one of the two days be a market day. For which the publican by the King’s warrant, 17th of March, 1800, is to receive 16d, and which is paid in the following manner:
Paid by Government, Cavalry 9d. Infantry 11d.
” by the soldier ” 6d. ” 4d.
Soldiers beer money ” 1d. ” 1d.
Total 16 16
MEASURES.
Long Measure.
12 Inches make 1 Foot.
3 Feet ” 1 Yard.
5½ Yards ” 1 Pole, or perch.
40 Poles ” 1 Furlong.
8 Furlongs ” 1 Mile.
4 Inches ” 1 Hand.
6 Feet ” 1 Fathom, or toise.
3 miles ” 1 League.
60 Nautical, or ” 1 Degree.
geographical miles, or
69½ statute miles.
Square Measure.
144 Square inches make 1 Square foot.
9 Square feet ” 1 Square yard.
30¼ Square yards ” 1 Square pole.
40 Square poles ” 1 Square rood.
4 Square roods ” 1 Square acre.
Solid, or Cubic Measure.
1728 Cubic inches make 1 Cubic foot.
27 Cubic feet ” 1 Cubic yard.
251 Cubic inches ” 1 Gallon, wine measure.
281 ”” ” 1 Gallon, beer measure.
168⅗ ”” ” 1 Gallon, dry measure.
Dry Measure.
8 Pints make 1 Gallon.
2 Gallons ” 1 Peck.
4 Pecks ” 1 Bushel.
4 Bushels ” 1 Coom.
2 Cooms ” 1 Quarter.
5 Quarters ” 1 Wey.
2 Weys ” 1 Last.
Avoirdupois Weight.
16 Drams make 1 Ounce.
16 Ounces ” 1 Pound.
25 Pounds ” ¼ of a hundred.
4 Quarters ” 1 Hundred.
20 Hundred ” 1 Ton.
14 Pounds ” 1 Stone.
French Weights and Measures.
The toise is commonly used in France for military purposes, and is divided into 6 feet: each foot 12 inches; each inch 12 lines; each line 12 points. The pace is usually reckoned at 2½ feet.
Poids de Mare, ou de Paris.
24 Grains make 1 Den’r.
3 Den’rs ” 1 Gros.
8 Gros ” 1 Ounce.
8 Ounces ” 1 Marc.
2 Marcs ” 1 Pound.
The French have lately formed an entire new system of weights and measures: the following short account of them, and their proportion to the old weights and measures of France, and those of English standard, is extracted from Nicholson’s Nat. Philosophy.
Proportions of First part of
the measures of the name which
each species to indicates the
its principal proportion to
measure or unity. the principal
measure or unity.
10,000 Myria
1,000 Kilo
100 Hecto
10 Deca
0 ———
0 .1 Deci
0 .01 Centi
0 .001 Milli
(A) = Proportion of the principal measures between themselves and
the length of the Meridian.
(B) = Value of the principal measures in the ancient French measures.
(C) = Value in English measures.
Principal Measures, or Unities.
Length. Capacity. Weight. Agrarian. For Firewood.
Metre. Litre. Gramme. Are. Stere.
(A) 10,000,000th Weight of a
part of the A centimetre 100 One
dist. from part of cube of square cubic
the Pole to the cube. distilled metres. metre.
the Equator. water.
(B) 3 feet 1 pint and 18 grains 2 square 1 demi voie,
11 lines 1-20, or a & 841,000 perches or ¼ of a
and ½ litron and parts. des eaux cord des eaux
nearly. 1-4 nearly. et toret. et fore.
(C) 6.083 inch,
Inches which is 22,966 11.968
39.383 more than grains. square
the wine yards.
& less
than the
beer quart.
Reduction of the old French Weights and Measures to English; and the contrary.
1st. To reduce English Avoirdupois to Paris weight:
The avoirdupois pound of 16 ounces, Paris grains.
or 7000 troy grains. = 8538
The ounce = 533.6250
2d. To reduce Paris running feet or inches into 1.065977
English, multiply by
” ” English running feet or inches into
Paris, divide by
3d. To reduce Paris cubic feet or inches into 1.211278
English, multiply by
” ” English cubic feet or inches into
Paris, divide by
4th. To reduce the Paris pint to the English, 2.0171082
multiply by
” ” the English pint to the Paris,
divide by
Lavoisier Ch.
German Measures.—The Rhinland rood is the measure commonly used in Germany and Holland, and in most of the northern states, for all military purposes. It is divided into 12 feet. The Rhinland rood is sometimes divided into tenths, or decimal feet, and the pace is made equal to 2 decimal feet, or ²/₁₀ of a rood.
Proportion between the English Weights and Measures, and those of the principal Places in Europe.
Places. Foot in Parts. Pound in Parts.
London 1000 100
Paris 1068 108
Amsterdam 942 93
Rhinland 1033 96
Antwerp 946 98
Lovaine 958 98
Middleburgh 991 98
Strasburgh 920 93
Bremen 964 96
Cologne 954 97
Frankfort 948 93
Leipsig — 117
Hamburg — 95
Venice 1153 151
Prague 1026 106
Copenhagen 965 94
Nuremburgh 1006 94
Bavaria 954 —
Vienna 1053 83
Madrid 1001 99
Toledo 899 100
Bologne 1204 127
Naples 861 —
Florence — 123
Genoa — 142
Mantua 1569 143
Turin 1062 —
Dantzig 944 119
Measures—for gunpowder.
Diameters and Heights of Cylindric Powder Measures, holding from 1 to 15 Ounces.
Ounces 0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 1.256 1.583 1.811 1.994 2.148
1 2.706 2.793 2.876 2.953 3.027 3.098
Diameters and Weights of Cylindric Powder Measures, holding from 1 to 15 Pounds.
Pounds 0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 3.165 3.988 4.565 5.024 5.412
1 6.890 7.039 7.245 7.442 7.628 7.805
The above are in inches and decimals.
MECHANICS.—The whole momentum or quantity of force of a moving body, is the result of the quantity of matter, multiplied by the velocity with which it is moved; and when the product arising from the multiplication of the particular quantities of matter in any two bodies, by their respective velocities are equal, their momentum will be so too. Upon this easy principle depends the whole of mechanics; and it holds universally true, that when two bodies are suspended on any machine, so as to act contrary to each other; if the machine be put in motion, and the perpendicular ascent of one body multiplied into its weight, be equal to the perpendicular descent of the other, multiplied into its weight: those bodies, how unequal soever in their weights, will balance each other in all situations: for, as the whole ascent of the one is performed in the same time as the whole descent of the other, their respective velocities must be as the spaces they move through; and the excess of weight in one is compensated by the excess of velocity in the other. Upon this principle it is easy to compute the power of any engine, either simple or compound; for it is only finding how much swifter the power moves than the weight does, (i. e. how much further in the same time,) and just so much is the power increased by the help of the engine.
The simple machines usually called mechanic powers, are six in number, viz. the Lever, the Wheel and Axle, the Pulley, the Inclined Plane, the Wedge, and the Screw.
There are four kinds of Levers: 1st, Where the prop is placed between the weight and the power. 2d, Where the prop is at one end of the lever, the power at the other, and the weight between them. 3d, Where the prop is at one end, the weight at the other, and the power applied between them. 4th, The bended lever, which differs from the first in form, but not in property.
In the first and 2d kind, the advantage gained by the lever, is as the distance of the power from the prop, to the distance of the weight from the prop. In the 3d kind, that there may be a balance between the power and the weight, the intensity of the power must exceed the intensity of the weight, just as much as the distance of the weight from the prop exceeds the distance of the power from the prop. As this kind of lever is disadvantageous to the moving power, it is seldom used.
Wheel and Axle.—Here the velocity of the power is to the velocity of the weight, as the circumference of the wheel is to the circumference of the axle.
Pulley.—A single pulley, that only turns on its axis, and does not move out of its place, serves only to change the direction of the power, but gives no mechanical advantage. The advantage gained in this machine, is always as twice the number of moveable pullies; without taking any notice of the fixed pullies necessary to compose the system of pullies.
Inclined Plane.—The advantage gained by the inclined plane, is as great as its length exceeds its perpendicular height. The force wherewith a rolling body descends upon an inclined plane, is to the force of its absolute gravity, as the height of the plane is to its length.
Wedge.—This may be considered as two equally inclined planes, joined together at their bases. When the wood does not cleave at any distance before the wedge, there will be an equilibrium between the power impelling the wedge, and the resistance of the wood acting against its two sides; when the power is to the resistance, as half the thickness of the wedge at the back, is to the length of either of its sides; because the resistance then acts perpendicular to the sides of the wedge: but when the resistance on both sides acts parallel to the back, the power that balances the resistance on both sides will be, as the length of the whole back of the wedge is to double its perpendicular height. When the wood cleaves at any distance before the wedge, (as it generally does) the power impelling the wedge will be to the resistance of the wood, as half the length of the back is to the length of either of the sides of the cleft, estimated from the top, or acting part of the wedge.
Screw.—Here the advantage gained is as much as the circumference of a circle described by the handle of the winch, exceeds the interval or distance between the spirals of the screw.
There are few compound engines, but what, on account of the friction of parts against one another, will require a third part more power to work them when loaded, than what is required to constitute a balance between the power and the weight.
Ferguson’s Nat. Philosophy
MILE.—Comparison of the different miles, in geometric paces, each of which is equal to 5 feet French royal, 5.6719 feet Rhinland, or 6.1012 English feet.
The mile of Sweden = 5761 geometric paces.
” ” ” Switzerland 4512
” ” ” Denmark 4071
Common, of Germany 4000
”” Holland 3158
League of France 2400
” ” Spain 2286
” ” Scotland 1500
Mile of Italy 1000
” ” England 868
Werste of Russia 575
MINE.—The excavation formed by the blowing up of a mine is found by experiment to be nearly a paraboloid. It was formerly supposed that the diameter of the entonnoir, or excavation, was always equal to only double the line of least resistance; but experiments have proved, that the diameter of the excavation may be increased to six times the line of least resistance; and that the diameter of the globe of compression may be increased to eight times that line; this is called the maximum of a mine, or the greatest effect that can be produced by a globe of compression. In any mine intended to produce an effect within this extent, the effects will be nearly as the charges.
The globes are to each other as the cubes of their radii. Their radii are the hypothenuses of rightangled triangles, of which the line of least resistance, and the semi-diameter of the excavation, are the other two sides. Therefore, to find the charge to produce any required diameter of the excavation, the following will be the rule, the radius being found as above:
As the cube of the radius of the globe of compression in the following table, (having the same line of least resistance as the required globe,)
Is to the cube of the radius of the required globe;
So is the charge corresponding in the following table,
To the charge required.
Table for the Charges of Mines, according to Valiere.
Line of Least Resistance. Charge for the Mine. Line of Least Resistance. Charge for the Mine.
Feet. lbs. oz. Feet. lbs. oz.
1 0 2 21 868 3
2 0 12 22 998 4
3 2 8 23 1140 10
4 6 — 24 1296 —
5 11 11 25 1558 9
6 20 4 26 1647 12
7 32 2 27 1815 4
8 48 — 28 2058 —
9 68 5 29 2286 7
10 93 12 30 2530 4
11 124 12 31 2792 4
12 162 — 32 3072 —
13 205 15 33 3369 1
14 257 4 34 3680 22
15 316 4 25 4019 8
16 384 — 36 4374 —
17 460 9 37 4748 11
18 546 12 38 5144 4
19 643 — 39 5561 2
20 750 — 40 6000 —
This table is calculated upon a supposition that the excavation of the mine is a paraboloid, having a base double the line of least resistance; and that 10 lbs. 10 oz of powder is sufficient for raising one cubic fathom of earth, by making the line of least resistance of the required globe only equal to the radius of the globe of compression.
The charges thus found by means of this table, being only for one nature of soil; viz. light earth and sand, (that for which the table is calculated) must be augmented according to the following table of Vauban’s, by one, four, five, seven, or nine elevenths of the charge found.
Table of the Quantity of Powder required to raise a Cubic Fathom, according to the Soil.
1 Light earth, mixed with sand 11 pounds.
2 Common earth 12
3 Strong sand 15
4 Clay, or fat earth 16
5 Old and good Masonry 18
6 Rock 20
The following rule is however laid down by Belidor, and generally adopted, if it be intended that the mine shall produce its maximum or greatest effect: Multiply the line of least resistance, expressed in feet, by 300, the product will be the charge in pounds.
In making mines of any kind, the following remarks may be of service.
The best form for the chamber would be spherical; but from the difficulty of its construction, it is always made a cube, of one inch larger dimensions than the box to contain the powder.
The chamber must not be made in the prolongation of the branch of the mine, but at one side, and lower than the level of the branch, if the soil be dry; but higher if it be wet.
One cubic foot will contain 75 lbs. of powder; upon which principle the size of the case to contain the powder must be regulated. The auget is generally one inch square interior dimensions, and the end of it must reach the centre of the chamber; where the saucisson must be fastened, to prevent its being easily pulled out.
The branch of the mine to be sprung must be closed in the strongest manner by doors well secured by props, and must be stopped with earth or rubbish to a distance, taken in a straight line, equal to 1½ times the line of least resistance.
In proportioning the length of saucisson, in order that any number of mines may be fired at the same instant, a return of a right angle is generally reckoned equal to 4 inches in a right line.
The first step in making a mine, whether for attack or defence, is to sink a shaft to the depth of the bottom of the gallery, having two of its sides in the direction of the sides of the gallery. These shafts should be where the galleries are to cross each other, or in the centre of the length of gallery to be made. These shafts should never be further apart than 40 or 50 fathoms; for it is found, that the air is not fit for respiration in the larger galleries at a greater distance from the shaft than 25 fathoms; at 20 fathoms in those of medium dimensions; and at 15 in the smallest.
The rectangular frames used in sinking a shaft are commonly placed 4 feet asunder; and in the galleries they are only 3 feet. A gallery intended to be lined with masonry, must be 7 feet high, and 6 feet wide, in order that it may be, when finished, 6 feet high, and 3 feet wide.
Temporary galleries are only made 4½ feet high, and 2½ or 3 feet wide.
The branches, at the ends of which the chambers are to be placed, are only made 2½ or 3 feet high, and 2 feet, or 2 feet 3 inches wide.
The first of these is dug on the knees; the second sitting or lying.
The miners are divided into brigades of 4 each; and the rate of work for each brigade is 3 feet of the temporary gallery in 4 hours. The first brigade is relieved by a second, after having worked 4 hours, or laid one frame; which second brigade is again relieved by the first, at the expiration of the same time.
In the most easy ground to work, a miner may be heard to the distance of 14 or 15 fathoms under ground; and the noise made by fixing the frames of the galleries may often be heard as far as 20 or 25 fathoms. A drum braced, standing on the ground, with a few peas or other round substances on the head, will be very sensibly affected by an approaching miner.
It is of the most essential consequence to place the entrances to the countermines beyond the reach of any surprise from the enemy.
To prevent an enemy gaining possession of the galleries of the countermines, they should be well secured by strong doors, at every 15 fathoms. These should be musquet proof.
A glacis, properly countermined, and every advantage taken of it to retard the besiegers, may, with proper management, prolong a siege at least 2 months; and if the rest of the works are also countermined, and properly defended, they may add another month to the siege. Every system of countermines must depend upon the system of fortification to which they are to be adapted; the general principle for their regulation is, that the galleries should occupy situations, from which branches can be most readily run out under the most probable points of the besieger’s batteries and approaches. The general system of countermines commonly used in a place prepared beforehand, is as follows:—The principal or magistral gallery runs all round the work, under the banquette of the covert way, and across the places of arms, having the entrances at the re-entering places of arms. Nearly parallel to this at 20, 25, or 30 fathoms distance is another gallery, called the envellope. These two galleries are connected by galleries of communication, under the gutters of the re-entering parts of the glacis, and under the ridges of the salient parts. From the envellope are run out about 15 or 16 fathoms, galleries, in directions parallel to the capitals of the works, and at 23 fathoms distance from each other. These are called listeners.
Sometimes, shafts are sunk from the ends of these listeners, and by connecting these shafts, a second envellope formed. Behind the escarps of the different works, galleries are likewise made, about the level of the bottom of the ditch; from whence branches may be run out into or under the foundations of the walls; and if the ditch be dry, galleries of communication may be made from these to the magistral gallery; and from which communications branches may be run out for chambers to annoy the besiegers in their passage of the ditch. The entrances to the escarpe galleries are by means of posterns, which descend from behind the interior slope of the rampart.
If a place be not countermined before hand, a great deal may be done, even after the investment of the place, to prolong the siege by countermines. In this case, the first thing to be done immediately that the place is invested, to sink a shaft in each of the places of arms of the covert way; one in each branch of the covert way, opposite that part of the bastion where the breach will most probably be made; and one in the flanked angle of each bastion. Those on the covert way will be on the banquette, and sunk to about 18 inches below the bottom of the ditch. Those in the bastions to about 12 feet below the bottom of the ditch. Thus prepared, the moment the side on which the attack is to be made can be ascertained, galleries must be carried on from these shafts on the side attacked along the capitals, in the form of tressles; or double T; and advanced as far into the country as the time will admit. Communication galleries may likewise be driven between these different works on the covert way, and from them to the work in the bastion; which will prevent the enemy gaining possession of their entrances. All these works may be carried on after the investment of the place; and be in sufficient forwardness by the time the enemy gains the third parallel.
The following rules are given by Vauban for fougasses, or small mines, having the diameter of the excavation equal to double the line of least resistance: The side of the chamber must be exactly a sixth part of the depth of the shaft. The side of the box to hold the powder exactly a ninth part of the depth of the shaft.
These remarks respecting mines are principally extracted from the General Essay on Fortification before mentioned, written in French, and published at Berlin, 1799.
MORTARS.—Weight and Dimensions of English Mortars.
Nature. Weight. Length. Powder contained in Chamber.[10] Range at 45°.
ct. qr. lbs. Ft. In. lbs. oz. Yds.
13 Brass Sea S. 82 — 8 5 3 32 — 4100
Iron 82 1 — 20 —
Brass Land 25 — 10 3 7½ 3 12 2100
Iron 36 2 12 9 8
10 Brass Sea S. 33 — — 4 8 12 8 3800
Iron 41 — — 10 —
Brass Land 10 1 25 2 9 4 10 1900
Iron 16 — 6 4 8
8 Brass Land. 4 4 8 2 1¾ 2 — 1600
Iron 8 — 11 2 4
5½ Brass Land. 1 — 20 1 4¼ — 9 1200
4⅖ Brass Land. — 3 11 1 1½ — 4½ 1000
French Mortars, in their own Weights and Measures.
lbs.
12 Inches 2060 3 7 2400
10 for long Ranges 2000 7 4 2800
10 ” short ” 1560 4 — 2200
8 ” ” ” 595 1 4¾ 1160
Stone Mortars.[11] 1100 2 8
12 inch Gomers 2750 12 — 2700
10 ” 2000 6 8 2800
8 ” 600 2 — 1400
Ranges with a 10 Inch Sea Mortar, at 21 Degrees, on a Horizontal Plane.
Weight of Mortar. Weight of Shell. Charge. Elevation. Flight. Range.
ct. qrs. lbs. lbs. oz. lbs. oz. Deg. Sec. Yards.
34 2 14 86 — 5 8 21 14¾ 2335
87 — 16 2510
Ranges with Sea Service, Iron Mortars, at 45 Degrees, upon a Horizontal Plane. 1798
13 Inch. 10 Inch.
Charge. Flight. Range. Charge. Flight. Range.
lbs. oz. Sec. Yards. lbs. oz. Sec. Yards.
2 — 13 690 1 — 13 680
4 — 18 1400 2 — 18 1340
6 — 21 1900 3 — 21 1900
8 — 24½ 2575 4 — 24 2500
10 — 26½ 2975 5 — 26 2800
12 — 29 3500 6 — 27 3200
14 — 29½ 3860 7 — 29 3500
16 — 30 3900 8 — 30 3800
18 — 30½ 4000 9 — 30¼ 3900
20 — 31 4200 9 8 30½ 4000
Ranges with French Mortars, at 45 Degrees, in French Weights and Measures.
12 Inch. 10 Inch. long Ranges. 10 Inch. short Ranges. 8 Inch.
Charge. Range. Charge. Range. Charge. Range. Charge. Range.
lbs. oz. Yards. lbs. oz. Yards. lbs. oz. Yards. lbs. oz. Yards.
1 — 388 1 — 450 1 — 658 — 5 316
1 8 632 2 — 1080 1 8 964 — 10 794
2 — 862 3 — 1536 2 — 1280 — 15 1112
2 8 954 4 — 2070 2 8 1428 1 4 1280
3 — 1292 5 — 2206 3 — 1432
3 8 1390 6 2½ 2304 3 10¼ 1920
Medium Ranges with Land Service Iron Mortars, at 45 Degrees. 1798.
13 Inch. 10 Inch.
Charge. Flight. Range. Charge. Flight. Range.
lbs. oz. Sec. Yards. lbs. oz. Sec. Yards.
— 14 6½ 245 — 8 6½ 235
1 — 7½ 318 — 10 8 358
1 4 8½ 412 — 12 9 464
1 8 9½ 523 — 14 10 534
1 12 10½ 613 1 — 10½ 638
2 — 11 697 1 2 11½ 749
2 4 12½ 840 1 4 13 873
2 8 13 906 1 6 13½ 956
2 12 14 1054 1 8 14 1028
3 — 15 1132 1 10 15 1123
3 4 16 1244 1 12 15 1226
3 8 16½ 1317 1 14 16 1325
3 12 17 1424 2 — 16½ 1357
4 — 17 1490 2 2 17 1480
4 4 17½ 1580 2 4 17½ 1532
4 8 18½ 1656 2 6 17½ 1571
4 12 19 1744 2 8 18½ 1700
5 — 19½ 1824 2 10 19 1780
5 4 19½ 1900 2 12 19½ 1825
5 8 20 1950 2 14 20 1880
5 12 20½ 2062 3 — 20 1916
6 — 21 2095 4 — 25 2485
7 — 24 2510 4 8 26 2536
8 — 25 2706
8 Inch. 5½ Inch, Brass.
Charge. Flight. Range. Charge. Flight. Range.
lbs. oz. Sec. Yards. lbs. oz. Sec. Yards.
— 5 6 225 1 8 5½ 155
— 6 7½ 328 1 12 6 198
— 7 8½ 428 2 — 6½ 255
— 8 9½ 474 2 4 7½ 316
— 9 10 560 2 8 8 380
— 10 11 664 2 12 8½ 426
— 11 12 762 3 — 9½ 470
— 12 12½ 801 3 4 10 540
— 13 13½ 859 3 8 10½ 590
— 14 14 960 3 12 11 630
— 15 14½ 1011 4 — 11½ 725
1 0 14½ 1115 4 4 12 746
1 1 15 1156 4 8 12½ 800
1 2 16 1262 4 12 13½ 910
1 3 16½ 1320 5 — 13½ 935
1 4 17 1380 5 4 14 1016
1 5 17½ 1446 5 8 — —
1 6 18 1530 5 12 — —
1 7 18½ 1600 6 — 15 1175
1 8 19 1660
1 9 19½ 1720
Medium Ranges with Brass Mortars, at 45 Degrees. 1780.
13 Inch.[12] 10 Inch. 8 Inch.
Charge. Range. Charge. Range. Charge. Range.
lbs. oz. Yards. lbs. oz. Yards. oz. dr. Yards.
2 12 862 1 10 823 10 8 580
2 14 939 1 11 852 11 — 635
3 — 998 1 12 783 11 8 711
3 2 1003 1 13 758 12 — 708
3 4 1090 1 14 823 12 8 701
3 6 1139 1 15 888 13 — 777
3 8 1165 2 — 892 13 8 825
3 10 1209 2 1 940 14 — 870
3 12 1270 2 2 941 14 8 853
3 14 1322 2 3 1041 15 — 866
4 — 1309 2 4 1128 15 8 899
4 2 1331 2 5 1103 16 — 921
4 4 1391 2 6 1221 16 8 987
4 6 1363 2 7 1258 17 — 987
4 8 1324 2 8 1215 17 8 1062
Ranges with a 5½ inch Brass Mortar, at 15 Degrees.
Charge. Flight. First Graze. Rolled to
oz. dr. Sec. Yards. Yards.
2 8 3 209 303
3 — 3½ 256 330
3 8 4 375 443
4 — 4½ 457 501
4 8 5 530 600
5 — 5½ 561 627
5 8 6½ 667 715
6 — 7 709 780
Medium Ranges with Land Service Iron Mortars, at 10 Degrees Elevation.—Powder in Cartridges.
10 Inch. 8 Inch.
Flight. Charge. First graze. Extreme Range. Flight. Charge. First graze. Extreme Range.
Sec. lbs. oz. Yards. Yards. Sec. lbs. oz. Yards. Yards.
3 — 12 198 415 3 — 8 202 403
3 1 — 278 458 3 — 10 266 461
4 1 4 366 564 3¼ — 12 351 614
4½ 1 8 451 685 4 — 14 413 630
4 1 12 432 686 4¾ 1 — 468 754
4¾ 2 — 559 938 5 1 2 562 811
5 2 4 602 798 6 1 4 664 950
4¾ 2 8 597 976 6½ 1 6 700 1028
5 2 12 664 1121 6½ 1 8 768 1064
5¼ 3 — 764 1169
Medium Ranges with the above Mortars, at 15 Degrees.
10 Inch. 8 Inch.
Charge. Flight. Range. Charge. Flight. Range.
lbs. oz. Sec. Yards. lbs. oz. Sec. Yards.
1 4 5 464 — 11 4½ 427
1 6 5½ 543 — 12 4½ 485
1 8 6 590 — 13 5 513
1 12 6¾ 685 — 14 5½ 559
1 14 7 765 1 — 6½ 690
2 — 7 805 1 2 7 822
2 4 7½ 884 1 4 7 827
2 8 7¾ 960 1 6 7¾ 1004
2 12 8 1070 1 8 8½ 1012
3 — 8½ 1154 1 10 8½ 1196
1 11 9 1337
N avy—
Number and Nature of Ordnance for each of the Ships in his Majesty’s Navy.
Rates. No. of Guns Nᵒ. of Guns of each Nature. Carronades.
42 32 24 18 12 9 6 32 24 18 12
!st. 100 28 — 28 — 30 — 18 2 6 — —
2d. 98 — 28 — 30 40 — — 2 — 6 —
3d. 80 — 26 — 26 — 24 4
74 — 28 — 28 — 18 — 2 6 — —
70 — 28 — 28 — 14 —
64 — — 26 26 — 12 — — 2 6 —
4th. 60 — — 24 — 26 — 10 — — — —
50 — — 22 — 22 — 6 — 6 — 6
5th. 44 — — — 20 22 — 6 — — 8 —
36 — — — 26 2 8 — 8 — — —
32 — — — — 26 — 6 — 6 — —
6th. 28 — — — — — 24 4 — 6 — —
24 — — — — — 22 2 — 2 6 —
20 — — — — — 20 — — — 8
Sloops. 18 — — — — — — 18 — — — 8
Dimensions of Ships, Number of Men, and Draught of Water.
Number of Guns Length on the Gundeck. Extreme Breadth. Complement of Depth of water required for each.
Sailors. Marines.
Ft. In. Ft. In. Nᵒ. Officers. Feet.
110 190 — 53 — 875 24
100 186 — 52 —
98 180 — 50 — 750 1 Captain. 23
90 177 6 49 — 3 Subalt’s.
80 182 — 49 6 650 18
74 182 — 48 7
74 169 — 46 11
64 160 — 44 6 1 Cap. 2 Sub.
50 146 — 40 6 420 2 Lieuten’ts.
44 140 9 38 8 300 1 Subalt. 16
38 144 — 39 —
36 142 — 38 —
32 126 — 35 4
28 120 — 33 6 200 15
24 114 7 32 3
20 108 — 30 —
18 110 — 29 6 125 Serjeant. 13
16 106 — 28 —
N. B. The usual Complement of Marines is one for every Gun in the Ship.
O rdnance—The value of all brass ordnance is at £84: 17s. per ton, for the metal; that is, the weight of the gun, and 12lbs. per hundred weight for waste: to which is added for casting, on the total weight of metal used, £64 per ton for light pieces; £54 for medium; and £44 for heavy.
Iron ordnance costs £20 per ton. See also the words Guns, Mortars, Howitzers, &c.
For the proof of all kinds of ordnance, see the word Proof.
P ace—The common pace is of no determined length; though made use of as a measure by most military writers.
In Germany, and amongst most of the northern powers, the pace is considered equal to ²/₁₀ of a Rhinland rood.
In France the pace is commonly reckoned at 2½ feet.
In England it is usually reckoned at 2½ feet.
The geometrical pace is equal to 5 French royal feet; 60,000 of which make a degree of the equator. This makes the geometrical pace equal 6.102 English feet, and 5.6719 Rhinland feet.
For the military pace, see Marching.
PARALLELS—or places of arms at a siege. See the words Trenches and Sap.
PAY.—Table of the Full Pay of the Officers, Noncommissioned Officers, and Privates in the Army.
Rank. Life Guards. Cavalry. Foot Guards. Infantry of the line. Artillery.
Horse. Foot.
£. s. d. £. s. d. £. s. d. £. s. d. £. s. d. £. s. d.
Colonel 1 16 — 1 12 10 1 19 — 1 2 6 — 2 3 6
Colonel en Second — — — — 1 9 8 1 3 9
1st. Lt. Colonel 1 11 — 1 3 — 1 8 6 0 5 11 1 5 8 — 19 9
2d. Lt. Colonel — — — 0 15 11 — — 16 10
1st. Major 1 6 — — 19 3 1 4 — 0 14 1 1 — 9 — 14 10
2d. Major — — — — —
Captain — 16 — — 14 7 — 16 6 0 9 5 — 15 4 — 9 11
Captain Lieut. 0 11 — — 9 — — 7 10 0 5 8 0 10 — — 7 —
1st. Lieut. 0 9 — — 6 —
2d. Lieutenant — — — — — 8 — — 5 —
Cornets — 8 6 — 8 — — — — —
Ensigns — — — 5 10 — 4 8 — —
Pay Master — — 15 — — — 15 — — —
Quarter Master — 6 — — 5 6 — 5 8 — 5 8 — 6 — — 6 —
Adjutant — 11 — — 5 — — — 5 — — 5 — — 5 —
Surgeon — 12 — — 12 — — 12 — — 9 5 — 11 10 — 9 11
Assistant Surgeon — — 5 — — 7 6 — 5 — — 6 — — 5 —
Veterinary ” — — 8 — — — — —
Serjeant Major — — — — — 3 4 — 3 2
Quarter Master ” — — — — — 2 10 —
Serjeant — — 2 2 — 1 10¾ — 1 6¾ — 2 4 — 2 2
Corporal — 2 6¼ — 1 7¾ — 1 4¾ — 1 2¼ — 2 2¼ — 2 2¼
Bombardier — — — — — 2 2¼ — 1 10¼
1st. Gunner — — — — — — 1 7
2d. Gunner — — — — — 1 5¼ — 1 3¼
Private — 1 11¼ — 1 3 — 1 1 — 1 — — —
Farrier and Smith — — — — — 3 4¾ —
Collar Maker — — — — — 2 4¾ —
Wheeler
Trumpeter — 2 6 — 1 7 — 1 2¼ — 1 1¼ — 2 1¾ — 1 3¼
Drummer
PARK OF ARTILLERY—should always be placed, if possible, within a short distance of water-carriage, and have the most ready communication with every part of the line of the army. Its form must depend on its situation. Ten feet are usually allowed in front for one carriage and its interval, and near 50 feet from the hind wheels of the front row to the fore wheels of the second; this interval should allow sufficient room for putting the horses to the carriages, and for a free passage along the line. In parks not on immediate service, it is customary to arrange the guns with their muzzles to the front; but where the guns are likely to be wanted at a short notice, appearances must not be studied, and the gun carriages must be parked with their shafts to the front, ready to receive horses to them. A quarter-guard is placed in front of the park, and the noncommissioned officers and gunners’ tents on the flanks, at about 20 paces distance and 40 paces to the rear the subaltern officers; at 10 more to the rear the captains, and 10 more the commanding officer. The mess tent is 15 in the rear of the officers. At a convenient distance in the rear of the whole, are the horses, picketed in one or more lines, with the drivers on their flanks. The horses are sometimes picketed in lines perpendicular to the front, and on the flanks of the carriages, between the men and the carriages. See the word Camp, and Artillery in the Field.
PENDULUM—Pendulums for military purposes are best made with a musquet ball, and a piece of silk, or other small line. Their length must be measured from the centre of the ball to the end of the loop on which they are to swing. In a cylinder, or other uniform prism or rod, the centre of oscillation, (from whence they must be measured,) is at the distance of ⅓ from the bottom, or ⅔ below the centre of motion.
Pendulum’s length in latitude of London, to swing
2 Seconds 39⅛ Inches.
½ Seconds 9.8
¼ Seconds 2.45
Length of Pendulums to vibrate 2 Seconds at every Fifth Degree of Latitude.
Degrees of Latitude. Length of Pendulum.
Inches.
0 39.027
5 39.029
10 39.032
15 39.036
20 39.044
25 39.057
30 39.070
35 39.084
40 39.097
45 39.111
50 39.126
55 39.142
60 39.158
65 39.168
70 39.177
75 39.185
80 39.191
85 39.195
90 39.197
Rule.—To find the Length of a Pendulum to make any Number of Vibrations, and vice versa.
Call the pendulum, making 60 vibrations the standard length; then say, as the square of the given number of vibrations is to the square of 60; so is the length of the standard to the length sought. If the length of the pendulum be given, and the number of vibrations it makes in a minute be required; say, as the given length is to the standard length, so is the square of 60, its vibrations in a minute, to the square of the number required. The square root of which will be the number of vibrations made in a minute.
PETARDS—are of four different sizes:—First, contain 12 lbs. 13 oz.—Second, 10 lbs. 11 oz.—Third, 1 lb. 10.—Fourth, one lb.
Blind fuze composition mealed powder 7 lbs.
for Petards. wood ashes 3 oz.
Stores for One Petard.
Hooks to hang the petard 2
Gimblets 2
Brass fuze 1
Wrench to screw the fuze 1
Blue paper portfires 6
Slow match yards 4
Props or forks 2
Copper funnels 1
Tallow ounces 8
Cartridges 1
PLATFORMS.—The common platforms for gun batteries require the following materials for each:—5 sleepers or joists, 6 inches square, 14 feet long.—1 hunter, 8 or 10 inches square, 8 feet long, 14 planks, 1 foot wide, 11 feet long, 2½ inches thick.—20 pickets.
The usual slope of platforms for guns is one inch to every yard.
The platforms for mortar batteries are made with 3 sleepers 8 inches square, and covered with about 11 timbers of the same thickness. They are laid perfectly horizontal, about 15 feet asunder, and 12 feet from the epaulment. This is the distance commonly practised for firing only at 45 degrees elevation; but if the platforms be placed at the undermentioned distances from the epaulment, the mortars may be fired at the angles corresponding.
At 13 feet distance for firing at 30 degrees.
21 feet ” ” ” at 20
30 feet ” ” ” at 15
40 feet ” ” ” at 10
over an epaulment of 8 feet high.
See also the word Battery.
POINT BLANK.—For the point blank ranges of different pieces of ordnance, see the different natures.
The French point blank or but en blanc, is what the English artillery call the line of metal elevation; in most guns between one and two degrees.
PONTOONS.—
Length at top 21 ft. 6 in.
bottom, 17 2
Width, 4 feet 9 inches.
Depth, 2 feet 3 inches.
Equipage of One Pontoon.
Ft. In. Ft. In. In.
4 Baulks 22 8 long 1 0 wide 4 thick.
1 Gang-board. 22 0 ” 1 0 ” 2½ ”
6 Chesses, 11 6 ” 2 4 ” 1½ ”
2 Oars. 1 Cable
1 Anchor. 1 Sheer-line.
1 Graplin. 1 Boat hook.
1 Setter. 1 Maul.
4 Iron bolts, with keys. 4 Pickets.
2 Mounting bars. 1 Small pump.
4 Binding sticks. 1 Windlass.
4 Spring lines. 1 Pontoon carriage, complete.
4 Faukes.
Dimensions of Colonel Congreve’s Wooden Pontoons.
feet. inches.
Length at top 26
” at bottom 23
Depth 2 8
Width 2 3
The common pontoons will support a weight of 4 or 5000 pounds. They are generally placed, in forming a bridge, about their own width asunder. See the word Bridge.
PORTFIRES.
Composition. Saltpetre, 60 parts; sulphur, 40 parts; mealed powder, 20 parts. Length of each, 16½ inches.
One will burn from 12 to 15 minutes.
Weight of one dozen, 3 lbs. 12 oz.
Portfires were made at Gibraltar in the following manner; two ounces of nitre was dissolved in a gallon of water, and sheets of soft brown paper dipped in the solution: these when dry were rolled up to about the size of common portfires.
PROVISIONS.—See the word Ration.
PROOF—of ordnance.
All natures of ordnance undergo several kinds of proof before they are received into his Majesty’s service; viz. 1st, They are guaged as to their several dimensions, internal and external, as to the justness of the position of the bore, the chamber, the vent, the trunnions, &c.
2d, They are fired with a regulated charge of powder and shot, and afterwards searched to discover irregularities or holes produced by the firing.
3d, By means, of engines an endeavour is made to force water through them; and,
4th, They are examined internally, by means of light reflected from a mirror.
Iron Guns.—The guns are first examined as to their proper dimensions, in which, in no case more than ³/₁₀ of an inch variation is allowed; and in the diameter of the bore only ¹/₃₀ from 42 to 18 pounders, and ¹/₄₀ from 12 to 4 pounders; but in the position of the bore ½ an inch out of the axis of a piece from a 42 to an 18 Pr. and ⅓ of an inch from a 12 to a 4 Pr. is allowed. They are then fired twice with the charge in the following table, with one shot and two high junk wads; and examined with a searcher after each round. In this examination they must not have any hole or cavity in the bore of ²/₁₀ of an inch in depth, behind the first reinforce ring, or ¼ of an inch in depth before this ring.
Nature. Proof Charge.
Prs. lbs. oz.
42 25 —
32 21 8
24 18 —
18 15 —
12 12 —
9 9 —
6 6 —
4 4 —
3 3 —
2 2 —
1½ 1 8
1 1 —
Iron guns are scaled with ¹/₁₂ the weight of the shot.
Brass Guns.—From 1 pounders to 12 pounders the diameter of the bore must not vary more than ¹/₁₀ of an inch, and in no dimensions more than ²/₁₀. The following are the established charges for their proof. The heavy and medium guns with a charge equal to the weight of the shot, except the medium 12 pounder, which is proved with only 9 lbs. The light guns with half the weight of the shot. The brass ordnance have not however been proved of late with such heavy charges, but with the following:
3 Prs. light, 3 times, with 1 lb. each round.
6 Prs. light, 3 times, with 2 lbs. each.
12 Prs. light, 2 times, with 4 lbs. each.
12 Prs. Med. 2 times, with 5 lbs. each.
Any hole .15 of an inch deep upwards or sideways in the bore, or .1 in the bottom, between the breach and first reinforce; or .2 of an inch upwards or side ways, or .15 in the bottom of the bore, before the first reinforce ring, will be sufficient to condemn them.
Brass Mortars and Howitzers.—The exterior dimensions are in no respect to deviate more than ¹/₁₀ of an inch in an 8 inch howitzer, and ¹/₂₀ in the royals and Coehorn mortars and howitzers. Their bores and chambers not to deviate from their true diameters or positions more than ¹/₄₀ of an inch.
The brass mortars and howitzers are fired twice with their chambers full of powder, and an iron shell. The mortars on their own beds, at about 75° elevation; and the howitzers on their carriages, at about 12°. Iron mortars are proved on their iron beds; with a charge equal to the full chamber, and an iron shot equal in diameter to the shell.
Royals, or Coehorn mortars, having a hole .1 of an inch in depth in the chamber, or .15 in the chase, are rejected: royal howitzers the same. 8 inch howitzers having a hole .15 of an inch in depth in the chamber, or .2 in the chase, will be rejected.
Carronades.—The diameter and position of their bore and chamber must not deviate ¹/₂₀ of an inch. They are proved with two rounds, with their chambers full of powder, and 1 shot and 1 wad. A hole of ²/₁₀ of an inch in depth in the bore, or ¹/₁₀ in the chamber condemns the piece.
Proof Charges.
68 Prs. 42 32 24 18 12
13 lbs. 9 8 6 4 3
All ordnance, after having undergone this proof, and the subsequent searching, are subject to the water proof: this is done by means of a forcing pump, having a pipe or hose fixed to the mouth of the piece: after two or three efforts to force the water through any honeycombs or flaws which may be in the bore, they are left to dry; and generally the next day examined by the reflected light from a mirror. If the bore contains any small holes or flaws which have not been discovered by the former proofs, they are very readily found by this; the water will continue to weep, or run from the holes, when the solid parts of the bore are perfectly dry. Ordnance suspected of being bad are often subject to a more severe proof: that of firing 30 rounds quick, with the service charge and 2 shot; and in doubtful cases, where the purity of the metal is suspected, recourse has been had to chemical trials and analysis. A quantity of clean filings taken from a part of an iron gun free from rust, are dissolved in the dilute sulphuric acid, and the quantity of gas disengaged during the solution accurately ascertained. The plumbago which remains after solution is also separated by filtration, and carefully weighed. Now it is well known that the purer the iron, the greater the quantify of inflammable gas obtained, and the less the proportion of plumbago which remains after the solution; from these two parts therefore a tolerable judgment may be formed of the quality of the metal. When the plumbago exceeds 4½ per cent. the iron will always be found deficient in strength; and there has been no instance of a gun bursting where the plumbago did not exceed 3 per cent; that is, where 100 grains of the metal did not leave more than 3 grains of plumbago. The colour of the plumbago is also to be attended to; when it is brown or reddish, it is an indication of hard metal, and when in quantities and mixed with coals, there can be no doubt but that the iron is too soft for cannon.
For the proof of Gunpowder, see that word.
Proof of Iron Shells.—After the shells are guaged and examined as to their dimensions and weight, they must be well scraped out, and the iron pin at the bottom of the inside must be driven down or broken off. They are then to be hammered all over, to knock off the scales, and discover flaws, and no hole, in the large shells is allowed, of more than ¾ of an inch deep. An empty fuze is then driven into the fuze hole, and the shell is suspended in a tub of water, in such manner that the shell be covered by the water, but that it does not run into the fuze: in this situation the nose of a pair of bellows is put in at the fuze hole, and several strong puffs given with the bellows; and if no bubbles rise in the water, the shell is concluded to be serviceable.
Ordnance condemned as unserviceable for any of the foregoing reasons, are marked as follows:
X D, or X S, or X W.
The first signifies that they are found to be faulty in their dimensions, by Desagulier’s instrument; the second, by the searcher; and the third, by the water proof.
R ation—For an officer or soldier.
Complete Ration of the Small Species.
Flour, or bread 1½ lbs.
Beef 1
Or Pork ½
Peas ¼ pint.
Butter, or cheese 1 oz.
Rice 1 oz.
When the small species are not issued, 1½ lbs. of flour or bread, with 1½ lbs. of beef, or 10 oz. of pork, forms a complete ration: or 3 lbs. of beef; or 2 lbs. of cheese; or half a pound of rice, forms a complete ration.
At sea the ration is different. The following table contains the allowance for six soldiers, or four seamen on board of ship, for each day in the week. Women are provisioned at ½, and children at ¼ of a soldier’s allowance, but receive no rum.
(A) = Beer, Gallons, or half Pints of Spirits,
or Pints of Wine.
(B) = Pint of Oatmeal.
(C) = lbs. of Butter.
(D) = lbs. of Butter.
Days of the Week. Bread. (A) Beef, Pieces of 8 lbs. Pork, Pieces of 4 lbs. Pint of Peas. (B) (C) (D) Vinegar.
lb.
Sunday, 4 4 1 2
Monday, 4 4 — 4 ½ 1
Tuesday, 4 4 1 or 6 lbs. of flour, or ½ lb of suet & 1 lb of raisins —
Wednesday, 4 4 — 2 4 ½ 1 1 quart
Thursday, 4 4 1 2 a week.
Friday, 4 4 — 2 4 ½ 1
Saturday, 4 4 1 —
or as above
The above are served out by full weights and measures.
When flour, suet and raisins are put on board, they are to be served out in equal proportions with beef, viz. half in beef; the other half in flour, suet, and raisins, on each beef day.
4 lbs. of flour, or 3 lbs. of flour with ½ lb. of raisins, (or ¼ lb. of currants) and ¼ lb. of suet, are equal to 4 lbs. of beef, or 2 lbs. of pork with peas, but are not to be issued in lieu of the latter, except unavoidable, and then the quantities must be certified.
½ lb. of rice is equal to a pint of oatmeal; ½ lb. of sugar is equal to ½ lb. of butter; and 1 lb. of rice is equal to 1 lb. of cheese; 1 pint of oil is equal to 1 lb. of butter, or 2 lbs. of cheese, that is, a pint of oil for the proportion of butter and cheese.
A pint of wine, or ½ pint of brandy, rum, or arrack, is equal to a gallon of beer; 1 lb. of fresh beef is equal to 1 lb. of salt beef; and 1½ lbs. of fresh beef is equal to 1 lb. of pork.
No wine or spirits are to be issued to the troops while in port, nor at sea, till after all the beer is expended.
The masters of transports are to produce a certificate from the commanding officer of the troops on board, of the quantity expended. If any doubt be entertained of the provisions being full weight, a cask must be weighed in the presence of the commanding officer, the master and the mate, and the master may upon the certificate of the commanding officer, and the oath of the mate, issue as much beef and pork as will make up the deficiency.
The weight of each must be as follows: 14 pieces of beef, cut for 8 pound pieces taken out of the cask as they rise, and the salt shaken off, are to weigh 112 lbs. avoirdupois. 28 pieces of pork cut for 4 lb. pieces, are also to weigh, under like circumstances, 112 lbs.
The deductions to betaken for provisions from the pay of officers, noncommissioned officers, or men, are the same for all ranks, and in all corps, under the like circumstances of service, when serving out of Great Britain, on stations where provisions are supplied by the public: also, when embarked in transports or other vessels, (except when serving as marines) also when prisoners of war, and maintained at the expense of Great Britain; also when in general hospitals, whether at home or abroad, a deduction of Six-pence per day.
A deduction of three-pence half-penny from the pay of every noncommissioned officer and private in Jamaica, in New South Wales, or Gibraltar. Noncommissioned officers and soldiers serving as marines shall not be liable to any deduction from their full pay on account of provisions.
Ration for a horse on home service in 1796: 14 lbs. of hay, 10 lbs. of oats, 4 lbs. of straw; for which a stoppage is made of six-pence.
Army Regulations, 1799.
RANK.—Between Land and Sea Officers.
Navy. Army.
1. Admiral, or commander of Field Marshal.
his Majesty’s fleet
2. Admirals with their flags at the Generals.
main-top-mast head
3. Vice Admirals Lieutenant Generals.
4. Rear Admirals Major Generals.
5. Commodores, with broad pendants Brigadiers.
6. Captains commanding post ships, Colonels.
after 3 years
7. All Captains commanding post ships Lieutenant Colonels.
8. Captains not taking post Majors.
9. Lieutenants Captains.
The rank and precedence of sea officers in the classes abovementioned, are to take place according to the seniority of their respective commissions in the sea service. Post captains commanding ships or vessels that do not give post, rank only as majors during the time they command those vessels.
Nothing in this shall give any pretence to land officers to command any of his Majesty’s squadrons; nor to any sea officer to command on shore; nor shall either have right to demand the military honours due to their respective ranks, unless upon actual service.
RECOIL—Of Field Guns on Travelling Carriages, upon Elm Planks.
Nature. Charge 1 Shot, at 1° 30′ Elevation 2 Shot, at 1° 30′ Elevation Case Shot, at 3° 45′ Elevation
lbs. oz. Feet. Feet. Feet.
12 Pr. Medi. 4 — 12 25 8½
6 Pr. Heavy 2 — 7 11 7½
6 Pr. Light 1 8 12 21 10
3 Pr. Heavy 1 — 7 5 3½
Recoil of Sea Service, Iron Guns, on Ship Carriages, upon a Horizontal Platform.
Charges of Powder and Shot. Elevation 32 Pr. 24 Pr. 18 Pr.
Deg. Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In.
⅓ of Powder and 1 Shot 2 11 — 11 — 10 6
⅓ of Powder and 2 Shot 4 19 6 18 6 18 —
¼ of Powder and 2 Shot 7 11 6 12 — 12 —
Recoil of Land Service, Iron Mortars, on Iron Beds.
Ft. In.
13 Inch, with a charge of 6 lbs. 4 2½
10 Inch, ” ” 3 lbs. 2 10
8 Inch, ” ” 1lb. 9 oz. 3 10
RECONNOITERING.—The following necessary observations to be made in examining a country in a military point of view, are principally translated from the Aide Memoire, but improved by some judicious remarks from Mr. Landman’s introduction to reconnoitering.
Before an officer sets out to reconnoiter a country, he should trace out from the best map he can procure, its principal features, which will serve him as a guide in his progress through the principal parts which are to be the subject of his observations, and enable him to connect the whole into one grand plan.
His observations should be expressed by written remarks, and by sketches. For this purpose he must be provided with a sketch book, on the right hand page of which, he may express the appearance of the country by sketches, and on the left, the remarks made on particular parts, with the names of the towns, their distances asunder, &c. with proper references to the sketches. The scale most proper for this purpose is two inches to a mile; if therefore, the sketch book be made six inches wide, and the leaves divided by lines into three equal parts, each division will be one mile, which will be a sufficient scale for the purpose.
1st. Roads.—The principal points to be attended to in examining roads for military purposes, are, their direction; the villages, countries, and rivers, which they pass through; the roads which cross them; their names and the seasons in which they are in best condition; and if ever impassable, their breadth, whether variable or constant; their bottoms, of what principally formed; their ascents and descents, whether practicable for all kinds of carriages. The enclosures may be hedges, ditches, walls, or fences. If the roads require repair for the transport of artillery, and other heavy carriages, observe if the necessary materials are at hand. If they pass over rivers, remark whether by bridges or fords; if through marshes, whether by causeways or otherwise. If two or more roads pursuing the same route, and by which different columns may march, at any part join or cross each other, it will be necessary to observe, whether the march of the columns will be thereby impeded. If they only cross each other, it will be sometimes possible in hollow ways, to throw a temporary bridge across the deepest, by which one column may pass over and the other under the bridge, without interrupting each others march.
2. Fords.—A ford for cavalry ought not to be deeper than 4 feet; for infantry not more than 3 feet. Observe the banks of the ford at each side; their form, steepness, and height; their situation as to the turnings of the river. Their bottom, whether passable for carriages. Observe marks by which the ford may be readily found; points from which it may be protected. Notice the rapidity of the water; whether its height be variable; its direction, its breadth, and the means by which the ford may be destroyed or rendered impassable.
3. Inundations.—Learn the manner of working the sluices; the time in which the inundation may be effected; its extent and depth. Observe how the dam may be protected; its height and solidity; whether it can be easily raised, or easily destroyed; whether it is commanded by distant positions, and whether the inundation can be otherways drained. Notice the adjacent country.
4. Springs and Wells.—Attend to the quality and quantity of the water; whether it will serve for the cavalry, as well as infantry, and the manner of its being drawn. Observe the situation of the spring, and of its source, whether it can be protected, and the enemy prevented from cutting it off.
5. Lakes, Marshes, and Swamps.—Learn their cause; if arising from a moist soil, the overflowings of rivers or from springs. Observe their situation, and the appearance of the surrounding country; the best means of crossing them. If they are divided by causeways, notice their breadth and condition; if not, remark if causeways can be easily established, and whether the swamp can be drained, and whether it is passable at any season of the year. Observe the points from which the causeways can be defended against the passage of an enemy’s column. Learn whether or not the swamps are subject to fogs; and at what seasons they are most hurtful.
6. Of Woods and Forests.—Remark their extent; their situation; their thickness; whether the trees are lofty or low; whether there is much underwood. Observe if the different clumps form openings or passes; and their extent; whether their sides are formed of thick wood or brush; whether their breadth is uniform, or widens at particular parts. Remark whether the ground of the forest be level or hilly, swampy or dry. Observe the nature and condition of the roads (for remarks to be made on these, see the article Roads;) observe also the means the forest affords of intrenching; of making fascines, abbatis, &c. Attend to the face of the country round the forest, whether cultivated fields or meadows: whether it affords positions; is intersected by rivulets, swamps or ravines.
Remark the castles, villages, towns, &c. in the neighbourhood; and their distance from the skirts of the wood.
Go round the wood and examine its principal débouchés; observe the ravines, rivulets, roads, &c. issuing from it, and learn their direction.
7. Heaths.—Notice for what nature of troops they are best calculated. The nature of hedges and brush wood; some form a good breast work. Observe the directions of the rivulets, roads, and ravines. When the ground of a heath is of the common colour, the roads are usually good: but when it is blackish and mixed with white sand, the roads are generally impassable in winter seasons.
8. Canals.—For this article see also the observations on Rivers. Observe their intention; the nature of the soil in which they are dug, their breadth and depth; their locks; the craft found upon them; the best means of protecting or destroying them: learn the countries they pass through.
9. Rivers.—Learn in what country they arise, and where empty themselves; the nature of the countries they run through, and whether they belong to us or the enemy. Learn the extent to which they are navigable; and if they ever freeze over, whether strong enough to bear troops and carriages. Notice the quality of the water, its course, currents, depths, and breadths. The banks and the beds of the rivers. Observe the nature and number of the craft that navigate them; and the mills upon their banks, whether of wind or water. Visit the bridges and fords; and make the proper remarks on their nature and situation. Learn whether the rivers ever overflow their banks, and at what season; and whether or not this causes inundations. Observe the most favourable points for crossing, and the roads leading to these points. The turnings and windings of the rivers, the form of their peninsulas; and the most favourable situations for throwing over bridges. If there are any wharves on the banks, observe what craft can lay along side of them.
If there are islands in the rivers, note their size; their banks; whether inhabited, cultivated, woody, or barren; and whether they command the channel.
Observe the mountains and high grounds near the rivers; remark their distance from the banks, and the advantages, or disadvantages which they offer. Learn what branches or confluence of other rivers there are either above or below, the best situations for crossing. Examine the positions which the adjoining country affords an army to protect the passage of the river; and whether in a perpendicular or parallel direction; and the routes by which 3 or 4 columns may arrive at the place.
10. Passes.—Observe their breadth, their length, their situation; the nature of the adjacent country: the best positions to occupy to cover a retreat; or to dispute the pass. How the troops would be best arranged; and the number that would be required for this purpose.
11. Ravines, Vallies.—Observe the nature of the soil; whether rocky, or of loose flints. If the sides are rugged and steep, whether they can be easily scarped off. The points that command them: whether storms or floods are to be apprehended; and at what seasons most expected.
12. Cultivated Lands.—Notice their state of cultivation: their productions; their time of harvest. Learn what quantity of wheat, rye, barley, oats, or other grain they produce, over and above the necessary subsistance of the inhabitants. How much hay they yield per acre.
13. Orchards.—Observe whether they are thick planted and afford a good cover: their enclosures, whether hedge, ditches, walls, &c.
14. Bridges.—Remark their situation; their length and breadth; the materials of which they are built; their strength, whether sufficient to bear artillery: the roads leading to them: their situation, as to the turnings of the river: their purpose; if to connect towns or villages, the nature, direction, and breadth of the streets leading to them. Observe the country around, whether flat or commanding: study the best means of fortifying the bridge head; and observe the best and most expeditious mode by which the bridge may be destroyed, if necessary.
15. Mountains, Hills.—Amongst high mountains, such as the Alps, roads are very rare; it is seldom more than the vallies that are inhabited and accessible for troops: observe their slopes, if steep or rugged. Examine the positions; means of gaining the summits; and note the state of cultivation and general appearance of the vallies; the pasturage, forage, cottages, villages, castles, roads, paths, and passes. Distinguish the principal chains of hills and their direction. Their relative heights; whether they are sufficiently extensive to form a line of defence; their communications; their strong points; positions proper for batteries, &c. Whether practicable for cavalry and artillery.
16. Coasts.—Their nature; whether bordered by downs; surrounded by rocks, which render their approach dangerous; or by shoals, which make their access impracticable; note the points and headlands proper for forts and batteries to defend the anchorage, ports, harbours, or other accessible parts. If there are any adjacent isles, perhaps they will serve for the erection of advanced batteries, to form a barrier to the efforts of an enemy. Observe the nature of the shores, bays, roads for shipping, &c. with the winds required to go in and out the harbours; and whether they are of easy access: their advantages and disadvantages, their size and depth of water. If a river empties itself on the coast, observe the particular channel for shipping, and whether it can be defended by any of the batteries. If the coast is already fortified, observe all the batteries, forts, or intrenchments, established for its defence, and the protection of the anchorage, &c. Examine the camps and other military posts, which cover the principal points, and the interior of the country. Estimate all the dangers to be run, and all the obstacles to be overcome in a descent, and point out the means of augmenting them. Observe the time of the tide most favourable for approaching the coast. Ascertain the number of artillery and other troops constantly on the coast, and the force that can be collected at a short notice; and how soon they can be drawn to any particular point attacked. Examine the system of defence adopted, and endeavour to improve it.
17. Forts, Redoubts.—Remark their form, whether ancient or modern; whether they are permanent or temporary; elevated or low; revetted or demi-revetted, with stone, brick, or turf. Whether the ditch is wet or dry; fraized or palissaded; natural or artificial. Observe their situation; the face of the adjacent country; whether they effectually command the passes, or protect the country intended. The defence they are capable of making in their present state, and the improvements of which they are susceptible.
18. Castles, Citadels.—Their situation; their form; their extent; their object; the protection they give the city; their connection and communication with it. The present state of their defence, and the improvements of which they are susceptible. Their Souterraines.
19. Villages.—Observe their situation; ascertain the number of families they contain; the nature of the land; the quality and quantity of their crops; their markets; the suburbs that supply these markets; their beasts of burthen: their flocks, herds, poultry, &c. The number of their ovens; quality of the water; stile of houses, barns, stables, and sheep walks. The situation of the church; the nature of the church yard, and its enclosures. The wind and water mills. Observe whether the village is surrounded by hedges, ditches, banks, or walls; whether it can be easily intrenched. Its streets; roads leading to it; and the face of the surrounding country.
20. Cities not fortified.—Their situation; population; commerce; commodities; manufactures; the succours that may be drawn from them, as to men, horses, &c. Their squares and principal buildings. The defence they are susceptible of; whether they are surrounded by walls, old towers, ditches, &c. Their gates, and the roads leading to them. The face of the surrounding country.
21. Fortified Towns.—Their situation with respect to their position, and with respect to other towns in the neighbourhood, whether in the first or second line; the assistance which they can afford each other. The succours that may be drawn from them, or that may be thrown into them in case of a siege. The direction which such relief, whether of men or provisions, ought to take, according to the side attacked; whether they will serve as depots or hospitals. The state of the fortifications (see the word Fortification in the alphabet;) their nature; the strength of each front. The rivers in the neighbourhood; the surrounding country within the range of the guns. The form of investment; what lines will be required considering the nature of the country, and the positions; and the means the country affords of executing them. The advantages which the ground would afford between the glacis and the lines, either to the besiegers or besieged; the means of establishing the most certain communications between the different quarters of the army, and the means of cutting them off.
22. Positions.—Every military position ought to possess decided advantages of situation, and ought to be commanded in no part of its front, flank, or rear. All commanding grounds ought to be without the range of cannon. There are four principal objects to be attended to in the choice of a position: 1st. The advantages of the ground; 2d. The supplies for the army; 3d. The objects to be attained; and, 4th. The communications with the rear. The front of a position should be intersected by rivers, ravines, or broken ground, or any other obstacles which can prevent the enemy advancing in order of battle, and oblige him to pass through defilés; but a position becomes useless when the front is so covered by obstacles that the army cannot advance or move out of its camp when necessary; but no obstacles can be too great on the flanks. All obstacles which cover a position, or passes which lead to it, must be within the range of the artillery, or the enemy will pass them unmolested. In a flat country, where the ground does not afford commanding situations, a position is only more or less eligible, as being covered or protected by obstacles; these are very thick woods, in which there are very few roads; large rivulets which cannot be forded or passed without bridges; narrow roads; deep and broken ravines; ground much intersected with hedges, ditches, &c. but it is essential that all these obstacles should be under the fire of the artillery. It is always dangerous to occupy a position, which has its rear so covered by swamps, crossed by rivers or ravines, &c. as to render the retreat of the army difficult. The number of passes by which an army can retire must be examined and secured, and should never be less than 5 or 6. The rivers, brooks, &c. in front of a position, should never be depended upon for a supply of water, as the enemy may cut them off. The ground for a camp should not be too much intersected by hedges, ditches, or ravines, which occasion great intervals in the line, and obstruct the communications through the camp.
In an offensive position it is absolutely necessary that the army should not be too much confined by obstacles, but be at liberty to act in every direction; but in a defensive position, the fewer accessible points there are the better: and if the natural difficulties in front and flank are not sufficient to render an enemy’s attack dangerous, they must be increased by redoubts, intrenchments, abbatis, inundations, &c. The obstacles on the flanks, should also be of such extent that they cannot be easily turned, without the enemy makes a very great circuit; and consequently exposes his own flank, and weakens his line of communication. In case the enemy detaches a body to attack a defensive position in the rear; the front must be sufficiently strong to enable the general to oppose the enemy’s detachment, by a strong body from his own army. In short, the enemy must not be able by any manœuvre to force the army to quit its position. The want of wood or water, or other supplies absolutely necessary for an army, renders every other advantage of a position useless; nor, can a position be long tenable, that is far removed from its depots; and has not its intermediate posts perfectly secure from the attacks of an enemy. For further remarks upon positions, see the word Artillery in the Field.