Chapter III

Influence of Context

An attempt was made in the preceding chapter to show how the meaning of words formed with -mentum, -bulum and -culum was influenced by the verb stem. It will be the purpose of this chapter to illustrate how such general meanings get still greater precision from some element in the context. This study, as is intimated in the introductory paragraph of this paper, is a semantic one, but it is not lexicographical; and no attempt will be made to explain, any farther than was done in the preceding chapter, such words as show no variation in meaning due to context. For example, frumentum always means grain, no matter in what context it stands; iumentum, cattle; testamentum, a will; venabulum, a hunting spear; cubiculum, a bed-room. The reason is that these words are neat expressions of a precise idea and their meaning is therefore less likely to be shifted. This fact also illustrates, in general, the difference in variation possible in a noun and in an adjective. The latter, being in so many instances equivalent to a genitive, can, like the genitive, express a great variety of relations between its governing noun and its noun stem; while a noun, being a more finished product, that is, its meaning settling more easily in clear-cut limits, cannot be expected to show such wide variations. Aside from the figurative use of the nouns, the most frequent influence of context comes from a genitive dependent on the noun. The other elements that enter in will be noticed as each word is discussed, and wherever possible, the word or group of words which contributes to the meaning will be italicized.

First, there are a few nouns which are used in apposition with a proper noun, or are applied to persons. This use is a special illustration of the figurative meaning of these words: intercessit iste Ligus nescio qui, additamentum inimicorum meorum, Sest. 68; Sertia uxor, quae incitamentum mortis et particeps fuit, Tac. A. 6, 29; in conspectu parentum coniugumque ac liberorum, quae magna etiam absentibus hortamenta animi sunt, Liv. 7, 11, 6; acerrima seditionum ac discordiae incitamenta, interfectores Galbae, Tac. H. 2, 23; Fufidius, ancilla turpis bonorum omnium dehonestamentum, Sall. Lep. 22; P. Rutilius qui fuit documentum hominibus nostris virtutis, antiquitatis, prudentiae, Rab. Post. 27; illius sum integumentum corporis, Bacc. 602; vidi hunc ipsum Hortensium, ornamentum rei publicae, paene interfici, Milo, 37; ipsa quae sis stabulum nequitiae, Truc. 587; quod umquam huiuscemodi everriculum [Verres] ulla in provincia fuit, Verres, 4, 5, 3; quid, duo propugnacula belli Punici, Cn. et P. Scipiones cogitassene videntur, P. 12; qui sibi me pro deridiculo et delectamento putat, Heaut. 952.

These examples show that the suffixes do not imprint on the nouns the idea of instrument, or any other idea, so strongly that the nouns may not be applied to human beings as well.

Of those nouns which get precision of meaning from a dependent genitive, perhaps there is no better example than fragmentum, which, expressing the result of the action of breaking, may mean a piece or fragment of any breakable object: tribunum adoriuntur fragmentis saeptorum, Sest. 79; ut glaebum aut fragmentum lapidis dicemus, N. II, 82; fragmenta tegularum, Liv. 34, 89, 11; fragmenta ramorum, Liv. 23, 24, 10; fragmenta crystalli sarciri nullo modo queunt, Plin. 37, 2, 10; fragmenta panis, Plin. 9, 8, 8; mille carinis abstulit Emathiae secum fragmenta ruinae [the remnants of the army], Lucan, 9, 38. The genitives all answer the question, fragments of what?

Another noun of general meaning which gets precision from a genitive is fundamentum; whether literal or figurative, we want to know, the foundations of what? and the context tells, though not always merely by means of a genitive: quin cum fundamento aedes perierunt, Most. 148; solum et quasi fundamentum oratoris vides, locutionem emendatam et Latinam, Brut. 258; fundamenta rei publicae ieci, Fam. XII, 25, 2; fundamenta ieci salutis tuae, Fam. X, 29, 1; arcem Syracusis a fundamentis disiecit, Nepos, XX, 3, 3; hic locus sicut aliquod fundamentum est huius constitutionis, Inv. II, 19; qui a fundamentis mi usque movisti mare, Rud. 539; prima fundamenta urbi iacere, Liv. 1, 12, 4; alta fundamenta theatri locare, Aen. 1, 428; fundamenta altae Carthaginis locare, Aen. 4, 266; urbs a fundamentis diruta, Liv. 42, 63, 11; fodere fundamenta delubro, Plin. 28, 2, 4; pietas fundamentum est omnium virtutum, Planc. 29; fundamentum iustitiae est fides, Off. 1, 7, 23; narratio est fundamentum constituendae fidei, Part. 9, 31; fundamentum eloquentiae, De Or. 3, 151; fundamentum philosophiae, Div. 2, 1, 2; initium ac fundamentum defensionis, Clu. 10, 30; quod fundamentum huius quaestionis est, id videtis, N. I, 44; fundamentum horum criminum, Cael. 13, 30; disciplina nixa fundamento veritatis, Gell. 14, 1, 20; fundamentum et causa imperii, Sen. Ep. 87, 41; fundamenta libertatis, Balb. 13, 31; fundamentum consulatus tui, Pis. 4, 9; senectus quae fundamentis adolescentiae constituta est, C. 18, 62; fundamenta pacis ieci, Phil. 1, 1, 1; fundamentum domus novae iacere, Suet. Cal. 22; villa a fundamentis inchoata, Suet. Caes. 46.

Incitamentum is nearly always followed by a genitive or a gerundive construction expressing the object toward which a thing or circumstance is an inducement. The noun is used most frequently in Tacitus: hoc maximum et periculorum incitamentum est et laborum, Arch. 23; uxor, quae incitamentum mortis fuit, Tac. A. 6, 29; incitamenta irarum, Tac. A. 1, 55; incitamenta victoriae, Tac. Agr. 32; incitamentum ad honeste moriendum, Curt. 9, 5, 4; incitamentum fortitudinis, Tac. G. 7, 9; incitamentum cupidinis, Tac. A. 6, 1, 10; incitamenta belli, Tac. A. 12, 34, 2; est magna illa eloquentia alumna licentiae, comes seditionum, effrenati populi incitamentum, Tac. D. 40, 11. In the last example the genitive is a real objective genitive, while the participle limiting it expresses the result of incitement expressed by the genitives in the other examples.

Like incitamentum, invitamentum and irritamentum usually get precision of meaning from a genitive: invitamenta urbis et fori, Sulla, 74; honos, non invitamentum ad tempus, sed perpetuae virtutis praemium, Fam. X, 10, 2; invitamenta temeritatis, Liv. 2, 42, 6; invitamentum sceleris, Vell. 2, 67, 3; pulchritudinem eius non libidinis habuerat invitamentum, sed gloriae, Curt. 4, 10, 24; fons reperiendus est, in quo sint prima invitamenta naturae, Fin. 5, 6; neque irritamenta gulae quaerebant, Sall. Jug. 89, 7; quod irritamentum certaminum equestrium est, Liv. 30, 11; opes, irritamenta malorum, Ov. M. 1, 140; irritamenta luxuriae, Val. Max. 2, 6, 1; irritamentum invidiae, Tac. A. 3, 9; irritamentum pacis, Tac. Agr. 20.

Tegumentum and integumentum have only their general meaning of “cover” which they get from their verb stem, unless something in the context tells what it is a covering for: lanx cum integumentis, quae Iovi adposita fuit, Liv. 40, 59, 7; illius sum integumentum corporis, Bacc. 602; istaec ego mihi semper habui integumentum meae, Trin. 313; integumentum frontis, Cic. post Red. in Sen. 7, 15; integumentum flagitiorum, Cael. 20, 47; integumentum dissimulationis, De Or. 2, 86; tegumenta galeis milites ex viminibus facere iubet, B. C. 3, 62, 1; ad tegumenta detrahenda scutis tempus defuerit, B. G. 2, 21, 5; quae [palpebrae] sunt tegmenta oculorum, N. II, 142; tunicos aut tegimenta fuerant, B. G. 3, 44, 7; humus satis solidum est tegimentum repellendis caloribus, Sen. Ep. 90; equo purpurea tegumenta dedit, Suet. Cal. 55.

Documentum has the meaning of “example”, particularly when there is a limiting genitive: Rutilius qui documentum fuit virtutis, antiquitatis, prudentiae, Rab. Post. 10, 27. The common occurrence of the word with verbs like dare, together with an indirect question, shows it to mean proof: dederas enim, quam contemneres populares insanias, iam ab adolescentia documenta maxima, Mil. 8; multa documenta egregii principis dedit, Suet. Galb. 14. With capere the natural meaning is “warning” or “instruction”: ex quo documentum nos capere fortuna voluit, quid esset victis pertimescendum, Phil. 11, 2. This meaning is also very commonly seen in the use of the dative case to express purpose, followed by a supplementary clause of purpose. The noun need not be in the dative, however: insigne documentum Sagunti ruinae erunt ne quis fidei Romanae aut societati confidat, Liv. 21, 19, 10; deletum cum duce exercitum documento fuisse, ne deinde turbato gentium iure comitia haberentur, Liv. 7, 6, 11.

Monumentum is quite as general in meaning as documentum, and shows as great variety of meaning. It is applied to a whip: vos monumentis commonefaciam bubulis, Stich. 63; a statue: statuam volt dare, factis monumentum suis, Curc. 441; a literary record: monumenta rerum gestarum oratori nota esse debent, De Or. I, 201; an action or circumstance: cum Sex. Pompeium restituit civitati, clarissimum monimentum clementiae suae, Phil. 5, 39; a tomb: sepultus est in monumento avunculi sui, Nepos, Att. 22, 4. Sometimes the word gets precision of meaning from an appositional genitive: hoc statuae monumento non eget, Phil. 9, 11; ut tu monumentum aliquod decreti aut litterarum tuarum relinquas, Q. fr. I, 2, 11; sepulcri monumento donatus est, Nep. Dion. 10. Sometimes it is used without any suggestion of a concrete object (cf. also the third example above): nullum monumentum laudis postulo praeterquam huius diei memoriam sempiternam, Cat. 3, 11, 26.

Argumentum (always abstract) has the very frequent general meaning of proof, reason, argument: quid nunc? vincon argumentis te non esse Sosiam?, Am. 437; nunc, huc qua causa veni, argumentum eloquar, Rud. 31; quod pridie noctu conclamatum esset in Caesaris castris argumenti sumebant loco non posse clam exiri B. C. 1, 67, 1. A common meaning in comedy is plot, or theme of a play (our “argument” of an epic or a drama): ne exspectetis argumentum fabulae, Adel. 22. Then it comes to mean the subject matter of a speech or letter: ut mihi nascatur epistulae argumentum, Fam. XV, 1, 22, 2; a sign or indication: ubi lyrae, tibia et cantus, animi felicia laeti argumenta, sonant, Ov. M. 4, 762; reality or meaning: haec tota fabella quam est sine argumento, Cael. 27; the subject of artistic representations: ex ebore perfecta argumenta erant in valvis, Verr. II, 4, 56. Twice in Ciceronian Latin this word is defined in two of the ways mentioned: argumentum est ficta res quae tamen fieri potuit, velut argumentum comoediarum, Ad Her. 1, 8; argumentum esse rationem quae rei dubiae faciat fidem, Top. 8.

Experimentum, when followed by indirect discourse, as in the following example, must mean the result of trial; viz., “proof”: hoc maximum est experimentum hanc vim esse in cogitatione diuturna, T. 4, 56. In the plural, being the accumulation of a number of trials, it is equivalent to experientia, (experience): Metello experimentis cognitum erat, genus Numidarum infidum esse, Sall. Jug. 46, 3.

Firmamentum often gets precise meaning from a limiting genitive, which is also sometimes appositional: ossa nervique et articuli, firmamenta totius corporis, Sen. De Ira, 2, 1, 2; firmamenta stabilitatis constantiaeque est eius quam in amicitia quaerimus fides, Lael. 65; eum ordinem firmamentum ceterorum ordinum recte esse dicimus, Pomp. 17; transversaria tigna iniciuntur, quae firmamento esse possint, B. G. 2, 15, 2; firmamentum ac robur totius accusationis, Mur. 28, 58; firmamentum rei publicae, Planc. 9, 23; firmamentum dignitatis, T. 4, 7; inventa ratione firmamentum [orationi] quaerendum est, Inv. I, 34.

Instrumentum is a word which has the most general meaning, and really receives less influence from its verb stem than from the context. Even when there is a qualifying genitive or other limiting factor it retains more or less of its general character. Probably its most definite meaning is that of furniture (of a house): decora atque ornamentum fanorum in instrumento ac supellectili C. Verris nominabuntur, Verr. 2, 4, 44; instrumenti ne magni siet (of a villa), Cato, R. R. I. 5. A common meaning is that of a tool, or utensil of any kind: inest huic computationi sumptus fabrorum et venatorii instrumenti, Plin. 3, 19; crudelia iussae instrumenta necis, ferrumque ignisque parantur, Ov. M. 3, 697; arma, tela, equos et cetera instrumenta militiae parare, Sall. Jug. 43, 3; naves nautico instrumento aptae, Liv. 30, 10, 3. The following example shows it meaning a legal document: opus est intueri omne litis instrumentum; quod videre non est satis, perlegendum est, Quint. 12, 8, 12. The meaning of supply, provisions (both literal and figurative) is illustrated by the following examples: quid viatici, quid instrumenti satis sit, Att. XII, 32, 2; instrumenta naturae deerant, sed tantus animi splendor erat ut.., Brut. 77, 268; in oratoris vero instrumento tam lautam supellectilem numquam videram, De Or. I, 36, 165. In one instance it plainly means apparel, dress: in iuvenem rediit, anilia demit instrumenta, Ov. M. 14, 766. The meaning of aid or assistance is seen in these citations: quanta instrumenta habeat ad obtinendam adipiscendamque sapientiam, Leg. 1, 22; industriae subsidia atque instrumenta virtutis in libidine audaciaque consumpsit, Cat. 2, 5.

Ornamentum is very similar in meaning to instrumentum, and shows similar variety of signification due to context, although the verb stem is a little more specialized. The number of things which may be spoken of as having ornamenta are seen from the examples: ornamenta bubus, ornamenta asinis instrata (esse oporteat), Cato, R. R. 11, 4; elephantos ornatos armatosque cum turribus et ornamentis capit, Auct. B. Afr. 86; pecuniam omniaque ornamenta ex fano Herculis in oppidum Gadis contulit, B. C. 2, 18, 2; eloquentia principibus maximo ornamento est, F. 4, 61; pecuniam et ornamenta triumphi Caesaris retinenda curaret, Auct. B. Afr. 28, 2; audieram quae de orationis ipsius ornamentis traderentur, De Or. I, 144; pulcherrima totius Galliae urbs, quae praesidio et ornamento est civitati, B. G. 7, 15; mihi hoc subsidium comparavi ad decus atque ornamentum senectutis, Orat. 1, 45; Hortensius, lumen atque ornamentum rei publicae, Mil. 14; urceoli sex, ornamentum abaci, Juv. 3, 203; neminem omnium tot et tanta, quanta sunt in Crasso, habuisse ornamenta dicendi, Orat. 2, 28. Sometimes adjectives show the ornamenta to be a special sort of distinction: pluribus triumphalia ornamenta decernenda curavit, Suet. Aug. 38; decem praetoriis viris consularia ornamenta tribuit, Suet. Caes. 76. In comedy especially it means dress, costume: ipse ornamenta a chorago haec sumpsit: si potero ornamentis hominem circumducere, dabo operam ut...., Trin. 859, 860; hominem cum ornamentis omnibus exornatum adducite ad me, Pseud. 756; also trinkets: i, Palaestrio, aurum, ornamenta, vestem, omnia duc, M. G. 1302; in one instance, the dress of tragedy: ornamenta absunt: Aiacem, hunc quom vides ipsum vides, Capt. 615.

Stramentum is applied to a number of things which can be conceived of as being strewn or covered with straw, but is also sometimes used absolutely: fasces stramentorum virgultorumque incenderunt, B. G. 8, 15, 5; iubet magnum numerum mulorum produci deque his stramenta detrahi, B. G. 7, 45; cum ea noctem in stramentis pernoctare (a bed), Truc. 278; stramenta si deerunt, frondem ligneam legito: eam substernito ovibus bubusque, Cato, R. R. 5. There are two examples in which it means the roof of a house, or thatch: casae, quae stramentis tectae erant, B. G. 5, 43; pars ignes casis stramento arido tectis iniciunt, Liv. 25, 39.

Tormentum, an instrument with which anything is turned or twisted, is applied especially to a military engine for hurling missiles: aciem eo loco constituit, unde tormento missa tela in hostium cuneos conici possent, B. G. 8, 14, 5; the missile itself: quod unum genus tegumenti nullo telo neque tormento transici posse, B. C. 2, 9; a (twisted) cord or rope: praesectis omnium mulierum crinibus tormenta effecerunt, B. C. 3, 9, 3; a chain or fetter: nam si non ferat, tormento non retineri potuit ferreo, Curc. 227; an instrument of torture: rotam, id est genus quoddam tormenti apud Graecos, T. 5, 24; tum verberibus ac tormentis quaestionem habuit pecuniae publicae, Phil. 11, 2, 5; torture, pain: cum incredibles cruciatus et indignissima tormenta pateretur, Plin. Ep. 1, 12, 6; hinc licebit tum dicere se beatum in summo cruciatu atque tormentis, T. 5, 73.

Vestimentum, in addition to having its common meaning of clothing: me vides ut sim vestimentis uvidis, Rud. 573; is once applied to the covering of a bed: huc est intro latus lectus, vestimentis stratus, Heaut. 903.

From the above examples it will be clear that at least some -mentum words get precision of meaning from the context. The different means by which the context exerts influence would be difficult to classify; still less could one assert that -mentum tends to have any meaning. Perhaps we should not speak of a word varying semantically when it is used figuratively, yet it is only from the context that we can ascertain whether it is used figuratively or not. A word can be used in a figurative sense only when, in one context, it has certain elements identical with those which it has in another context. The more definite and concrete the object expressed by a noun, the less variability will be expected, either in a literal or figurative use. This is true of the -bulum and -culum words, which, while admitting a small range of variation, are much more limited in their variation than the -mentum words were found to be. The best examples will be given below.

Conciliabulum is a place of assembly and is expressly so defined by Festus (cf. Chapter II, p. 25): mulieres ex oppidis conciliabulisque conveniebant, Liv. 34, 1, 6; sacerdotes non Romae modo, sed per omnia fora et conciliabula conquiri, Liv. 39, 14, 7. The following example, however, shows that it may also mean the assembly itself: igitur per conciliabula et coetus seditiosa disserebant, Tac. A. 3, 40. In a few instances it takes on a bad meaning: ne penetrarem me usquam ubi esset damni conciliabulum, Trin. 314; forte aut cena, ut solet in istis fieri conciliabulis, Bacc. 80.

Latibulum is seen to be a hiding place for different animals and even of men, and also a refuge (figurative): cum etiam se ferae latibulis tegant, Rab. Post. 42; repente te tamquam serpens a latibulis intulisti, Vatin. 4; defendendi facilis est cautio non solum latibulis occultorum locorum, sed etiam tempestatum moderatione et conversione (of pirates), Flacc. 13, 31; ego autem volo aliquod emere latibulum et perfugium doloris mei, Att. XII, 13, 2.

Pabulum is used not only of food for animals but also, in poetry, of food for men, and sometimes for the pastures, or feeding places. Its figurative meaning is also quite common: bubus pabulum parare oportet, Cato, R. R. 54, 1; pabula carpsit ovis, Ov. F. 4, 750; ferae pecudes persultant pabula laeta, Lucr. 1, 14; novitas mundi pabula dura tulit, miseris mortalibus ampla, Lucr. 5, 944; si animus habet aliquod tamquam pabulum studii atque doctrinae, C. 49; sed fugitare decet simulacra et pabula amoris, Lucr. 4, 1063.

Stabulum has its literal and general meaning of standing-place in only two examples: neutrubi habeam stabile stabulum, siquid divorti fuat, Aul. 233; nusquam stabulum confidentiae, Most. 350. Most frequently it means a stable for animals or lair of wild beasts: neque iam stabulis gaudet pecus aut arator igni, Hor. C. 1, 4, 3; itur in antiquam silvam, stabula alta ferarum, Aen. 6, 179. The agricultural writers use it in speaking of a variety of animals, birds and fishes: pecudibus sient stabula, Col. 1, 6, 4; avium cohortalium stabula (an aviary), Col. 8, 1; ut sit pavonum stabulum, Col. 8, 11, 3; hac ratione stabulis ordinatis aquatile pecus inducemus, Col. 8, 17, 7; absint et picti squalentia terga lacerti pinguibus a stabulis (of bees), Georg. 4, 14. It also means a cottage, a hut, a dwelling like a stable: cum Catilina pastorum stabula praedari coepisset, Sest. 12; pueros ab eo ad stabula Larentiae uxori educandos datos, Liv. 1, 4, 7. A number of times the context shows it applied to a house of ill fame: pistorum amicas, quae tibi olant stabulum stratumque, Poen. 267. Twice it is applied to persons as a term of reproach: ipsa quae sis stabulum flagitii, Truc. 587; faciam uti proinde ut est dignus vitam colat, Acheruntis pabulum, stabulum nequitiae, Cas. 160. In the last example pabulum is also used with an emotional tone.

Vocabulum is a name or appellation, the name of the thing itself being expressed, if at all, in the genitive, or in the nominative with vocabulum in the ablative: si res suum nomen et proprium vocabulum non habet, De Or. III, 159; deligitur artifex talium vocabulo Locusta, Tac. A. 12, 66. It also signifies as a grammatical term, a noun, as opposed to a verb: Aristotelis orationis duas partes esse dicit, vocabula et verba, ut homo et equus, et legis et currit, Varro, L. L. 8.

Conventiculum regularly means an assembly (without any diminutive notion): conventicula hominum quae postea civitates nominatae sunt, Sest. 91; but it may also mean the place of assembly: exstructa sunt apud nemus conventicula, Tac. A. 14, 15.

Oraculum may mean a prophetic declaration by gods, or by men: cum praesertim deorum immortalium iussis atque oraculis id fecisse dicantur, Sex. Rosc. 66; haec ego nunc physicorum oracula fundo, vera an falsa nescio, N. 1, 66. Also the place where oracular responses were given: numquam illud oraculum Delphis tam celebre fuisset nisi...., Div. I, 19, 37.

Periculum, in the sense of trial, is always the object of the verb facere: fac semel periculum, Cist. 504; priusquam periculum faceret, B. G. 4, 21. Its change to the meaning of danger must have been by some such step as is seen in the following example, although periculum facere, “make a trial,” is also practically the same as “run a risk”: nescio quanto in periculo sumus, Phor. 58. The common meaning of risk or danger hardly needs to be illustrated: salus sociorum summum in periculum vocatur, Pomp. 5, 12. The context shows it to have also two other meanings; viz., a lawsuit: meus labor in periculis privatorum caste integreque versatus, Pomp. 1, 2; a judicial sentence: petiit ut in periculo suo inscriberent, Nep. Ep. 8; est honestus, quod eorum hominum fidei tabulae publicae periculaque magistratuum committuntur, Verr. 2, 3, 79.

Piaculum is properly an offering performed as a means of appeasing a deity: porco femina piaculum faciundum est, Leg. II, 57; apparet omnia nec ullis piaculis expiari posse, Liv. 5, 53; and then naturally it is applied to the victim itself: duc nigras pecudes: ea prima piacula sunto, Aen. 6, 153; then also a sinful action, which needs expiation: nonne in mentem venit, quantum piaculi committatur?, Liv. 5, 52.

Spectaculum is properly a “sight”, anything seen: quom hoc mihi optulisti tam lepidum spectaculum, Poen. 209; then a show, on the stage or in the arena: spectacula sunt tributim data, Muren. 72. Once in Plautus it clearly means a part of the theater itself: exoritur ventus turbo, spectacula ibi ruont, Curc. 647; that it means also the theater in general is seen from a few examples: resonant spectacula plausu, Ov. M. 10, 668; ex omnibus spectaculis plausus est excitatus, Sest. 58.

Umbraculum is a shady place: faciundum umbracula, quo succedant homines in aestu tempore meridiano, Varro, R. R. I, 51; also anything that furnishes shade, an umbrella: aurea pellebant tepidos umbracula soles, Ov. F. II, 311. The limiting genitive in the following example shows the noun to have lost its regular stem-meaning and to have been used for “school”: Demetrius mirabiliter doctrinam ex umbraculis eruditorum otioque produxit, Leg. III, 14.

Vehiculum, a means of transportation, is applied to wagons or carts: omnes di, qui vehiculis tensarum solemnes coitus ludorum initis, Verr. 5, 186; but also to ships: ut procul divinum et novum vehiculum Argonautarum e monte conspexit, N. II, 89.

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That the words which we have treated vary in meaning according to the context seems perfectly obvious; but the extent to which this is true in general has received little if any attention from linguistic students. The tracing of the meaning of a word through various periods of the language has been commonly enough done; that side of the question, however, this investigation has not touched except incidentally. But the material presented in this chapter and the preceding has, it is hoped, been sufficient to illustrate how the words formed with our suffixes, while revealing a limited tendency in meaning due to their verb stems, often also owe much of their meaning to the context in which they are used.