POLITICAL FRAGMENTS OF THE PYTHAGOREANS.

FROM THE TREATISE OF HIPPODAMUS THE THURIAN ON A REPUBLIC.

I say that the whole of a polity is divided into three parts. And one part, indeed, consists of good men, who manage the public affairs. But the second part consists of those who are powerful. And the third part is composed of those who are employed in supplying and procuring the necessaries of life. I denominate, however, the first multitude [in a polity] that which consults [for the good of the whole]; the second, that which is auxiliary; and the third, that which pertains to mechanical and sordid occupations. Of these also, I say that the two first belong to those whose condition in life is liberal; but the third, to those who labour to procure subsistence. And of these indeed, that which consults is the best; but that which is employed in sordid occupations is the worst; and that which is auxiliary, is a medium between the two. That which consults likewise [for the general good] ought to govern; but that which is engaged in sordid occupations ought to be governed: and that which is auxiliary ought both to govern and be governed. For that which consults for the general good previously deliberates what ought to be done; but that which is of an auxiliary nature, so far as it is belligerent, rules over the whole of the mechanical tribe; but so far as it antecedently receives counsel from others, is itself governed.

Of these parts, however, each again receives a triple division. For of that which consults, one part presides, another governs, and another counsels for the general good. And with respect to the part which presides, it is that which plans, contrives, and deliberates about what pertains to the community, prior to the other parts, and afterwards refers its counsels to the senate. But the governing part is either that which now rules [for the first time], or which has before performed that office. And with respect to the third part, which consults for the general good, this receives the advice of the parts prior to itself, and confirms by its suffrages and authority whatever is referred to its decision. And, in short, it is requisite that those who preside should refer the affairs of the community to that part which consults for the general good; but that this latter part should refer these affairs through the Prætors to the Convention.

In a similar manner also of that part which is auxiliary, powerful, and efficacious, one part is of a governing nature; another part is defensive; and the remaining, which is the greater part, is gregal and military. It is the governing part, therefore, from which the leaders of armies, the præfects of cohorts, the bands of soldiers, and the vanguards are derived, and universally all those who rank as leaders. But the whole genus of the vanguards consists of those that are most brave, most impetuous, and most daring. And the remaining multitude is gregarious and military. Of the third part, however, which is engaged in sordid occupations, and in labouring to procure the necessaries of life, one part consists of husbandmen, and those who are employed in the elaboration of the land; but another part consists of artificers, who procure such instruments and machines as the occasions of life require; and another part is engaged in peregrinations and merchandise, and in exporting to foreign regions such things as are superabundant in the city, and importing into it other things from foreign countries. The systems of political society, therefore, are coarranged through so many and such like parts.

In the next place, it is requisite to speak of their adaptation and union. Since, however, the whole of political society may be perfectly assimilated to a lyre, in consequence of requiring apparatus and coaptation, and also because it is necessary that it should be touched and used musically;—this being the case, I have sufficiently spoken above about the apparatus of a polity, and shown from what and from how many particulars it is constituted. I shall now, therefore, endeavour to speak of the coaptation and union of these. I say then, that political society is coadapted from the following three particulars, from disciplines, the study of manners [or customs], and from the laws; and that through these three, man is instructed, and becomes more worthy. For disciplines are the sources of erudition, and cause the desires to be impelled to virtue. But the laws, partly detaining by fear, repell men [from the commission of crimes,] and partly alluring by honours and gifts, excite them [to virtue]. And manners and studies fashion the soul like wax, and through their continued energy impress in it propensities that become, as it were, natural. It is necessary, however, that these three should have an arrangement in conjunction with the beautiful, the useful, and the just; and that each of these three should, if possible, have all these for its final intention; but if not all of them, it should at least have two or one of them as the mark at which it aims, in order that disciplines, manners, and laws may be beautiful, just, and advantageous. In the first place, however, the beautiful in conduct should be preferred; in the second place the just; and in the third place, the useful. And universally the endeavour should be, that through these the city may become, in the most eminent degree, consentaneous and concordant with its parts, and may be free from sedition and hostile contention. But this will be effected, if the passions in the souls of youth are disciplined, and in things pleasing and painful are led to mediocrity, and if the possessions of men are moderate, and they derive their subsistence from the cultivation of the earth. And this will also be accomplished, if good men rule over those that are in want of virtue; skilful men over those that are deficient in skill; and rich men over those things that require a certain largess and expenditure; and if also appropriate honours are distributed to those who govern in all these in a becoming manner. But there are three causes which are incitements to virtue, viz. fear, desire, and shame. The law, however, is able to produce fear, but custom shame: for those that have been accustomed to act well, will be ashamed to do any thing that is base. And disciplines are capable of producing desire. For they at one and the same time assign the causes of things, and attract the soul, and they especially effect this when they are accompanied with exhortation. Hence it is necessary that the souls of young men should be sufficiently instructed in what pertains to senates, fellowship, and associations, both military and political, but that the tribe of elderly men should be coadapted to things of this kind; since young men, indeed, require correction and instruction, but elderly men are in want of benevolent associations, and a mode of living unattended with pain.

Since, therefore, we have said, that the worthy man is perfected through three things, viz. through customs, laws, and disciplines, it is requisite to consider how customs or manners are usually corrupted, and how they become permanent. We shall find, then, that customs are corrupted in two ways: for they are either corrupted through ourselves or through foreigners. And through ourselves, indeed, either through our flying from pain, or through our pursuit of pleasure. For in consequence of flying from pain, we do not endure labour; and through our pursuit of pleasure, we reject what is good. Labours, however, procure good for mankind; but pleasures evil. Hence men through pleasures, becoming incontinent and remiss, are rendered effeminate in their souls, and more profuse in their expenses. But customs and manners are corrupted through foreigners, when a multitude of these dwelling with us, rejoice in the success of their emporetic employment; or when those who dwell in the suburbs, being lovers of pleasure and luxury, impart their manners to the neighbouring inhabitants. On this account it is necessary that the legislators, and prefects of the mass of the people, should diligently observe whether the customs of the city are carefully preserved, and proceed equally through all the citizens. And farther still, they should observe whether the genuine and indigenous multitude, of which the polity consists, remains pure and unmingled with any other nation; and whether the magnitude of possessions remains in the same state, and does not become excessive. For the possession of superfluities is accompanied by the desire of still more of the superfluous. After this manner, therefore, customs ought to be rendered secure.

With respect to disciplines, however, the same legislators and præfects should diligently inspect and examine the tribe of sophists, whether they teach what is useful to the laws, to political dogmas, and to the peculiar economy of life. For the doctrines of the sophists ingenerate in the souls of men, no casual but the greatest infelicity; when they dare to make innovation in any thing pertaining either to human or divine concerns, contrary to common conceptions; than which nothing can be more pernicious either with respect to truth, or security, or renown. And in addition to this, also, they introduce darkness and confusion into the minds of the vulgar. But of this kind are all such doctrines as either teach that there is no God, or if there is, that he is not so affected towards the human race, as to look to it with providential attention, but deserts and despises it. For doctrines of this kind produce in men folly and injustice, to an extent which it is not easy to narrate. For every man who is full of anarchy, and who has shaken off the fear of disobedience [to rulers and the laws], wantonly exults, and violates the laws. Hence it is necessary to employ political and venerable assertions, which are adapted to the disposition of the speaker, and which are void of dissimulation. For thus what is said will exhibit the manners of the speaker. From the laws, however, security will thus be necessarily introduced, if the polity is composed and coarranged from every thing which is according to nature, and not from such things as are preternatural. For cities derive no advantage from a tyranny, and very little from an oligarchy. It is necessary, therefore, that a kingdom should be established in the first place; and in the second place, an aristocracy. For a kingdom, indeed, is a thing imitative of God, and which is with difficulty preserved and defended by the human soul. For it is rapidly changed through luxury and insolence. Hence it is not proper to employ it universally, but only so far as it may be useful to the polity; but an aristocracy should be more abundantly interwoven in it, because it consists of many rulers, who emulate each other, and who often alternately govern. It is also entirely necessary that a democracy should be introduced. For as a citizen is a part of the whole polity, it is requisite that he should receive a certain reward from it[10]. But it is necessary that he should be sufficiently restrained. For the vulgar are audacious and precipitate.

FROM THE TREATISE OF DIOTOGENES ON SANCTITY.

It is necessary that the laws should not be enclosed in houses, and by gates, but in the manners of the citizens. What, therefore, is the principle of every polity? The education of youth. For vines will never bear useful fruit, unless they are well cultivated; nor will horses ever become excellent, if colts are not properly trained. For recently produced fruit receives a figure especially similar to that which touches and is near to it. And men prudently attend to the manner in which vines ought to be cut and taken care of; but in things pertaining to the education of their own species, they conduct themselves negligently and rashly; though neither vines nor wine govern men, but man and the soul of man. And we commit the nurture of a plant, indeed, to a man of some worth, and think that he who takes care of it, deserves no less than two mina; but we commit the education of youth to some Illyrian or Thracian, who are men of no worth. The first legislators, however, as they could not render the middle class of mankind stable, adjoined [in their education] dancing and rhythm, which participate of motion alone and order; and besides these they added sports, some of which exhorted them to fellowship, but others to truth and mental acuteness. In a similar manner also they instituted for those who through intoxication or repletion had committed any crime, the pipe and harmony, by which they gave an arrangement to the mind, so that the manners being matured and rendered mild, they might be capable of being adorned.

FROM THE TREATISE OF ARCHYTAS ON LAW AND JUSTICE.

I say that every [political] association consists of a governor and the governed; and of a third thing, viz. the laws. Of laws, however, one is animated, viz. a king; but another inanimate, viz. written law. The first law, therefore, is animated[11]; and if it is observed, the king will be legitimate; the magistrate will be consentaneous; the subject will be free; and the whole community will be happy. But if both the animated and written laws are transgressed, the king will be a tyrant; the magistrate unfit for his office; the subject a slave; and the whole community unhappy. For actions form a continued series from governing, the being governed, and, in the third place, from subjugation. To govern, therefore, is the province of that which is more, but to be governed, of that which is less excellent, and to be subjugated, pertains to both these. For that part of the soul which is rational governs, the part which is irrational is governed, and both are vanquished by the passions. For virtue is produced from the apt conjunction of both these parts; and she leads the soul from pleasures and pains to tranquillity and apathy[12].

AND IN ANOTHER PART OF THE SAME WORK.

It will be beneficial to the community, if law is not monarchical, and advantageous [only] to a private individual, but if it is generally useful, and extends to every one. But it is also necessary that the law should look to the whole region, and to the different places in it. For neither is the earth able to receive the same fruits [every where] nor the soul of every man the same virtue[13].

IN ANOTHER PART ALSO OF THE SAME WORK.

But it is necessary that the more excellent law and the city should be composed of every other polity, and should have something of a democracy, of an oligarchy, of a kingdom, and of an aristocracy; as is the case in Lacedæmon. For the kings there are monarchs; the elders form an aristocracy; the ephori an oligarchy; and the ippagretæ[14] and the young men a democracy. It is necessary, however, that law should not only be good and beautiful, but that it should also reciprocate in its parts: for thus it will be strong and stable. But when I say it should reciprocate, I mean that the same magistrate should alternately govern and be governed, as in Lacedæmon, in which there are the most equitable laws. For there the ephori are opposed to the kings, the elders to the ephori, and the media between these are the young men, and the ippagretæ; for these last both incline to those rulers that excel in power, and are in subjection to others.

It is necessary that the law should, in the first place, establish what pertains to the gods, to dæmons and parents, and, in short, to what is beautiful and honourable. But in the second place, it should establish what pertains to things that are useful. For it is fit that minor concerns should be subsequent to such as are greater. Nor should the laws be contained in houses and gates, but in the manners of the citizens. For neither in Lacedæmon, which possesses the most excellent laws, is the city governed by a multitude of writings, but rather by the manners of the subjects. But it will be beneficial to the community, if law is not monarchical, and advantageous [only] to a private individual, but if it is generally useful, and extends to every one; and if it refers punishment to disgrace and ignominy, and not to the loss of property. For by punishing with disgrace, the citizens will endeavour in the most decorous and useful manner, to avoid the punishment ordained by the laws. But if the punishment is pecuniary, the citizens will value money immoderately, and will conceive it to be the greatest remedy of crimes. It will be best, therefore, for the whole city to be so arranged that it may not be in want of any thing external, either with respect to virtue or power, or any other cause. For thus the body, a family, and an army will be beautifully constituted, when each of these has the cause of safety in itself, and does not derive it externally. And this, indeed, will be the case with the body when it is strong, with a family when it is well composed, and with an army which neither consists of mercenaries, nor is unexercised. For these, when thus constituted, will be far more excellent than others, and will be free indeed, and foreign from every thing of a servile nature; and will not, for the purpose of endurance, be in want of many things, but of a few, and those easily procured. For thus he who is strong will not sink under burdens, and he who is thinly clothed will vanquish cold; since men are exercised by casualties and calamities. Indeed, to the man who is temperate, and who has laboured much both in body and soul, all meat and drink will appear to be agreeable; and a bed composed of leaves will be pleasant; but to him who has deliberately chosen a luxurious and Sybaritic life, even the apparatus of the great [or Persian] king would not be sufficiently pleasing. Hence it is necessary that the manners and pursuits of the citizens should be deeply tinctured with law: for this will cause them to be sufficient to themselves, and will be the means of distributing to each of them that which is due to him according to his desert. For thus, also, the sun, moving in a circle through the zodiac, distributes to every thing on the earth generation, nutriment, and an appropriate portion of life; administering, as if it were equitable legislation, the excellent temperature of the seasons. Hence, too, Jupiter is called Nomios, or legal; and Nemeios, or the distributor. He, likewise, who distributes nutriment to sheep, is called Nomeus, or a shepherd; and the songs of harpers are denominated Nomai. For these properly dispose the parts of the soul by harmony, rhythms, and measures.

ON THE MUTATIONS OF POLITIES, FROM THE TREATISE OF HIPPODAMUS ON A POLITY.

Every thing mortal, by a necessity of nature, is conversant with mutations; some things, indeed, receiving a revolution from a worse to a better condition, but others from a better to a worse. For things that are generated, are increased; when increased, arrive at their acme: after this become old, and at length finally perish. And things, indeed, which are generated by nature, through the same nature terminate in the immanifest; and again from the immanifest accede to mortality, through a permutation of generation; and, by a reciprocation of corruption, form a circular retrogression. And some things, through human folly, from an ebullition of insolence and satiety, when both houses and cities have been exalted to the summit of human felicity, and been exuberantly rich, have perished, together with their much applauded possessions. Thus, also, it happens that every empire is bounded by three times: by one, indeed, and that the first, which comprehends in itself acquisition; by the second, which comprehends fruition; and by the last, which brings with it destruction. For empires at their commencement being destitute of the goods of fortune, are busied in acquisition; but afterwards becoming prosperous, they perish. Such things, therefore, as are under the dominion of the gods, being incorruptible, are preserved through the whole of time by incorruptible natures; but such things as are under the government of men, being mortal, receive from mortals a perpetually various mutation. For the end, indeed, of satiety and lascivious insolence is destruction; but a strenuous and worthy life is the end of poverty and narrow circumstances. Not only poverty, however, but many other things bring human life to an end.

FROM DIOTOGENES IN HIS TREATISE CONCERNING A KINGDOM.

A king should be one who is most just; and he will be most just who pays the greatest attention to the laws. For without justice no one will be a king; and without law there can be no justice. For that which is just is just through law, which is the effective cause of justice. But a king is either animated law, or a legal ruler. And hence it follows that he will be most just and most observant of the laws. There are, however, three peculiar employments of a king; viz. to lead an army, to administer justice, and to worship the gods. He will, therefore, be able to lead an army properly, if he knows how to carry on war in a becoming manner. But he will be skilled in administering justice, and in governing all his subjects, if he has well learned the nature of justice and law. And he will worship the gods in a pious and holy manner, if he has diligently considered the nature and virtue of God; so that a good king must necessarily be a good general, judge, and priest. For these are things consequent and suitable to the transcendency and virtue of a king. For it is the province of the pilot to preserve the ship, of the charioteer to preserve the chariot, and of the physician to save the sick; but it belongs to a king and to a general to save those who are in danger in battle. For of that of which any one is the leader, he is also the provident inspector and artificer. But to be conversant with judicial affairs is, indeed, a universal thing; but is particularly the proper work of a king; who, like a god, is a leader and protector in the world. And universally, indeed, it is fit that the whole polity should be coadapted to one ruler and empire; but, especially, that things which have the relation of parts should accord with the same harmony and supreme domination. Farther still, it is the province of a king to oblige and benefit his subjects, but this not without, justice and law. And the third thing which is adapted to the dignity of a king is the worship of the gods. For it is necessary that what is most excellent should be honoured by the most excellent; and that which is the leader and ruler, by that which leads and rules. Of things, therefore, which are by nature most honourable, God is the best; but of things on the earth, and pertaining to men, a king is the most excellent. As God also is to the world, so is a king to the city [which he governs]; and as a city is to the world, so is a king to God. For a city, indeed, being coadapted from things which are many and different, imitates the coarrangement and harmony of the world; but a king who possesses an innoxious dominion, and who is himself animated law, exhibits the form of God among men.

AND IN ANOTHER PART OF THE SAME TREATISE.

Hence it is necessary that a king should not be vanquished by pleasure, but that he should vanquish it; that he should not be similar to, but far excel the multitude; and that he should not conceive his proper employment to consist in the pursuit of pleasure, but rather in the acquisition of probity. At the same time also it is fit that he who has occasion to rule over others should first be able to govern his own passions.

But with respect to the desire of obtaining great property, it must be observed, that a king ought to be wealthy in order that he may benefit his friends, relieve those that are in want, and justly punish his enemies. For the enjoyment of prosperity in conjunction with virtue is most delightful. The same thing must be said concerning the transcendency of a king. For since he always surpasses others in virtue, it is fit to form a judgment of his empire with reference to virtue, and not with reference to riches, or power, or his military strength. For he possesses one of these [viz. riches] in common with any casual persons; another [viz. power] in common with irrational animals; and the last in common with tyrants. But virtue is alone the peculiarity of good men. Hence, whatever king is temperate with respect to pleasures, liberal with respect to money, and prudent and most skilful in governing, he will be in reality a king. The people, however, have the same analogy with respect to the virtues and the vices, as the parts of the human soul. For the desire of accumulating more than is fit subsists about the irrational part of the soul: for desire is not rational[15]. But ambition and ferocity subsist about the irascible part: for this is the fervid and strenuous part of the soul. And the love of pleasure subsists about the epithymetic part: for this is the effeminate and yielding part of the soul. But injustice, which is the most perfect vice, and is of a composite nature, subsists about the whole soul. Hence it is necessary that the king should coharmonize like a lyre the city that is furnished with good laws, first establishing in himself the most just boundary and order of law, as knowing that the proper arrangement of the people, over whom divinity has given him dominion, ought to be coadapted to this boundary. It is also necessary that a good king should establish becoming positions and habits in the delivery of public orations, conducting himself politically, seriously, and earnestly, in order that he may neither appear to be rough to the multitude; nor may be contemptible; but may be agreeable and easy in his manners. He will however obtain these things, if in the first place he is venerable in his aspect and his discourse, and appears to deserve the sovereign authority which he possesses. But, in the second place, if he proves himself to be benign from his behaviour to those whom he may happen to meet, from his countenance and his beneficence. And in the third place, if he is formidable from his hatred of depravity, from the punishment which he inflicts on it, from his celerity in inflicting it, and, in short, from his skill and exercise in the art of government. For venerable gravity, being a thing which imitates divinity, is capable of causing him to be admired and honoured by the multitude. Benignity will render him pleasing and beloved. And his being formidable will cause him to be terrible to and unconquered by his enemies, and magnanimous and confident to his friends.

It is necessary, however, that his gravity should have nothing in it of an abject or vulgar nature, but that it should be admirable, and such as becomes the dignity of empire and a sceptre. Nor should he ever contend with his inferiors, or his equals, but with those that are greater than himself; and he should conceive, conformably to the magnitude of his empire, that those pleasures are the greatest which are derived from beautiful and great deeds, and not those which arise from sensual gratifications; separating himself indeed from human passions, and approximating to the Gods, not through arrogance, but through magnanimity and an invincible transcendency of virtue. Hence he should invest himself with such a gracefulness and majesty in his aspect and his reasonings, in the conceptions of his mind, in the manners of his soul, and in his actions and the motions and gesture of his body, that those who survey him may perceive that he is adorned and fashioned with modesty and temperance, and a decorous disposition. For a good king should convert to himself the souls of those that behold him, no less than the sound of a flute and harmony attract the attention of those that hear them. And thus much concerning the venerable gravity of a king.

But I shall now endeavour to speak of his benignity. Universally, therefore, every king will be benign, if he is just, equitable, and beneficent. For justice is a connective and collective communion, and is alone that disposition of the soul which adapts itself to those that are near to us. For as rhythm is to motion, and harmony to the voice, so is justice to communion; since it is the common good of those that govern, and those that are governed, because it coharmonizes political society. But equity and benignity are certain assessors of justice; the former indeed softening the severity of punishment; but the latter extending pardon to less guilty offenders. It is necessary, however, that a good king should give assistance to those that are in want of it, and be beneficent. But his assistance should be given not in one way only, but in every possible way. And it is requisite to be beneficent, not looking to the magnitude of honour, but to the manner and deliberate choice of him by whom honour is conferred. It is likewise necessary that a worthy king should so conduct himself towards all men as to avoid being troublesome to them, but especially towards men of an inferior rank and of a slender fortune: for these, like diseased bodies, can endure nothing of a troublesome nature. Good kings, indeed, have dispositions similar to those of the Gods, and which especially resemble those of Jupiter, the ruler of all things. For he is venerable and honourable, through transcendency and magnitude of virtue. He is benign, because he is beneficent, and the giver of good; and hence he is said by the Ionic poet [Homer] to be the father of men and Gods. He is also terrible and transcendent, because he punishes the unjust, and reigns and rules over all things. But he carries thunder in his hand, as a symbol of his formidable excellence. From all these particulars, therefore, it is requisite to remember that a kingdom is a God-resembling thing.

FROM THE TREATISE OF STHENIDAS THE LOCRIAN, ON A KINGDOM.

It is requisite that a king should be a wise man: for thus he will be honoured analogously to the first God, of whom also he will be an imitator. For this god is by nature the first king and potentate; but a king is so by birth and imitation. And the former rules in the universe, and in the whole of things; but the latter in the earth. The former also governs all things eternally, and has a never-failing life, possessing wisdom in himself; but the latter acquires science through time. But a king will imitate the first God in the most excellent manner, if he acquires magnanimity, gravity, and the want of but few things; exhibiting to his subjects a paternal disposition. For on this account especially, the first God is conceived to be the father both of Gods and men, because he is mild to every thing which is in subjection to him, and never ceases to govern with providential regard. Nor is he alone satisfied with being the maker of all things, but he is the nourisher, the preceptor of every thing beautiful, and the legislator to all things equally. Such also ought the king to be who rules over men on the earth. Nothing however is beautiful which is deprived of a king and a ruler. But it is not possible for a king or a ruler [properly so called] to exist without wisdom and science. He, therefore, who is a wise man and a king, will be an imitator, and a legitimate minister of God.

FROM THE TREATISE OF ECPHANTUS, THE CROTONIAN, ON A KINGDOM.

That the nature of every animal is adapted to the world, and to the things contained in the world, appears to me to be evident from many arguments. For every animal thus conspiring [into union and consent], and having such a colligation of its parts, it follows a series which is most excellent, and at the same time necessary, through the attractive flux of the universe about it, which is effective of the general ornament of the world, and the peculiar permanency of every thing which it contains. Hence it is called κοσμος kosmos, and is the most perfect of all animals. But in its parts, which are many, and naturally different, a certain animal excels; both from its native alliance to the world[16], and from participating of divinity in a greater degree. [And in the nature, indeed, of the God who is eternal, the stars called planets are comprehended, forming the first and the greatest series[17]]. But in the sublunary region, where bodies move in a right line, the nature of demons has its subsistence. And in the earth, and with us, the most excellent nature is man; but the most divine is a king, who surpasses other men in the common nature: in his tabernacle, indeed, [i.e. in his body], resembling other men, as being generated from the same matter, but fashioned from the best of artificers, who fabricated him, by using himself as the archetype. Hence, in a certain respect, a king is one and alone; being the production of the supernal king, with whom he is always familiar: but being beheld by his subjects in his kingdom as in a splendid light. For a kingdom is judged and proved to resemble the eagle, the most excellent of winged animals, which looks undazzled at the sun. And a kingdom is, indeed, analogous to the sun, because it is divine; and through excess of splendour cannot be seen without difficulty, except by genuine eyes. For the numerous splendours which surround it, and the dark vertigos which it produces in those who survey it, as if they had ascended into a foreign altitude, evinces that their eyes are spurious. But those who can fitly arrive thither, on account of their familiarity with, and alliance to it, are able to use it properly. A kingdom, therefore, is a thing pure, genuine, uncorrupted, and through transcendency, most divine; and difficult to be acceded to by man. Hence it is necessary that he who is established in it should be naturally most pure and pellucid [in his soul], in order that he may not obscure by his stains that which is most splendid; as some persons defile the most sacred places, and the impure pollute those they may happen to meet. But it is requisite that a king, who associates with men, should participate of an undefiled nature, and should know how much more divine both himself and his qualifications are than other things; and from the exemplars to which he assimilates himself, he should use both himself and his subjects in the best manner. And to other men, indeed, if they are delinquents, the most holy purification is for them to be assimilated to their rulers, whether law or a king administers their affairs. But kings who cannot find any thing on the earth to imitate more excellent than their own nature, ought not to wander any farther in search of a paradigm, but should immediately become benefited by imitating God. For neither should any one search for the world, since he exists in, and is a part of it; nor should he who governs others be ignorant of him by whom he is governed. This, however, is a most abundant ornament, that nothing [in the universe] can be found without a ruler.

The manners of a king also ought to be the preceptors of his government. For thus the beauty of it will immediately shine forth, since he who imitates God through virtue will be dear to him whom he imitates; and much more will he be dear to his subjects. For no one who is beloved by divinity will be hated by men; since neither do the stars, nor the whole world hate God. For if they hated their ruler and leader, they would never be obedient to him. But because he governs properly, mundane affairs are well governed. I therefore, indeed, apprehend that the terrene king ought not to be deficient in any one of the virtues which pertain to the celestial king. But as the former is a certain foreign and external thing, in consequence of proceeding to men from the heavens; so, likewise, his virtues may be conceived to be the works of God, and to accede to him through divinity. And if you consider the thing from the beginning, you will find what I say to be true. For the terrestrial king obtains possession of the race of men by a communion, which is the first and the most necessary of all things. And this race is also the possession of him who governs every thing in the universe. For it is impossible that any thing can subsist without friendship and communion; the truth of which may be easily seen, if the accustomed communion which exists among citizens is supposed to be destroyed; since this is much inferior to a divine and royal nature. For natures of this kind are not oppressed by any such indigence; but, conformably to intellect, they supply the wants of others, and afford them assistance in common. For they are perfect in virtue. But the friendship which is in a city, and which possesses a certain common end, imitates the concord of the universe. But without the arrangement of magistrates no city can be inhabited. In order, however, to effect this arrangement, and to preserve the city, laws are necessary, and a certain political domination, and also a governor and the governed. But, the consequence of these things is, the general good, a certain concinnity, and the consent of the multitude in conjunction with concordant persuasion. He, likewise, who governs according to virtue, is called a king, and is so [in reality]; since he possesses the same friendship and communion with his subjects as divinity possesses with the world, and the natures which it contains. All benevolence, however, ought to be exerted; in the first place, indeed, by the king towards his subjects; but in the second place, by the subjects towards the king: and this benevolence should be such as that of a parent towards his child, of a shepherd towards his flock, and of law towards him who uses it.

For there is one virtue pertaining to the government, and to the life of men. But no one should through indigence solicit the assistance of others, when he is able to supply himself with what nature requires. For though there is a general communion [in the city], yet every one should so live as to be sufficient to himself; since he who is sufficient to himself does not appear to require the aid of any other person in his passage through life. If, therefore, it is necessary to lead an active life, it is evident that a king, though he should also assume other things, will, nevertheless, be sufficient to himself. For he will have friends through his own virtue; and in using these, he will not use them by any other virtue than that by which he regulates his own life. For it is necessary that he should follow a virtue of this kind, since he cannot procure any thing which is more excellent. And God, indeed, not having either ministers or servants[18], nor employing any mandate, and neither crowning nor proclaiming those that are obedient to him, or disgracing those that are disobedient, thus administers so great an empire. But as it appears to me exhibiting himself to be most worthy of imitation, he inserts in all things a vehement desire of participating his nature. He is, however, good; and the communication of goodness, and this, with the greatest facility, is his only work. But those who imitate him[19], accomplish every thing in a better manner through this imitation. And the imitation of him is to every thing the source of sufficiency. For there is not one virtue which makes things to be acceptable to God, and another which imitates him; [but both these are effected by one and the same virtue]. And is not our terrestrial king in a similar manner sufficient to himself? For assimilating himself to one, and that the most excellent nature, he will beneficently endeavour to render all whom he governs similar to himself. But such as offer violence to, and compel their subjects, entirely[20] destroy in every individual of the community a promptitude to imitate [that which is most excellent]. For without benevolence, it is impossible there can be assimilation; since benevolence especially destroys every thing of a terrific nature. It is much to be wished, indeed, that human nature was not in want of persuasion: for persuasion is the relic of human depravity, of which this temporary animal [man] is not destitute. Persuasion, indeed, is a thing proximate to necessity; since this first of itself performs those things which fly from necessity. Such beings, however, as spontaneously use what is beautiful and good, are not influenced by the reverence of persuasion; for neither are they influenced by the fear of necessity.

Again, a king alone is capable of effecting this good in human nature, that through the imitation of what is more excellent, man may pursue what is fit and decorous; and that those who are corrupted as if by intoxication, and through a bad education have fallen into an oblivion of that which is more excellent, may through his eloquence be corroborated, may have their diseased minds healed, and the oblivion which dwells in them through depravity being expelled, may have memory for an intimate associate, from which persuasion is produced. For this, though it originates from depraved seeds, yet is the source of a certain good to the inhabitants of the terrestrial region, in which language supplies what is deficient (through the imbecility of our nature), in our converse with each other.

AND IN ANOTHER PART OF THE SAME WORK.

He who has a sacred and divine conception of things, will be in reality a king[21]. For being persuaded by this, he will be the cause of all good but of no evil. And, moreover, that he will be just, being fitted for society, is evident to every one. For communion or association consists in equality, and in the distribution of it. And justice indeed precedes, but communion participates. For it is impossible for a man to be unjust, and yet distribute equality; or that he should distribute equality, and yet not be adapted to association. But how is it possible that he who is sufficient to himself should not be continent? For sumptuousness is the mother of incontinence, and incontinence of wanton insolence, from which so many human evils are derived. But self-sufficiency is not vanquished by sumptuousness, nor by any thing which proceeds from it; but being itself a certain principle, it leads all things, but is not led by any thing. And to govern, indeed, is the province of God, and also of a king (on which account, likewise, he is denominated sufficient to himself); but it pertains to both, not to be governed by any one. It is, however, evident, that these things cannot be effected without prudence. And it is manifest that God is the intellectual prudence of the world. For the world is connectedly contained by gracefulness, and a fit order of things, which cannot take place without intellect. Nor is it possible for a king without prudence to possess these virtues; I mean justice, continence, communion, and such other virtues as are the sisters of these.

FROM ARCHYTAS.

The unwritten laws of the gods were promulgated against depraved manners, inflicting a severe destiny and penalty on the disobedient; and these unwritten laws are the fathers and leaders of those that are written, and of the dogmas established by men.

FROM THE TREATISE OF DIOTOGENES ON SANCTITY.

It is proper to invoke God in the beginning both of supper and dinner, not because he is in want of any thing of this kind, but in order that the soul may be adorned by the recollection of Divinity. For since we proceed from him, and participate of a divine nature, it is requisite that we should honour him. And since God also is just, it is fit that we should act justly in all things. In the next place, there are four causes which terminate all things, and bring them to an end, viz. nature, law, art, and fortune. And nature, indeed, is universally the principle of all things. But of those things which from manners lead to political concord, law is the inspective guardian and fabricator. Of things which obtain their consummation through human prudence, art is justly said to be the mother and leader. And of those things which, casually and accidentally, similarly befall the worthy and the depraved, we assert fortune to be the cause. For fortune does not produce any thing in measure and bound, in an orderly and prudent manner.

THE PREFACE OF CHARONDAS, THE CATANEAN, TO HIS TREATISE OF LAWS.

It is requisite that those who deliberate about, and perform any thing, should begin from the Gods: for it is best, as the proverb says, for God to be the cause of all our deliberations and works. And, farther still, it is requisite to abstain from base actions, and especially on account of consulting with God. For there is no communication between God and him who is unjust. Every one, also, should give assistance to himself, and should incite himself to the undertaking and performance of such things as are conformable to his desert; since for a man to extend himself similarly to small and great undertakings appears to be too sordid and illiberal. Hence, you should be very careful to avoid falling vehemently into things of an extended nature, and of great consequence. But, in every undertaking, you should measure your own desert and power, in order that you may obtain honour and veneration.

Let no assistance be afforded to a man or woman who has been condemned by the city, nor let any one associate with such a person, or if he does, let him be disgraced, as being similar to him or her with whom he associates. But it is proper to love men who, from the previous decision of the city, are good, and to associate with them; and by imitating and acquiring in reality their virtue and probity, to be thus initiated in the greatest and most perfect of the mysteries. For no man is perfect without virtue. And assistance should be given to an injured citizen, whether he is in his own, or in a foreign country. But let every stranger who was venerated in his own country, and conformably to the proper laws of that country, be received and dismissed auspiciously and familiarly, calling to mind hospitable Jupiter, as a God who is established by all nations in common, and who is the inspective guardian of hospitality and inhospitality.

Let more elderly men also preside over such as are younger, so that the latter may be ashamed of and deterred from vice, through reverence and fear of the former. For in cities in which more elderly men are shameless, the children and grandchildren of these are also destitute of shame. But wanton insolence and injustice are the attendants of shamelessness and impudence. And destruction follows these. Let, however, no one be impudent[22], but let every one be modest and temperate; because he will thus have the Gods propitious to him, and will procure for himself salvation. For no vicious man is dear to divinity. Let every one likewise honour probity and truth, and hate what is base and false. For these are the indications of virtue and vice. Hence it is requisite to accustom children from their youth [to worthy manners], by punishing those that are lovers of falsehood, but being delighted with those that are lovers of truth, in order that in each that which is most beautiful, and most prolific of virtue, may be implanted. Each of the citizens, likewise, should be more anxious to pretend to be temperate than to pretend to be wise: for the pretence of wisdom is a great indication of an ignorance of probity, and is also a sign of pusillanimity. But let the pretence of temperance be considered as a true claim to it. For no one should feign with his tongue, that he performs beautiful deeds, when at the same time he is both destitute of worthy conduct and good intentions.

It is likewise requisite to preserve benevolence towards rulers, being obedient to and venerating them as if they were parents. For he who does not conceive that this is proper will suffer the punishment of bad counsel from the dæmons who are the inspective guardians of the seat of empire. For the rulers are the guardians of the city, and of the safety of the citizens.

But it is also necessary that governors should preside justly over those that are governed, in the same manner as over their own children, in passing sentence on others, laying asleep hatred, friendship, and anger.

Let those likewise be praised and celebrated who, being themselves in affluence, have assisted the indigent, and let them be considered as the saviours of the children and defenders of their country. And let the wants of those be relieved who are poor through fortune, and not through an indolent and intemperate life. For fortune is common to all men, but an indolent and intemperate life is peculiar to bad men.

Let it also be considered as a worthy deed, to point out any one who has acted unjustly, in order that the polity may be saved, which has many guardians of its decorous arrangement. But let the indicator of the unjust action be considered as a pious man, though his information should be respecting his most familiar acquaintance. For nothing is more familiar and allied to a man than his country. Let, however, the indication be made, not of things done through involuntary ignorance, but of such crimes as have been committed from a previous knowledge [of their enormity.] And if he who is detected should be hostile to him by whom he is detected, let him be hated by all men, in order that he may suffer the punishment of ingratitude, through which he deprives himself of being cured of the greatest of diseases injustice.

Farther still, let a contempt of the Gods be considered as the greatest of iniquities, and also injuring parents voluntarily, the neglecting rulers and laws, and voluntarily dishonouring justice. But let him be considered as a most just and holy citizen who honours these things, and indicates to the citizens and rulers those that despise them.

Let it be esteemed to be more venerable for a man to die for his country than, through a desire of life, to desert it, together with probity. For it is better to die well than to live basely and disgracefully.

It is likewise requisite to honour each of the dead, not with tears nor with lamentations, but with good remembrance, and with an oblation of annual fruits. For when we grieve immoderately for those that are dead, we are ungrateful to the terrestrial dæmons.

Let no one curse him by whom he has been injured. For praise is more divine than defamation.

Let him be thought to be a better citizen who is superior to anger, than him who is an offender through it.

Let not him be praised but disgraced, who, in the sumptuousness of his expence, surpasses temples and palaces. For let nothing private be more magnificent and venerable than things of a public nature.

Let him who is a slave to wealth and money be despised, as one who is pusillanimous and illiberal, and is astonished by sumptuous possessions, and let him be considered as one who leads a tragical life, and whose soul is vile. For he who is magnanimous foresees with himself all human concerns, and is not disturbed by any thing of this kind [whether prosperous or adverse], when it accedes.

Let no one speak obscenely, in order that he may not in his thoughts approach to base deeds, and that he may not fill his soul with impudence and defilement. For we call things which are decorous and lovely, by their proper names, and by those appellations which are established by law. But we abstain from naming things to which we are hostile, on account of their baseness. Let it also be considered as base, to speak of a base thing.

Let every one dearly love his lawful wife, and beget children from her. But let no one emit the seed of his children[23] into any other person; nor let him illegally consume that which is honourable both by nature and law, and act with wanton insolence. For nature produced the seed, for the sake of procreating children, and not for the sake of lust.

But it is requisite that a wife should be chaste, and should not admit the impious connection with other men, as by so doing she will subject herself to the vengeance of the dæmons, whose office it is to expel those to whom they are hostile from their houses, and to produce hatred.

Let not him be praised who gives a stepmother to his children[24], but disgraced, as being the cause of domestic dissension.

And as it is proper to observe these mandates, let him who transgresses them be obnoxious to political execration.

The law also orders that these proems should be known by all the citizens, and should be read in festivals after the pæans[25] by him who is appointed for this purpose by the master of the feast, in order that the precepts may be inserted in the minds of all that hear them.

THE PREFACE OF ZALEUCUS, THE LOCRIAN, TO HIS LAWS.

It is requisite that all those who inhabit a city and country should in the first place be firmly persuaded that there are Gods, in consequence of directing their attention to the heavens and the world, and the orderly distribution of the natures which they contain. For these are not the productions either of fortune or of men. It is also requisite to reverence and honour these, as the causes to us of every reasonable good. It is necessary, therefore, that every one should so prepare his soul that it may be free from every vice; since God is not honoured by a bad man, nor is he to be worshiped sumptuously, nor with tragical expence, like some depraved man; but by virtue, and the deliberate choice of beautiful and just deeds. Hence it is necessary that every one should be good to the utmost of his power, both in his actions and his deliberate choice, if he wishes to be dear to divinity, and should not fear the loss of money more than the loss of renown. And it is also requisite to call him a better citizen who would rather sustain a loss of property than of probity and justice.

Let, however, such things as the following be denounced by us against those who are not easily impelled to do what we have above enjoined, but whose soul is easily excited to injustice. All citizens of this kind, both male and female, and also those who live in the same house with them, should remember that there are Gods who punish the unjust, and should place before their eyes that time in which to every one there will be a final liberation from life. For all such will repent when they are about to die, from a remembrance of their unjust deeds, and from their being impelled to wish that all things had been done by them justly. Hence it is necessary that every one, in every action, should always associate to himself this time, as if it were present: for thus he will especially pay attention to probity and justice. But if an evil dæmon is present with any one, converting him to injustice, such a one should abide in temples, at altars, and in sacred groves, flying from injustice as a most impious and noxious mistress, and supplicating the Gods to cooperate with him in turning from it. He should also accede to those men who are renowned for their probity, in order to hear them discourse about a blessed life, and the punishment of bad men, that he may be deterred from unjust deeds; but he should only dread avenging dæmons. Those, likewise, that dwell in the city, should honour all the Gods according to the legal rites of the country, which are to be considered as the most beautiful of all others. All the citizens, too, should obey the laws, reverence the rulers, and rise to them, and comply with their mandates. For after the Gods, dæmons, and heroes, proximate honours are paid by men who are intelligent, and wish to be saved, to parents, the laws, and the rulers. Let, however, no one make the city to be dearer to him than his country, since he will thus excite the indignation of the Gods of the country: for such conduct is the beginning of treachery. And farther still, for a man to be deprived of his own country, and to live in a foreign land, is a thing of a more afflictive nature, and more difficult to be borne [than most other misfortunes]: for nothing is more allied to us than our country. Nor let any one think that a citizen, whom the laws have permitted to partake of the polity, should be considered by him as an implacable enemy; since a man who is capable of thus thinking can neither govern nor judge in a proper manner, in consequence of his anger predominating over his reason. Let no one, likewise, speak ill either of the city in common, or of a citizen privately. But let the guardians of the laws keep a watchful eye over offenders, in the first place by admonishing them; and in the next place, if they are not restrained by this from acting ill, let them be careful that they are punished. And with respect to the established laws, if some one of them should appear not to be well ordained, let it be changed into one that is better. But where all of them remain, let them be [universally] obeyed; as it is neither beautiful, nor beneficial, for the established laws to be vanquished by men; though it is both profitable and beautiful, to be restrained, as if vanquished, by a more excellent law. It is requisite, however, to punish those who transgress these, as machinating for the city the principle of the greatest evils anarchy. But the magistrates should neither be arrogant, nor judge insultingly, nor in passing sentence be mindful either of friendship or hatred, but of what is just. For thus they will decide most justly, and will be worthy of the magistracy. It is fit, therefore, that slaves should do what is just through fear, but those that are free, through shame, and for the sake of the beautiful in conduct. Hence it is requisite that the governors should be men of this kind, in order that they may be reverenced by those whom they govern. But if any one wishes to change some one of the established laws, or to introduce another law, let him, with a halter about his neck, speak of the subject of his wishes to the people. And if it shall appear from the suffrages, that the law already established should be dissolved, or that a new law should be introduced, let him not be punished. But if it should be thought that the preexisting law is better, or that the law which is intended to be introduced is unjust, let him who wishes to change an old, or to introduce a new law, be executed by the halter.

FROM THE TREATISE OF CALLICRATIDAS ON THE FELICITY OF FAMILIES.

The universe must be considered as a system of kindred communion or association. But every system consists of certain dissimilar contraries, and is coarranged with reference to one certain thing, which is the most excellent, and also with a view to a general benefit. For that which is denominated a choir, is a system of musical communion, and is referred to one certain common thing, a concert of voices. Farther still, the system of body about a ship consists of certain dissimilar and contrary things, and is coarranged with reference to one thing which is best, viz. the pilot, and also with a view to a common benefit, a prosperous navigation. Thus, too, a family, being a system of kindred communion, consists of certain dissimilars, which are its proper parts; and is coarranged with a view to one thing which is best, viz. the father of the family; and is referred to a common advantage, unanimity. And, in short, every family, in the same manner as a psaltery[26], requires these three things, apparatus, coadaptation, and a certain contrectation, and musical use. Apparatus, indeed, being the composition of all its parts, from which the whole, and all the system of kindred communion derives its completion. But of the parts of a family there are two first and greatest divisions; viz. man and possessions, the latter of which is the thing governed, and affords utility. Thus, also, the first and greatest parts of an animal are soul and body; and soul, indeed, is that which governs and uses, but the body is that which is governed, and imparts utility. And possessions, indeed, are the adscititious instruments of human life; but the body is the connascent and allied instrument of the soul. Of those persons, however, that give completion to a family, some are consanguineous, but others have an affinity to the family. And those that are kindred are generated from the same blood, or have the same origin from those who first disseminated the race. But those that have an affinity have an adscititious alliance, as commencing from the communion of wedlock. And these are either fathers or brothers, or maternal or paternal grandfathers, or some other of those relatives that are produced by marriage. But if the good arising from friendship is also to be referred to a family (for thus it will become greater and more magnificent, not only through an abundance of wealth and many relations, but also through numerous friends); in this case it is evident, that the family will thus become more ample, and that the social species of friendship is to be enumerated among things which are requisite to the completion of a family. But of possessions some are necessary, and others are of a liberal nature. And the necessary, indeed, are those which are subservient to the wants of life; and the liberal are such as lead a man to an elegant and well arranged mode of living, so that he may not be in want of other things. Such things, however, as exceed what is requisite to a liberal and elegant mode of life, are, at the beginning, the roots to men of wanton insolence, and destruction. For those that have great possessions are necessarily at first inflated with pride, and when thus inflated become arrogant; and, being arrogant, they also become fastidious, and conceive that their kindred, and those of the same nation and tribe with themselves, neither resemble, nor are equal to them. But when they are fastidious, they also become wantonly insolent. And the extremity and end of all wanton insolence is destruction. When, therefore, in a family and city there is a superfluity of possessions, it is necessary that the legislator should cut off, and, as it were, amputate the superfluities, in the same manner as a good husbandman lops the too luxuriant leaves of trees. But of the kindred and domestic part of man there is a triple species. For there is one species which governs, another which is governed, and another which gives assistance to a family and relatives. And the husband, indeed, governs, but the wife is governed, and the offspring of both these is an auxiliary.

AND IN ANOTHER PART OF THE SAME WORK.

With respect also to practical and rational domination, one kind is despotic, another is of a guardian nature, and another is political. And the despotic, indeed, is that which governs with a view to the advantage of the governor, and not of the governed. For after this manner a master rules over his slaves, and a tyrant over his subjects. But the guardian domination subsists for the sake of the governed, and not for the sake of those that govern. And with this kind of power the anointers rule over the athletæ, physicians over the sick, and preceptors over their pupils. For their labours are not directed to their own advantage, but to the benefit of those whom they govern; those of the physician being undertaken for the sake of the sick, the anointers for the sake of exercising the body, and those of the erudite for the sake of the inerudite. But the political domination has for its end the common benefit both of the governors and the governed. For according to this domination, in human affairs, both a family and a city are coharmonized; but in things of a divine nature the world is aptly composed. A family, however, and a city are an imitation according to analogy of the government of the world. For divinity is the principle of nature, and his attention is neither directed to his own advantage, nor to private, but to public good. And on this account, the world is called κοσμος, from the orderly disposition of all things which are coarranged with reference to one thing which is most excellent, and this is God, who is, according to conception, an intellectual[27] animal, incorruptible, and the principle and cause of the orderly disposition of wholes. Since, therefore, the husband rules over the wife, he either rules with a despotic, or with a guardian, or, in the last place, with a political power. But he does not rule over her with a despotic power: for he is diligently attentive to her welfare. Nor is his government of her entirely of a guardian nature: for this is itself a part of the communion [between man and wife]. It remains, therefore, that he rules over her with a political power, according to which both the governor and the thing governed establish [as their end] the common advantage. Hence, also, wedlock is established with a view to the communion of life. Those husbands, therefore, that govern their wives despotically, are hated by them; but those that govern them with a guardian authority are despised by them. For they appear to be, as it were, appendages and flatterers of their wives. But those that govern them politically are both admired and beloved. And both these will be effected, if he who governs exercises his power so that it may be mingled with pleasure and veneration; pleasure indeed being produced by his fondness, but veneration from his doing nothing of a vile or abject nature.

AND AGAIN, IN ANOTHER PART OF THE SAME WORK.

He who wishes to marry ought to take for a wife one whose fortune is conformable to his own, in order that he may not contract nuptials either above or beneath his condition, but analogous to the property which he possesses. For those who marry a woman above their condition have to contend for the mastership; for the wife, surpassing her husband in wealth and lineage, wishes to rule over him; but he considers it to be unworthy of him, and preternatural to submit to his wife. But those who marry a woman beneath their condition subvert the dignity and splendour of their family. It is necessary, however, on this occasion to imitate the musician, who, having learned the proper tone of his voice, endeavours to bring it to such a medium that it may be rendered sufficiently sharp and flat, and may be neither broken, nor lose its intenseness. Thus, therefore, it is necessary that wedlock should be coadapted to the peculiar tone of the soul, so that the husband and wife may not only accord with each other in prosperous, but also in adverse fortune. It is requisite, therefore, that the husband should be the regulator, master, and preceptor of his wife. The regulator, indeed, in paying diligent attention to her affairs; but the master, in governing and exercising authority over her; and the preceptor in teaching her such things as it is fit for her to know. This, however, will be especially effected by him who, directing his attention to worthy parents, marries from their family a virgin in the flower of her youth. For such virgins are easily fashioned, and are docile; and are also naturally well disposed to be instructed by, and to fear and love their husbands.

FROM THE TREATISE OF PERICTYONE[28] ON THE DUTIES OF A WOMAN.

It is necessary that a woman should sufficiently possess a harmony full of prudence and temperance. For it is requisite that her soul should be vehemently inclined to the acquisition of virtue; so that she may be just, brave, and prudent, and may be adorned with frugality, and hate vainglory. For, from the possession of these virtues, she will act worthily when she becomes a wife, towards herself, her husband, her children, and her family. Frequently, also, such a woman will act beautifully towards cities, if she happens to rule over cities or nations, as we see is [sometimes] the case in a kingdom. If, therefore, she subdues desire and anger, a divine harmony will be produced. Hence she will not be pursued by illegal loves, but she will love her husband, her children, and all her family. For such women as are fond of being connected with other men besides their husbands, become hostile to the whole of their families, both to those branches of it that are free, and those that are slaves. They also machinate stratagems against their husbands, and falsely represent them as the calumniators of all their acquaintance, in order that they alone may appear to be exceedingly benevolent; and they govern their families in such a way as may be expected from those that are lovers of indolence. For from such conduct the destruction ensues of every thing which is common to the husband and wife. And thus much as to these particulars.

It is also requisite to lead the body to what is naturally moderate, with respect to nutriment, clothes, bathing, anointing, dressing the hair, and to whatever pertains to decoration from gold and jewels. For whatever of a sumptuous nature is employed by women in eating and drinking, in garments and trinkets, renders them disposed to be guilty of every crime, and to be unjust both to their husband’s bed, and to every other person. It is requisite, therefore, that they should only satisfy hunger and thirst, and this from things easily procured; and that they should defend themselves from cold by garments of the simplest kind. But to be fed with things which are brought from a distant country, or which are obtained at a great price, is no small vice. It is also great folly to search after exceedingly elegant garments, which are variegated with purple, or any other precious colour. For the body wishes to be neither cold nor naked, but to be covered for the sake of decorum, and is not [externally] in want of any thing else. The opinion of men, however, in conjunction with ignorance, proceeds to inanities and superfluities. Hence a woman should neither be decorated with gold, nor with Indian gems, nor with the jewels of any other nation, nor plait her hair with abundance of art, nor be perfumed with Arabian unguents, nor paint her face so that it may be more white or more red, nor give a dark tinge to her eyebrows and her eyes, nor artificially dye her gray hairs, nor frequently bathe. For the woman who seeks after things of this kind searches for a spectator of female intemperance. For the beauty which is produced by prudence, and not by these particulars, pleases women that are well born. Nor should she conceive that nobility and wealth, the being born in a great city, glory, and the friendship of renowned and royal men, are to be ranked among things that are necessary. For if they happen to be present, they should not be the cause to her of any molestation; and if they should not be present, she should not regret their absence. For a prudent woman will not be prevented from living [properly] without these. And if those great and much admired things which we have mentioned should not be present, her soul should not anxiously explore, but withdraw itself from them. For in consequence of drawing their possessor to misfortune, they are more noxious than beneficial. For to these, treachery, envy, and calumny are adjacent, so that such a woman cannot be free from perturbation.

It is also necessary that she should venerate the Gods through good hope of obtaining felicity by this veneration, and by obeying the laws and sacred institutions of her country. But after the Gods, I say, that she should honour and venerate her parents. For these cooperate with the Gods in benefiting their children. Moreover, she ought to live with her husband legally and kindly, conceiving nothing to be her own property, but preserving and being the guardian of his bed. For in the preservation of this all things are contained. It is likewise requisite that she should bear every thing [in a becoming manner] which may happen to her husband, whether he is unfortunate in his affairs, or acts erroneously through ignorance, or disease, or intoxication, or from having connection with other women. For this last error is granted to men; but not to women, since they are punished for this offence. It is necessary, therefore, that she should submit to the law with equanimity, and not be jealous. She ought likewise to bear patiently his anger, his parsimony, and the complaints which he may make of his destiny, his jealousy, and his accusation of her, and whatever other faults he may inherit from nature. For all these she should cheerfully endure, conducting herself towards him with prudence and modesty. For a wife who is dear to her husband, and who truly performs her duty towards him, is a [domestic] harmony, and loves the whole of her family, to which also she conciliates the benevolence of strangers. If, however, she neither loves her husband nor her children, nor her servants, nor wishes to see any sacrifice preserved; then she becomes the leader of every kind of destruction, which she likewise prays for, as being an enemy, and also prays for the death of her husband, as being hostile to him, in order that she may be connected with other men; and, in the last place, she hates whatever her husband loves. But it appears to me that a wife will be a [domestic] harmony, if she is full of prudence and modesty. For then she will not only love her husband, but also her children, her kindred, her servants, and the whole of her family, in which possessions, friends, citizens, and strangers are contained. She will likewise adorn the bodies of these without any superfluous ornaments, and will both speak and hear such things only as are beautiful and good. It is also requisite that she should act conformably to her husband’s opinion in what pertains to their common life, and be satisfied with those relatives and friends that meet with his approbation. And she will conceive these things to be pleasant and disagreeable which are thought to be so by her husband, unless she is entirely destitute of harmony.

FROM THE TREATISE OF PERICTYONE ON THE HARMONY OF A WOMAN[29].

Parents ought not to be injured either in word or deed; but it is requisite to be obedient to them, whether their rank in life is small or great. And in every allotted condition of soul and body, and of external circumstances, in peace, also, and war, in health [and sickness[30]], in riches and in poverty, in renown and ignominy, and whether they are of the same class with most of the community, or are magistrates, it is necessary to be present with, and never to forsake them, and almost to submit to them even when they are insane. For such conduct will be wisely and cheerfully adopted by those that are pious. But he who despises his parents will, both among the living and the dead, be condemned for this crime by the Gods, will be hated by men, and under the earth will, together with the impious, be eternally[31] punished in the same place by Justice, and the subterranean Gods, whose province it is to inspect things of this kind. For the aspect of parents is a thing divine and beautiful, and a diligent observance of them is attended with a delight such as neither the survey of the sun, nor of all the stars which dance round the illuminated heavens, is capable of producing, nor any other spectacle, should it even be greater than this. And, it appears to me, that the Gods are not envious[32] when they perceive that this takes place. Hence it is requisite to reverence parents both while they are living, and when they are dead, and never oppose them in any thing they may say or do. If also they are ignorant of any thing through deception or disease, their children should console and instruct, but by no means hate them on this account. For no greater error and injustice can be committed by men than to act impiously towards their parents.

ON THE REVERENCE DUE TO PARENTS. FROM THE APOPHTHEGMS OF ARISTOXENUS, THE TARENTINE.

After divinity and demons, the greatest attention should be paid to parents and the laws; not fictitiously, but in reality preparing ourselves to an observance of, and perseverance in, the manners and laws of our country, though they should be in a small degree worse than those of other countries.

AND IN THE FOURTH BOOK OF THE SAME WORK[33].

But after these things follow the honours which should be paid to living parents, it being right to discharge the first, the greatest, and the most ancient of all debts. Every one, likewise, should think that all which he possesses belongs to those who begot and nurtured him, in order that he may be ministrant to their want to the utmost of his ability, beginning from his property; in the second place discharging his debt to them from things pertaining to his body; and in the third place, from things pertaining to his soul; thus repaying with usury the cares and pains which his now very aged parents bestowed on him when he was young. Through the whole of life, likewise, it is requisite that he should particularly employ the most respectful language in speaking to his parents; because there is a most severe punishment for light and winged words; and Nemesis, the messenger of Justice, is appointed to be the inspector of every thing of this kind. When parents, therefore, are angry, it is requisite to yield to them, and to appease their anger, whether it is shown in words or in deeds; acknowledging that a father may reasonably be very much enraged with his son, when he thinks he has been injured by him. But on the death of parents, the most decent and beautiful monuments should be raised to them; not exceeding the usual magnitude, nor yet less than those which our ancestors erected for their parents. Every year, too, attention ought to be paid to the decoration of their tombs. They should, likewise, be continually remembered and reverenced, and this with a moderate and appropriate expense. By always acting, therefore, and living in this manner, we shall each of us be rewarded according to our deserts, both by the Gods and those natures that are superior to us, and shall pass the greatest part of our life in good hope.

FROM THE TREATISE OF PEMPELUS ON PARENTS[34].

Neither divinity, nor any man who possesses the least wisdom, will ever advise any one to neglect his parents. Hence we cannot have any statue or temple which will be considered by divinity as more precious than our fathers and grandfathers when grown feeble with age. For God will recompense him with benefits who honours his parents with gifts; since if this is not done, divinity will not pay any attention to the prayers of such parents for their children. The images of our parents, indeed, and progenitors should be esteemed by us as far more venerable and divine than any inanimate images. For these animated images, when they are continually adorned and rendered splendid with honour by us, pray for us, and implore the gods to bestow on us the most excellent gifts: but the contrary when we despise them. Neither of these, however, is effected by inanimate images. Hence he who conducts himself in a becoming manner towards his parents and progenitors, and other relatives of this kind, will possess the most proper of all statues, and the best calculated to render him dear to divinity. Every one, therefore, endued with intellect should honour and venerate his parents, and should dread their execrations and [unfavourable] prayers, as knowing that many of them frequently take effect. These things, therefore, being thus disposed by nature, men that are prudent and modest will consider their living aged progenitors as a treasure, to the extremity of life; and if they die before they arrive at that period, they will be vehemently desired by them. On the contrary, progenitors will be terrible in the extreme to their depraved and stupid offspring. But he who, being profane, is deaf to these assertions, will be considered by all intelligent persons as odious both to Gods and men.

FROM THE TREATISE OF PHINTYS, THE DAUGHTER OF CALLICRATES, ON THE TEMPERANCE OF A WOMAN.

A woman ought to be wholly good and modest; but she will never be a character of this kind without virtue. For any virtue subsisting in any one thing renders that which receives it valuable. And the virtue, indeed, of the eyes is sight, but of the ears hearing. Thus, too, the virtue of a horse causes it to a good horse; and the virtue of a man and the virtue of a woman render each of them worthy. But the principal virtue of a woman is temperance; for through this she will be able to honour and love her husband. Many, indeed, may perhaps think it does not become a woman to philosophize, as neither is it proper for her to ride on horseback, nor to harangue in public. But I think that some things are the province of a man, others of a woman, and that others are common both to man and woman. And, likewise, that some things pertain more to a man than to a woman; but others more to a woman than to a man. But the things peculiar to a man are, to lead an army, to govern, and to harangue in public. The offices peculiar to a woman are, to be the guardian of a house, to stay at home, and to receive and be ministrant to her husband. And the virtues pertaining to both are fortitude, justice, and prudence. For it is fit that both the husband and wife should have the virtues of the body, and in a similar manner those of the soul. And as health of body is beneficial to both, so also is health of soul. The virtues, however, of the body are health, strength, vigour of sensation, and beauty. With respect to the virtues, also, some are more adapted to be exercised and possessed by a man, but others by a woman. For fortitude and prudence pertain more to the man than to the woman, both on account of the habit of the body, and the power of the soul; but temperance peculiarly belongs to the woman. Hence it is requisite to know the number and the quality of the things through which this virtue accedes to a woman. I say, therefore, that they are these five. And in the first place, she obtains this virtue through sanctity and piety about the marriage bed. In the second place, through ornament pertaining to the body. In the third place, through egressions from her own house. In the fourth place, through refraining from the celebration of orgies, and the mysteries of the mother of the Gods[35]. And in the fifth place, through being cautious and moderate in the sacrifices to divinity. Of these, however, the greatest and most comprehensive cause of temperance, is that which causes the wife to be undefiled with respect to the marriage bed, and not to have connexion with any other man than her husband. For in the first place, by such illegal conduct, she acts unjustly towards the Gods who preside over nativities, rendering them not genuine but spurious adjutors of her family and kindred. In the second place, she acts unjustly towards the Gods who preside over nature, by whom she solemnly swore, in conjunction with her parents and kindred, that she would legally associate with her husband in the communion of life and the procreation of children. And in the third place, she acts unjustly towards her country, by not observing its decrees. To which may be added, that to offend against right in those things for which the greatest punishment, death, is ordained, on account of the magnitude of the crime, and to do so for the sake of pleasure and wanton insolence, is nefarious, and most undeserving of pardon. But the end of all insolent conduct is destruction.

This, also, ought to be considered, that no purifying remedy has been discovered for this offence, so as to render a woman thus guilty pure and beloved by divinity. For God is most averse to pardon this crime. But the best indication of the chastity of a woman towards her husband is that which arises from the resemblance of her children to their father. And thus much concerning the marriage bed.

With respect, however, to the ornament of the body, it appears to me, that the garments of a woman should be white and simple, and by no means superfluous. But they will be so, if they are neither transparent nor variegated, nor woven from silk, but are not expensive, and are of a white colour. For thus she will avoid excessive ornament, luxury, and superfluous clothes; and will not produce a depraved imitation in others. And, in short, she should not decorate her person with gold and emeralds. For they are very expensive, and exhibit pride and arrogance towards the vulgar. It is necessary, however, that a city which is governed by good laws, and is well arranged in all its parts, should accord with itself, and have an equable legislation; and should expel the artificers who make things of this kind from the city. She should, likewise, give a splendour to her face, not by employing adscititious and foreign colour, but that which is adapted to the body, and is produced by washing it with water; and adorning her person through modesty rather than through art. For thus she will render both herself and her husband honourable. But the lower class of women should go out of their houses, for the purpose of sacrificing to the tutelar deity of the city, for the welfare of their husbands and all their family. A woman, also, should depart from her house neither by twilight nor in the evening, but should openly leave it when the forum is full of people; accompanied by one, or at most two servants, for the sake of beholding a certain thing, or of buying something she may want. She should also offer frugal sacrifices to the Gods, and such as are adapted to her ability; but she should abstain from the celebration of orgies, and from those sacred rites of the mother of the Gods, which are performed at home. For the common law of the city ordains that these shall not be performed by women. To which may be added, that these rites introduce ebriety, and mental alienation. It is necessary, however, that she who is the mistress of a family, and presides over domestic affairs, should be temperate and undefiled.