Part 5 — CHAPTER VIII.-Hints on Latin Style.

352. In this chapter brief consideration is given to a few features of Latin diction which belong rather to style than to formal grammar.

NOUNS.

353. 1. Where a distinct reference to several persons or things is involved, the Latin is frequently much more exact in the use of the Plural than is the English; as,—

domōs eunt, they go home (i.e. to their homes);

Germānī corpora cūrant, the Germans care for the body;

animōs mīlitum recreat, he renews the courage of the soldiers;

diēs noctēsque timēre, to be in a state of fear day and night.

2. In case of Neuter Pronouns and Adjectives used substantively, the Latin often employs the Plural where the English uses the Singular; as,—

omnia sunt perdīta, everything is lost;

quae cum ita sint, since this is so;

haec omnibus pervulgāta sunt, this is very well known to all.

3. The Latin is usually more concrete than the English, and especially less bold in the personification of abstract qualities. Thus:—

ā puerō, ā puerīs, from boyhood;

Sullā dictātōre, in Sulla's dictatorship;

mē duce, under my leadership;

Rōmānī cum Carthāginiēnsibus pācem fēcērunt = Rome made peace with Carthage;

liber doctrīnae plēnus = a learned book;

prūdentiā Themistoclīs Graecia servāta est = Themistocles's foresight saved Greece.

4. The Nouns of Agency in -tor and -sor (see § 147, 1) denote a permanent or characteristic activity; as,—

accūsātōrēs, (professional) accusers;

ōrātōrēs, pleaders;

cantōrēs, singers;

Arminius, Germāniae līberātor, Arminius, liberator of Germany.

a. To denote single instances of an action, other expressions are commonly employed; as,—

Numa, quī Rōmulō successit, Numa, successor of Romulus;

quī mea legunt, my readers;

quī mē audiunt, my auditors.

5. The Latin avoids the use of prepositional phrases as modifiers of a Noun. In English we say: 'The war against Carthage'; 'a journey through Gaul'; 'cities on the sea'; 'the book in my hands'; 'the fight at Salamis'; etc. The Latin in such cases usually employs another mode of expression. Thus:—

a) A Genitive; as,—

dolor injūriārum, resentment at injuries.

b) An Adjective; as,—

urbēs maritimae, cities on the sea;

pugna Salamīnia, the fight at Salamis.

c) A Participle; as,—

pugna ad Cannās facta, the battle at Cannae.

d) A Relative clause; as,—

liber quī in meīs manibus est, the book in my hands.

NOTE.—Yet within certain limits the Latin does employ Prepositional phrases as Noun modifiers. This is particularly frequent when the governing noun is derived from a verb. The following are typical examples:—

trānsitus in Britanniam, the passage to Britain;

excessus ē vītā, departure from life;

odium ergā Rōmānōs, hatred of the Romans;

liber dē senectūte, the book on old age;

amor in patriam, love for one's country.

ADJECTIVES.

354. 1. Special Latin Equivalents for English Adjectives are—

a) A Genitive; as,—

virtūtēs animī = moral virtues;

dolōrēs corporis = bodily ills.

b) An Abstract Noun; as,—

novitās reī = the strange circumstance;

asperitās viārum = rough roads.

c) Hendiadys (see § 374, 4); as,—

ratiō et ōrdō = systematic order;

ārdor et impetus = eager onset.

d) Sometimes an Adverb; as,—

omnēs circā populī, all the surrounding tribes;

suōs semper hostēs, their perpetual foes.

2. Often a Latin Noun is equivalent to an English Noun modified by an Adjective; as,—

doctrīna, theoretical knowledge;

prūdentia, practical knowledge;

oppidum, walled town;

libellus, little book.

3. Adjectives are not used in immediate agreement with proper names; but an Adjective may limit vir, homō, ille, or some other word used as an Appositive of a proper name; as,—

Sōcratēs, homō sapiēns = the wise Socrates;

Scīpiō, vir fortissimus = the doughty Scipio;

Syrācūsae, urbs praeclārissima = famous Syracuse.

4. An Adjective may be equivalent to a Possessive or Subjective Genitive; as,—

pāstor rēgius, the shepherd of the king;

tumultus servīlis, the uprising of the slaves.

PRONOUNS.

355. 1. In Compound Sentences the Relative Pronoun has a fondness for connecting itself with the subordinate clause rather than the main one; as,—

ā quō cum quaererētur, quid maximē expedīret, respondit, when it was asked of him what was best, he replied. (Less commonly, quī, cum ab eō quaererētur, respondit.)

2. Uterque, ambō. Uterque means each of two; ambō means both; as,—

uterque frāter abiit, each of the two brothers departed (i.e. separately);

ambō frātrēs abiērunt, i.e. the two brothers departed together.

a. The Plural of uterque occurs—

1) With Nouns used only in the Plural (see § 56); as,—

in utrīsque castrīs, in each camp.

2) Where there is a distinct reference to two groups of persons or things; as,—

utrīque ducēs clārī fuērunt, the generals on each side (several in number) were famous.

VERBS.

356. 1. In case of Defective and Deponent Verbs, a Passive is supplied:—

a) By the corresponding verbal Nouns in combination with esse, etc.; as,—

in odiō sumus, we are hated;

in invidiā sum, I am envied;

admīrātiōnī est, he is admired;

oblīviōne obruitur, he is forgotten (lit. is overwhelmed by oblivion);

in ūsū esse, to be used.

b) By the Passive of Verbs of related meaning. Thus:—

agitārī as Passive of persequī;

temptārī as Passive of adorīrī.

2. The lack of the Perfect Active Participle in Latin is supplied—

a) Sometimes by the Perfect Passive Participle of the Deponent; as,—

adhortātus, having exhorted;

veritus, having feared.

b) By the Ablative Absolute; as,—

hostium agrīs vāstātīs Caesar exercitum redūxit, having ravaged the country of the enemy, Caesar led back his army.

c) By subordinate clauses; as,—

eō cum advēnisset, castra posuit, having arrived there, he pitched a camp;

hostes quī in urbem irrūperant, the enemy having burst into the city.

3. The Latin agrees with English in the stylistic employment of the Second Person Singular in an indefinite sense (= 'one'). Cf. the English 'You can drive a horse to water, but you can't make him drink.' But in Latin this use is mainly confined to certain varieties of the Subjunctive, especially the Potential (§ 280), Jussive (§ 275), Deliberative (§ 277), and the Subjunctive in conditional sentences of the sort included under § 302, 2, and 303. Examples:—

vidērēs, you could see;

ūtāre vīribus, use your strength,

quid hōc homine faciās, what are you to do with this man?

mēns quoque et animus, nisi tamquam lūminī oleum īnstīllēs, exstinguuntur senectūte, the intellect and mind too are extinguished by old age, unless, so to speak, you keep pouring oil into the lamp;

tantō amōre possessiōnēs suās amplexī tenēbant, ut ab eīs membra dīvellī citius posse dīcerēs, they clung to their possessions with such an affectionate embrace, that you would have said their limbs could sooner be torn from their bodies.

PECULIARITIES IN THE USE OF THE ACCUSATIVE.

357. 1. To denote 'so many years, etc., afterwards or before' the Latin employs not merely the Ablative of Degree of Difference with post and ante (see § 223), but has other forms of expression. Thus:—

post quīnque annōs, five years afterward;

paucōs ante diēs, a few days before;

ante quadriennium, four years before;

post diem quārtum quam ab urbe discesserāmus, four days after we had left the city;

ante tertium annum quam dēcesserat, three years before he had died.

2. The Latin seldom combines both Subject and Object with the same Infinitive; as,—

Rōmānōs Hannibalem vīcisse cōnstat.

Such a sentence would be ambiguous, and might mean either that the Romans had conquered Hannibal, or that Hannibal had conquered the Romans. Perspicuity was gained by the use of the Passive Infinitive; as,—

Rōmānōs ab Hannibale victōs esse cōnstat, it is well established that the Romans were defeated by Hannibal.

PECULIARITIES IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OF THE DATIVE.

358. 1. The English for does not always correspond to a Dative notion in Latin, but is often the equivalent of prō with the Ablative, viz. in the senses—

a) In defense of; as,—

prō patriā morī, to die for one's country.

b) Instead of, in behalf of; as,—

ūnus prō omnibus dīxit, one spoke for all;

haec prō lēge dicta sunt, these things were said for the law.

c) In proportion to; as,—

prō multitūdine hominum eōrum fīnēs erant angustī, for the population, their territory was small.

2. Similarly, English to when it indicates motion is rendered in Latin by ad.

a. Note, however, that the Latin may say either scrībere ad aliquem, or scrībere alicui, according as the idea of motion is or is not predominant. So in several similar expressions.

3. In the poets, verbs of mingling with, contending with, joining, clinging to, etc., sometimes take the Dative. This construction is a Grecism. Thus:—

sē miscet virīs, he mingles with the men;

contendis Homērō, you contend with Homer;

dextrae dextram jungere, to clasp hand with hand.

PECULIARITIES IN THE USE OF THE GENITIVE.

359. 1. The Possessive Genitive gives emphasis to the possessor, the Dative of Possessor emphasizes the fact of possession; as,—

hortus patris est, the garden is my father's;

mihi hortus est, I possess a garden.

2. The Latin can say either stultī or stultum est dīcere, it is foolish to say; but Adjectives of one ending permit only the Genitive; as,—

sapientis est haec sēcum reputāre, it is the part of a wise man to consider this.