Chapter IV

Overlapping of Suffixes

However great a tendency the suffixes under investigation have toward giving to the nouns a certain meaning, the variations of which they are capable,—due, as has been shown, to stem and context,—strongly suggest that there can be nothing very stable in the suffix itself. If there really were a fundamental meaning in the suffixes, there would be no such variation as we find.

But a consideration which points even more to the comparatively fluid condition of these suffixes is the fact that we find other words, formed on the same stem, but with a different suffix, meaning precisely the same as the nouns made with these suffixes. Here again, the meanings are derived from an examination of the context. Sometimes the contexts are exactly parallel, at other times there is a sufficiently large element common to both to warrant us in saying that the nouns do not, at least in these particular instances, differ in meaning.

The fact that some of these parallel words occur at different periods in the language does not weaken the argument, as the mere occurrence of them shows the unstable influence of the suffix; and, moreover, we need not suppose because one word is not found at a certain period while another on the same stem with a different suffix is found, that the first word was not in existence. It is just as reasonable to assume that the preservation of one word and not the other is due merely to common usage or the personal preference of the author. Metrical considerations might exclude the use of a certain word in poetry, but the instances are very rare, and will be noted in the proper place.

The most common suffix which makes accessory forms with -mentum is -men. Most authorities regard -mentum as an extension of -men by the addition of -to. Whether this is true or not, there are many -mentum words that have no accessory forms in -men, and a large number of -men words that have no accessory forms in -mentum. Corssen (Krit. Nach. p. 125 ff.) gives fifty-one -men words from old, classical, and later Latin to which there are no forms in -mentum, fifty-two -mentum words from the same periods to which there are no forms in -men; twenty-five words with both forms in any one period. He also gives a table showing how the words in the older and classical language preferred the form -men while in later Latin the same words preferred the form -mentum. He says the suffix -mentum is only the the extension, on Latin soil, of the suffix -men (Sanskrit, -man) with -to; and this explains why in later Latin the forms in -mentum become more frequent, also why they are not found in other Italic dialects, nor in the Greek and other related languages.

Lindsay says (p. 335) that the suffix -men is found more often in poetry, while -mentum predominates in prose.

Etymologically, the suffixes -bulum and -culum go back to original -dhlo and -tlo respectively (Lindsay pp. 334 and 332).

A study of the other suffixes which make accessory forms to these words would probably yield results similar to those seen in the case of our suffixes; but all that will be attempted here will be to show parallels wherever possible. Italics will be used here, also, to show what elements in the context go to prove the equivalence in semantic content of the nouns under discussion.

A. Parallels of -mentum and Accessory Suffixes

One of the neatest examples of identity in meaning is the following exactly parallel usage of stramen and stramentum: tectam stramine vidit casam, Ov. M. 5, 443; casae, quae stramentis tectae erant, B. G. 5, 43.

From the use of a genitive denoting a concrete object, fragmentum and fragmen are seen to be identical in meaning in the following examples: adiacebant fragmina telorum equorumque artus, Tac. A. 1, 61; tribunum adoriuntur fragmentis saeptorum, Sest. 79.

The genitives depending on irritamen and irritamentum in the following examples are not exactly alike, one being concrete and the other abstract; but they are near enough in meaning, and the nouns themselves are used in sufficiently similar contexts to justify us in saying that either one might have been used in place of the other: nisi adiecisset opes, irritamen animi avari, Ov. M. 13, 434; neque salem neque alia irritamenta gulae quaerebant, Sall. Jug. 89, 7.

Levamen and levamentum are used in parallel examples: cuius mali (debt) plebes nullum levamen speraret, Liv. 6, 35, 1; non aliud malorum levamentum quam si linquerent castra, Tac. H. 1, 30, 9.

The verbs used with medicamen and medicamentum show a lack of differentiation between these nouns: quod diceres te violentis quibusdam medicaminibus solere curari, Pis. 6, 13; si eo medicamento sanus factus esset, Off. 3, 92.

The verbs with molimen and molimentum in the following examples are very similar, and there is the same adjective modifying each noun: temptat revellere annosam pinum magno molimine, Ov. M. 12, 357; neque exercitum sine magno commeatu atque molimento in unum locum contrahere posse, B. G. I, 34, 3.

Identity of verbs and the case of momen and momentum show there is no difference in their meaning: momine uti parvo possint impulsa moveri, Lucr. 3, 188; animus paulo momento huc vel illuc impellitur, And. 266.

Parallel instances of blanditia and blandimenta are seen in these examples: haec meretrix meum erum sua blanditia intulit in pauperiem, Truc. 572; illum spero immutari potest blandimentis, oramentis, ceteris meretriciis, Truc. 318; benevolentiam civium blanditiis et adsentando colligere turpe est, Lael. 61; Lepida blandimentis ac largitionibus iuvenilem animum devinciebat, Tac. H. 13, 13.

Adiutorium is a rare word, but in the following examples it is seen to have the same general meaning as adiumentum, “help”: sine adiutorio ignis nihil calidum est, Sen. Ep. 31; neque apud homines res est ulla difficilior neque quae plura adiumenta doctrinae desideret, De Or. III, 84.

Experimentum in the plural naturally means the same as experientia (experience), but in the singular also they both mean a trial or attempt, or the result of trial, proof: debemus temptare experientia quaedam, sequentes non aleam, sed rationem aliquam, Varro, R. R. 1, 18, 8; hoc est maximum experimentum, hanc vim esse non in die positam sed in cogitatione diuturna, T. 3, 74. With the meaning of experience: Agrippa non aetate neque rerum experientia tantae moli par, Tac. A. 1, 4; Metello experimentis cognitum erat, genus Numidarum infidum esse, Sall. Jug. 40, 3.

Firmamen and firmamentum might be interchanged, in both their figurative and literal meanings: ruptosque obliqua per ungues porrigitur radix, longi firmamina trunci, Ov. M. 10, 491; ossa nervique, firmamenta totius corporis, Sen. De Ira, 2, 1, 2. Both the dependent genitives above express concrete objects; in the following they express abstract objects: unicum lapsae domus firmamen, unum lumen afflicto malis temet reserva, Sen. Herc. Fur. 1251; sic ille annus duo firmamenta rei publicae per me unum constituta evertit, Att. I, 18, 3.

Documen occurs only once, but its context shows it to be equivalent in meaning to documentum, which is used in strikingly similar contexts: flammas ut fulguris halent pectore perfixo, documen mortalibus acre, Lucr. 6, 391; ut sint reliquis documento et magnitudine poenae perterreant alios, B. G. 7, 4, 10.

Words with the suffix -tio we naturally think of as verbals, or nomina actionis, but in the following examples the context makes it fairly certain that they mean the same as their corresponding -mentum nouns.

Formamenta is found only twice: omnia principiorum formamenta queunt in quovis esse nitore, Lucr. 2, 819; si vos fateremini id quod vestra suspicio credidisset formamentis divinis attribuisse, minus erat iniuriae praesumpta in opinatione peccasse, Arn. 3, 16. In the first example, formamenta is used closely following formae and must mean the same thing, the “shapes” of the atoms; in the second example the adjective “divinis” indicates a similar meaning for formamentum; in the following example Vitruvius is giving directions concerning the building of a forum: ita enim erit oblonga eius [forum] formatio et ad spectaculorum rationem utilis dispositio, Vitr. 5, 1. While the directions for the future building might lead us to believe that the word has a predominant verbal force, yet it is just as possible to conceive of it as expressing the result of the process; and this interpretation is even more probable, as the adjective oblonga would properly not be applied to a purely verbal noun.

The verb fodior shows the identity in meaning between fundatio and fundamenta in the following instances: cum fodientes delubro fundamenta caput humanum invenissent, Plin. 28, 2, 4; fundationes eorum operum fodiantur, Vitr. 3, 3. Res Romana and libertas are near enough alike to show that fundamen and fundamentum have the same general meaning in these instances: fundamine magno res Romana valet, Ov. M. 4, 808; haec sunt fundamenta firmissima nostrae libertatis, Balb. 13.

The contexts of hortamen and hortamentum in the two following examples are near enough alike to warrant our saying that the nouns might be interchanged: Decii eventus, ingens hortamen ad omnia pro re publicia audenda, Liv. 10, 29, 5; in conspectu parentum coniugumque ac liberorum quae magna etiam absentibus hortamenta animi sunt, Liv. 7, 11, 6.

There is undoubtedly no more verbal force in the following example of allevatio than in the example of allevamentum, (which is the only one extant): tantis rebus urgemur, nullam ut allevationem quisquam non stultissimus sperare debeat, Fam. IX, 1; Sulla coactus est in adversis fortunis sine ullo remedio atque allevamento permanere, Sulla, 66.

Besides alimentum there are two other nouns, formed on the verb alo, alimonium and alimonia, which also mean support or nourishment, as seen from these parallel examples: plus alimenti in pane quam in ullo alio est, Cels. 2, 18; quid temperatus ab alimonio panis, cui rei dedistis nomen castus?, Arn. 5, 16; amisso omni naturalis alimoniae fundamento, homo exhaustus intereat, Gell. 17, 15, 5.

Although -tus is also usually considered as forming nomina actionis, the example of cruciatus clearly is parallel with that of cruciamentum: confectus iam cruciatu maximorum dolorum, ne id quidem scribere possim, quod...., Att. XI. 11, 1; nec graviora sunt tormenta carnificum, quam interdum cruciamenta morborum, Phil. 11, 4.

Calceamentum, “shoe” or covering for the feet, has two accessory forms, calceamen and calceatus, which are synonymous with it (the former being found only in Pliny): mihi est calciamentum solorum callum, amictui Scythicum tegimen, T. 5, 90; vestitu calceatuque et cetero habitu neque patrio neque civili usus est, Suet. Calig. 52; hinc [sparto] strata rusticis eorum, hinc ignes facesque, hinc calceamina et pastorum vestis, Plin. 19, 2, 7.

The use of ad and a gerund after both invitatio and invitamenta indicate their lack of difference in meaning in these two instances: ad eundem fontem revertendum est, aegritudinem omnem abesse a sapiente, quod inanis sit, quod frustra suscipiatur, quod non natura exoriatur, sed iudicio, sed opinione sed quadam invitatione ad dolendum, cum id decreverimus ita fieri oportere, T. 3, 82; quocirca intellegi necesse est in ipsis rebus, quae discuntur et cognoscuntur, invitamenta inesse, quibus ad discendum cognoscendumque moveamur, F. 5, 52.

Munitio is another -tio noun that ordinarily has verbal force, but not at all infrequently it coincides in meaning with both munimen and munimentum: cum urbem operibus munitionibusque saepsisset, Phil. 13, 9, 20; castella et munitiones idoneis locis imponens, Tac. A. 3, 74. The genitives following munimen and munitio are alike in meaning and function, both being appositional: confisus munitione fossae, B. C. 1, 42, 3; narrat esse locum solidae tectum munimine molis, Ov. M. 4, 771. Munimentum is used of the same kind of “fortification”: fossa, haud parvum munimentum, Liv. 1, 33, 7.

Natura and ignis are the similar elements in the following contexts that indicate the identity in meaning between nutrimen and nutrimentum:

In the first example, curiously enough, nutrimen seems to be also synonymous with alimenta in the second line before it.

Nato and puerorum following oblectamina and oblectamenta indicate identity in meaning, although the latter is still vague, while the former is specified by “flores”: carpserat flores, quos oblectamina nato porrigeret, Ov. M. 9, 342; obsecro te non ut vincla virorum sint, sed ut oblectamenta puerorum, Par. 5, 2, 38.

We have the clear testimony of Varro that operculum and operimentum are both used to mean “covering”: quibus operibantur operimenta et opercula dixerunt, Varro, L. L. 5, 167; and the fact is illustrated by the following examples, in which both are used in the ablative after tego: aspera arteria tegitur quasi quodam operculo, N. 2, 54; nuces gemino protectae operimento sunt, Plin. 15, 22.

Both ornatus and ornamentum are used of a speech, oratio: mihi eripuisti ornamentum orationis meae, Planc. 83; reliqua quasi lumina afferunt magnum ornatum orationi, Or. 39, 134. The following examples of these nouns, although still general in meaning, are interesting as being used with the verb which is their stem: ornatus appellatur cultus ipse, quo quis ornatur, Fest. 184; hominem cum ornamentis omnibus exornatum adducite ad me, Bacc. 756.

Although the circumstances in the following passages are not alike, the immediate contexts are similar enough to show that sarmen and sarmentum have the same meaning: iam iubeo ignem et sarmen arae, carnifex, circumdari, Most. 1114; ligna et sarmenta ignemque circumdare coeperunt, Verr. 2, 1, 69.

Tegimen and tegimentum both mean a covering for the body: mihi amictui Scythicum tegimen est, T. 5, 90; pennarum contextu corpori tegimentum faciebat, F. 5, 32.

As shown earlier in this paper, tinnimentum in its single occurrence undoubtedly means a “tinkling” in the ears, caused by chattering talk; tinnitus also seems to mean the same thing in the following contexts: cuminum silvestre auribus instillatur ad sonitus atque tinnitus, Plin. 20, 15, 57; illud tinnimentumst auribus, Rud. 806.

If there is any difference between vestitus and vestimentum in these two examples, it is difficult to find: credo te audisse, venisse, eo muliebri vestitu virum, Att. I, 13, 3; mulierem aequomst vestimentum muliebre dare foras, virum virile, Men. 659.

From the fragments in Nonius we find that two of our -mentum nouns have accessory forms in -menta (fem.) with the same meaning: ipsius armentas ad easdem, Ennius ap. Non. 190, 20; tu cornifrontes pascere armentas soles, Pacuvius ap. Non. 190, 22; labei labuntur saxa, caementae cadunt, Ennius ap. Non. 196, 30.

B. Parallels of -bulum and Accessory Suffixes

Latibulum and latebra: repente te tamquam serpens e latibulis intulisti, Vat. 2; curvis frustra defensa latebris vipera, Georg. 3, 544; cum etiam ferae latibulis se tegant, Rab. Post. 15, 42; Maenala transieram latebris horrenda ferarum, Ov. M. 1, 216. Latibulum is an example of a word that could not be used in verse on account of the quantity of its syllables.

Common elements in the context show identity of meaning in sedile and sessibulum: cum pater assedisset appositumque esset aliud filio quoque eius sedile, Gell. 2, 2, 8; asside istic, nam prae metu latronum nulla sessibula parare nobis licet, App. Met. 1. Varro (L. L. 8, 54) says that a form sediculum is also correctly made, but not in use.

Stabulatio, another apparent verbal noun, must mean the same as stabulum in the following examples, both on account of the adjective and the general significance of the passages: hibernae stabulationi eorum (cattle) praeparanda sunt stramenta, Col. 6, 3, 1; iubeo stabula a ventis hiberno opponere soli, Georg. 3, 302.

Besides a few examples in Arnobius, only one instance of vocamen is found, in Lucretius, but that it means the same as vocabulum can be seen from the parallel passages: si quis Bacchi nomine abuti Mavult quam laticis proprium proferre vocamen, Lucr. 2, 657; si res suum nomen et vocabulum proprium non habet, De Or. III, 159.

C. Parallels of -culum and Accessory Suffixes

Among -culum words, we find cenaculum having an accessory form cenatio that has, not the verbal idea, but the genuine meaning of place for eating, while cenaculum has lost its literal meaning and taken a more general signification: vel cubiculum grande vel modica cenatio [sit] quae plurimo sole lucet, Plin. Ep. 2, 17, 10; nos ampliores triginta vidimus in cenatione quam Callistus exaedificaverat, Plin. 36, 7, 12; ubi cubabant, cubiculum, ubi cenabant, cenaculum vocitabant; posteaquam in superiore parte cenitare coeperunt superioris domus universa cenacula dicta, Varro, L. L. 5, 162.

On the stem curro there are three nouns, all signifying “a running”: exercent sese ad cursuram, Most. 861; ibi cursu, luctando sese exercebant, Bacc. 428; unum curriculum face, Trin. 1103. A use of curriculum with exerceo would parallel the first two examples, but in such a case it takes on the meaning of place (running course): cum athletae se exercentes in curriculo videret, C. 27.

In the same paragraph deversorium and deverticulum are used of the same place: ut in deversorium eius vim magnam gladiorum inferri clam sineret, Liv. 1, 51; cum gladii abditi ex omnibus locis deverticuli protraherentur, Liv. 1, 51.

Feretrum and ferculum both are used depending on suspensa in the two following examples, but mean different kinds of “instruments for carrying”: quis opima volenti dona Iovis portet feretro suspensa cruento, Sil. 5, 168; spolia ducis hostium caesi suspensa fabricato ad id apte ferculo gerens in Capitolium ascendit, Liv. 1, 10, 5.

The stem cerno (sift) forms two nouns which both mean a sieve, although the use of them side by side indicates that there must be some difference; as there are no other examples of incerniculum, this difference cannot be discovered: in torcularium quod opus est cribrum unum, incerniculum unum, Cato, R. R. I, 13, 3; caseum per cribrum facito transeat in mortarium, Cato, R. R. 76, 3.

In the following examples, spiramen and spiracula are both used to mean “breathing holes” in the earth or universe, while spiramenta is applied to the cells in a beehive:

No difference can be seen in spectamen and spectaculum in these examples: miserum funestumque spectamen aspexi, App. M. 4, 151; potius quam hoc spectaculum viderem, Mil. 38, 103; constitutur in foro Laodiceae spectaculum acerbum et miserum, Verr. I, 76.