SECTION I NOTES ON FOOD
Reading edition
Balancing the Diet
It will help to balance the ration and to avoid an excess of protein and also to avoid a deficiency of either fat or carbohydrate, if we take a bird’s-eye view of the various common foods in respect to the protein, fat and carbohydrate they contain. For this purpose the following table has been constructed.
Common Foods Classified
COMMON FOODS CLASSIFIED
Poor in Fat. Rich in Fat. Very rich in Fat.
Very high in Protein White of Eggs Cod Fish Lean Beef Chicken Veal
High in Protein Shell-fish Skim Milk Lentils Peas Beans Most Fish Most Meats Most Fowl Whole Egg Cheese
Moderate or Deficient in Protein Most Vegetables Bread Potatoes Fruits Sugar Peanuts Milk Cream Soups Most Pies Doughnuts Fat Meats Yolk of Eggs Most Nuts Cream Butter
The foods given in the uppermost compartment are those “very high” in protein (above 40 per cent. of their total calories, or food value, being protein). Those in the two compartments next below are merely “high” in protein (20 to 40 per cent.), while the lowest three compartments contain those “moderate or deficient” in protein (zero to 20 per cent.).
The compartment farthest to the right contains a list of those foods “very rich in fat.” The two compartments next to the left contain those “rich in fat,” and the three compartments to the extreme left contain those “poor in fat.”
With reference to carbohydrates (starch or sugar), we can say that the foods in the lower left compartment are very rich in carbohydrate. Those in the two neighboring compartments (the one beginning “shell-fish” and the one beginning “peanuts”) are moderate, and those in the remaining compartments are those poorest in carbohydrate.
Thus, practically, the nearer the name of any food is to the upper corner of this triangular table, the more protein that food contains; the nearer it is to the right hand corner, the more fat; and the nearer to the remaining corner (lower left), the more carbohydrate (starch and sugar).
Ideal Food Proportions
An ideal proportion of the three food elements is to be had only in the middle compartment of the lowest row. But it is by no means necessary or advisable to confine one’s diet to the few foods which happen to fall in that compartment, provided foods chosen from other compartments balance each other. Thus, fruit and nuts balance each other, the one being at the left and the other at the right of the ideal compartment. In the same way, potatoes and cream balance each other, as do bread and butter. Instinctively these combinations have been chosen, especially bread and butter. This combination is, however, slightly too low in protein, and a better balance is obtained by adding a little from the compartment vertically above the ideal. In this way we obtain the familiar meat-, egg-, or cheese-sandwich, constituting of itself a fairly well-balanced meal.
In short, in order to maintain a diet correct as to protein, it is only necessary to make our main choices from the lowest row and, in case the foods so chosen are near the bottom, to supplement these by a moderate use from the row above and a still more sparing use of those in the top compartment.
The following more detailed and specific table of food values will prove helpful to those who desire intelligently to balance their diet or to provide balanced menus for their families. A very little attention to this subject will enable one to acquire sufficient knowledge of dietetic needs to successfully govern the diet in a general way without weighing or measuring the food. In the following table the number of calories available in ordinary food portions is stated. Such a table should not, of course, be memorized, but an occasional reference to it will enable one soon to acquire a working knowledge of the food values of the main articles in the dietary.
TABLE OF FOOD VALUES
THE WEIGHT (IN GRAMS, OUNCES AND ROUGH MEASURE) OF A PORTION CONTAINING 100 CALORIES OF EACH FOOD AND THE NUMBER OF CALORIES IN THE 100 IN THE FORM OF PROTEIN, FAT AND CARBOHYDRATE.
[A]
Name of Food “Portion” Containing 100 Calories Roughly Described Wgt. of 100 Calories Percent of
Gram Ounce Protein Fat Carbo- hydrate
VEGETABLES
[B] Artichokes, as purchased, average, canned 430 15. 14 0 86
[B] Asparagus, as purchased, average, canned 540 19. 33 5 62
[B] Asparagus, as purchased, average, cooked 206 7.19 18 63 19
[B] Beans, baked, canned Small side dish 75 2.66 21 18 61
[B] Beans, Lima, canned Large side dish 126 4.44 21 4 75
[B] Beans, string, cooked Five servings 480 16.66 15 48 37
[B] Beets, edible portion, cooked Three servings 245 8.7 2 23 75
[B] Cabbage, edible portion 310 17. 20 8 72
[B] Carrots, edible portion, average, fresh 215 7.6 10 8 82
Carrots, cooked Two servings 164 5.81 10 34 56
[B] Cauliflower, as purchased, average 312 11. 23 15 62
[B] Celery, edible portion, average 540 19. 24 5 71
Corn, sweet, cooked One side dish 99 3.5 13 10 77
[B] Cucumbers, edible portion, average 565 20. 18 10 72
[B] Egg plant, edible portion, average 350 12. 17 10 73
Lentils, cooked 89 3.15 27 1 72
[B] Lettuce, edible portion, average 505 18. 25 14 61
[B] Mushrooms, as purchased, average 215 7.6 31 8 61
[B] Onions, fresh, edible portion, average 200 7.1 13 5 82
[B] Onions, cooked Two large servings 240 8.4 12 40 48
[B] Parsnips, edible portion, average One and a half servings 152 5.3 10 7 83
Parsnips, cooked 163 5.74 10 34 56
[B] Peas, green, canned Two servings 178 6.3 25 3 72
[B] Peas, green, cooked One serving 85 3. 23 27 50
Potatoes, baked One good sized 86 3.05 11 1 88
[B] Potatoes, boiled One large sized 102 3.62 11 1 88
[B] Potatoes, mashed (creamed) One serving 89 3.14 10 25 65
[B] Potatoes, steamed One serving 101 3.57 11 1 88
[B] Potatoes, chips One-half serving 17 .6 4 63 33
[B] Potatoes, sweet, cooked Half of average potato 49 1.7 6 9 85
[B] Pumpkins, edible portion, average 380 13. 15 4 81
Radishes, as purchased 480 17. 18 3 79
Rhubarb, edible portion, average 430 15. 10 27 63
[B] Spinach, cooked, as purchased Two ordinary servings 174 6.1 15 66 19
[B] Squash, edible portion, average 210 7.4 12 10 78
[B] Succotash, canned, as purchased, average Ordinary serving 100 3.5 15 9 76
[B] Tomatoes, fresh, as purchased, average Four average tomatoes 430 15. 15 16 69
[B] Tomatoes, canned 431 15.2 21 7 72
[B] Turnips, edible portion, average Two large servings 246 8.7 13 4 83
Vegetable oysters 273 9.62 10 51 39
FRUITS (FRESH OR COOKED)
[B] Apples, as purchased Two apples 206 7.3 3 7 90
Apples, baked 94 3.3 2 5 93
Apples, sauce Ordinary serving 111 3.9 2 5 93
[B] Apricots, edible portion, average 168 5.92 8 0 92
Apricots, cooked Large serving 131 4.61 6 0 94
[B] Bananas, yellow, edible portion, average One large 100 3.5 5 5 90
[B] Blackberries, as purchased, average 170 5.9 9 16 75
Blueberries 128 4.6 3 8 89
[B] Blueberries, canned, as purchased 165 5.8 4 9 87
Cantaloupe Half ordinary serving 243 8.6 6 0 94
[B] Cherries, edible portion, average 124 4.4 5 10 85
[B] Cranberries, as purchased, average 210 7.5 3 12 85
[B] Grapes, as purchased, average 136 4.8 5 15 80
Grape fruit 215 7.57 7 4 89
Grape juice Small glass 120 4.2 0 0 100
Gooseberries 261 9.2 5 0 95
[B] Lemons 215 7.57 9 14 77
Lemon juice 246 8.77 0 0 100
Nectarines 147 5.18 4 0 96
Olives, ripe About seven olives 37 1.31 2 91 7
[B] Oranges, as purchased, average One very large 270 9.4 6 3 91
Oranges, juice Large glass 188 6.62 0 0 100
[B] Peaches, as purchased, average Three ordinary 290 10. 7 2 91
Peaches, sauce Ordinary serving 136 4.78 4 2 94
Peaches, juice Ordinary glass 136 4.80 0 0 100
[B] Pears One large pear 173 5.40 4 7 89
Pears, sauce 113 3.98 3 4 93
[B] Pineapples, edible portion, average 226 8. 4 6 90
Raspberries, black 146 5.18 10 14 76
Raspberries, red 178 6.29 8 0 92
[B] Strawberries, as purchased, average Two servings 260 9.1 10 15 75
[B] Watermelon, as purchased, average 760 27. 6 6 88
COOKED MEATS
[B] Calves foot jelly, as purchased 112 4. 19 00 81
[B] Chicken, as purchased, canned One thin slice 27 .96 23 77 00
[B] Lamb chops, boiled, edible portion, average One small chop 27 .96 24 76 00
[B] Lamb, leg, roast Ordinary serving 50 1.8 40 60 00
[B] Turkey, as purchased, canned Small serving 28 .99 23 77 00
CAKES, PASTRY, PUDDING AND DESSERTS
[B] Cake, chocolate layer, as purchased Half ordinary square piece 28 .98 7 22 71
[B] Cake, gingerbread, as purchased Half ordinary square piece 27 .96 6 23 71
[B] Cake, sponge, as purchased Small piece 25 .89 7 25 68
Custard, caramel 71 2.51 19 10 71
Custard, milk Ordinary cup 122 4.29 26 56 18
Custard, tapioca Two-thirds ordinary 69.5 2.45 9 12 79
[B] Doughnuts, as purchased Half a doughnut 23 .8 6 45 49
[B] Lady fingers, as purchased 27 .95 10 12 78
[B] Macaroons, as purchased 23 .82 6 33 61
Pie, apple, as purchased One-third ordinary piece 38 1.3 5 32 63
[B] Pie, cream, as purchased One-fourth ordinary piece 30 1.1 5 32 63
[B] Pie, custard, as purchased One-third ordinary piece 55 1.9 9 32 59
[B] Pie, lemon, as purchased One-third ordinary piece 38 1.35 6 36 58
[B] Pie, mince, as purchased One-fourth ordinary piece 35 1.2 8 38 54
[B] Pie, squash, as purchased One-third ordinary piece 55 1.9 10 42 48
Pudding, apple sago 81 3.02 6 3 91
Pudding, brown betty Half ordinary serving 56.6 2. 7 12 81
Pudding, cream rice Very small serving 75 2.65 8 13 79
Pudding, Indian meal Half ordinary serving 56.6 2. 12 25 63
Pudding, apple tapioca Small serving 79 2.8 1 1 98
Tapioca, cooked Ordinary serving 108 3.85 1 1 98
FRUITS (DRIED)
[B] Apples, as purchased, average 34 1.2 3 7 90
Apricots, as purchased, average 35 1.24 7 3 90
[B] Dates, edible portion, average Three large 28 .99 2 7 91
[B] Dates, as purchased 31 1.1 2 7 91
[B] Figs, edible portion, average One large 31 1.1 5 0 95
[B] Prunes, edible portion, average Three large 32 1.14 3 0 97
[B] Prunes, as purchased 38 1.35 3 0 97
[B] Raisins, edible portion, average 28 1. 3 9 88
[B] Raisins, as purchased 31 1.1 3 9 88
CEREALS
[B] Bread, brown, as purchased, average Ordinary thick slice 43 1.5 9 7 84
[B] Bread, corn (johnnycake) as purchased, average Small square 38 1.3 12 10 72
[B] Bread, white, home made, as purchased Ordinary thick slice 38 1.3 13 6 81
Corn flakes, toasted Ordinary cereal dishful 27 .97 11 1 88
[B] Corn meal, granular, average 27 .96 10 5 85
[B] Corn meal, unbolted, edible portion, average 26 .92 9 11 80
[B] Crackers, graham, as purchased Two crackers 23 .82 9 20 71
[B] Crackers, oatmeal, as purchased Two crackers 23 .81 11 24 65
[B] Hominy, cooked Large serving 120 4.2 11 2 87
[B] Macaroni, average 27 .96 16 2 83
[B] Macaroni, average, cooked Ordinary serving 110 3.85 14 15 71
[B] Oatmeal, average, boiled One and a half serving 159 5.6 18 7 75
[B] Popcorn, average 24 .86 11 11 78
[B] Rice, uncooked 28 .98 9 1 90
[B] Rice, boiled, average Ordinary cereal dish 87 3.1 10 1 89
[B] Rice, flakes Ordinary cereal dish 27 .94 8 1 91
[B] Rolls, Vienna, as purchased, average One large roll 35 1.2 12 7 81
[B] Shredded wheat One biscuit 27 .94 13 4.5 82.5
[B] Spaghetti, average 28 .97 12 1 87
[B] Wheat flour, entire wheat average 27 .96 15 5 80
[B] Wheat flour, graham, average 27 .96 15 5 80
[B] Wheat flour, patent roller process, family and straight grade spring wheat, average 27 .97 12 3 85
[B] Zwieback Size of thick slice bread 23 .81 9 21 70
DAIRY PRODUCTS
[B] Butter, as purchased Ordinary pat or ball 12.5 .44 .5 99.5 00
[B] Buttermilk, as purchased One and a half glass 275 9.7 34 12 54
[B] Cheese, American, pale, as purchased One and a half cubic in 22 .77 25 73 2
[B] Cheese, cottage, as purchased Four cubic in 89 3.12 76 8 16
[B] Cheese, full cream, as purchased One and a half cubic in. 23 .82 25 73 2
[B] Cheese, Neufchatel, as purchased One and a half cubic in. 29.5 1.05 22 76 2
[B] Cheese, Swiss, as purchased One and a half cubic in. 23 .8 25 74 1
[B] Cheese, pineapple, as purchased One and a half cubic in. 20 .72 25 73 2
[B] Cream One quarter ordinary glass 49 1.7 5 86 9
Kumyss 188 6.7 21 37 42
[B] Milk, condensed, sweetened, as purch. 30 1.06 10 23 67
[B] Milk, condensed, unsweetened (evap. cream) as purchased 59 2.05 24 50 26
[B] Milk, skimmed, as purchased One and a half glasses 255 9.4 37 7 56
[B] Milk, whole, as purchased Small glass 140 4.9 19 52 29
Whey, as purchased Two glasses 360 13 15 10 75
SWEETS AND PICKLES
[B] Catsup, tomato, as purchased, average 170 6. 10 3 87
[B] Honey, as purchased Four teaspoonfuls 30 1.05 1 0 99
[B] Marmalade (orange peel) 28.3 1. .5 2.5 97
[B] Molasses, cane 35 1.2 .5 0 99.5
[B] Olives, green, edible portion Seven olives 32 1.1 1 84 15
[B] Olives, ripe, edible portion Seven olives 38 1.3 2 91 7
[B] Pickles, mixed, as purchased 415 14.6 18 15 67
[B] Sugar, granulated Three teaspoonfuls or one and a half lumps 24 .86 0 0 100
[B] Sugar, maple Four teaspoonfuls 29 1.03 0 0 100
[B] Sirup, maple Four teaspoonfuls 35 1.2 0 0 100
NUTS
[B] Almonds, edible portion, average About eight 15 .53 13 77 10
[B] Beechnuts 14.8 .52 13 79 8
[B] Brazil nuts, edible portion Three ordinary size 14 .49 10 86 4
[B] Butternuts 14 .50 16 82 2
[B] Cocoanuts 16 .57 4 77 19
[B] Chestnuts, fresh, edible portion, average 40 1.4 10 20 70
[B] Filberts, edible portion, average Ten nuts 14 .48 9 84 7
[B] Hickory nuts 13 .47 9 85 6
[B] Peanuts, edible portion, average Thirteen double 18 .62 20 63 17
[B] Pecans, polished, edible portion About eight 13 .46 6 87 7
[B] Pine nuts (pignolias), edible portion About eighty 16 .56 22 74 4
[B] Walnuts, California, edible portion About six 14 .48 10 83 7
MISCELLANEOUS
[B] Eggs, hen’s, boiled One large egg 59 2.1 32 68 00
[B] Eggs, hen’s whites 181 6.4 100 0 00
[B] Eggs, hen’s, yolks Two yolks 27 .94 17 83 00
[B] Omelet 94 3.3 34 60 6
[B] Soup, beef, as purchased, average 380 13. 69 14 17
[B] Soup, bean, as purchased, average Very large plate 150 5.4 20 20 60
[B] Soup, cream of celery, as purch., average Two plates 180 6.3 16 47 37
[B] Consomme, as purchased 830 29. 85 00 15
[B] Clam chowder, as purchased Two plates 230 8.25 17 18 65
Cost of Ready to Serve Foods
The following table, adapted from one compiled by Gephart and Lusk (“Analysis and Cost of Ready to Serve Foods”), shows in convenient form the relative energy values and cost of the more commonly used articles of food.
A brief glance at this table will show how easily one might slowly starve on very expensive food, and yet how easily the energy food needed can be secured at a very low cost.
It would, of course, be a great mistake to regulate the diet solely with regard to fuel value. Digestibility, as well as protein, mineral and vitamin requirements, must also be considered. Nevertheless, the main requirement is for fuel, and this, as the table shows, can be secured at a surprizingly low cost.
Name of Food. No. of Calories in One Order.[E] Cost of One Order “Quick Lunch” Restaurant.
Napoleon 418.6 $0.05
Crullers 416.6 .05
Cabinet pudding and vanilla sauce 416.6 .05
Cocoanut pie 357 .05
Bath buns 357 .05
Bread custard pudding 357 .05
Pineapple pie 357 .05
Corn muffins 357 .05
Apple pie 357 .05
New England pudding with vanilla sauce 312.5 .05
Chocolate spiced cakes. 312.5 .05
Walnut layer cake with marshmallow icing 312.5 .05
Milk crackers 312.5 .05
Bread pudding with vanilla sauce 312.5 .05
Pumpkin pie 312.5 .05
[G] Lamb croquettes and mashed potatoes 833.3 .15
Coffee cake 277.7 .05
Rhubarb pie 277.7 .05
[G] German meat cakes and French fried potatoes 833.3 .15
Old-fashioned molasses cake 277.7 .05
Lemon pie 277.7 .05
Butter cakes 277.7 .05
Minced ham sandwich 277.7 .05
Pork and Boston beans 833.3 .15
Cornmeal cakes with maple cane sirup 500 .10
[G] Ham croquettes 500 .10
Cold rice pudding 277.7 .05
Ham sandwich with roll 250 .05
Banana layer cake 250 .05
Cocoa 250 .05
[F] Boston baked beans 500 .10
[G] Vienna roast, spaghetti and potatoes 625 .15
Chocolate cornstarch with cream 227.2 .05
Wheat cakes with maple cane sirup 500 .10
Milk crackers and milk 500 .10
[F] New York baked beans 500 .10
Hot corn bread 416.6 .10
Indian pudding with maple sauce 227.2 .05
Cream roll 227.2 .05
[G] Beef cakes with brown gravy and macaroni 625 .15
[F] New York beans, on the side 227.2 .05
Graham crackers 227.2 .05
[G] Broiled ham 833.3 .20
[G] Roast beef hash, browned 625 .15
Oyster pie 625 .15
Apple tapioca pudding 227.2 .05
Potato salad 416.6 .10
Chocolate layer cake 208.3 .05
Egg plant fried in butter 625 .15
Buckwheat cakes with maple cane sirup 417.6 .10
[G] Roast beef croquettes with macaroni 625 .15
[G] Fried bacon with French fried potatoes 833.3 .20
[G] Sardine sandwich 208.3 .05
Vanilla cornstarch with cream 208.3 .05
[G] Lamb cutlet and mashed potatoes 625 .15
Cocoanut cake 208.3 .05
Cream cheese walnut sandwich 208.3 .05
[F] New York baked beans with tomato sauce 416.6 .10
[G] Ham and Boston beans 625 .15
[G] Liver and onions with French fried potatoes 833.3 .20
Rice croquette with bacon 625 .15
Baked apple with cream 416.6 .10
[G] Frankfurters and potato salad 625 .15
Baked beans with macaroni 625 .15
Cup of coffee (containing cream and sugar) 192.3 .05
[G] Mince pie 417.6 .10
Cherry pie 357 .10
Pound cake 357 .10
[G] Chicken cutlet and mashed potatoes 625 .20
Cream tapioca pudding 192.3 .05
Soda crackers and milk 357 .10
Strawberry pie 357 .10
Chocolate eclair 192.3 .05
[G] Broiled bacon 833.3 .20
Rice cakes with maple cane sirup 625 .15
[G] Cold ham 500 .15
[G] Roast beef croquettes and spaghetti 500 .15
[G] Minced ham with scrambled eggs 833.3 .20
Peach pie 357 .10
[G] Baked macaroni and cheese 357 .10
Huckleberry pie 357 .10
French toast with maple cane sirup. 625 .15
Blackberry pie 357 .10
[G] Vienna roast with stewed tomatoes 500 .15
[G] Small oyster fry 625 .20
Hot rice with cream 500 .15
[G] Plain oyster fry with bacon 625 .20
[G] Corned beef hash, browned in pan 500 .15
[G] Corned beef hash, steamed 500 .15
Cream 500 .15
[G] Country sausage and French fried potatoes 500 .15
[G] Large oyster fry 833.3 .25
Apple fritters with fruit sauce 312.5 .10
[G] Fish cakes with tomato sauce 500 .15
French fried potatoes, extra order 312.5 .10
Chocolate cornstarch with whipped cream 156.25 .05
Shredded wheat and cream 416.6 .15
[G] Chicken croquette and French fried potatoes 500 .15
[G] Ham and potato salad 625 .20
Charlotte russe 156.25 .05
[G] Bacon and eggs 833.3 .25
Strawberry fruit jelly with whipped cream 156.25 .05
[G] Oyster sandwich 312.5 .10
[F] Chicken giblets on toast 625 .20
Hot rice with butter 312.5 .10
Pimento olive cheese sandwich 156.25 .05
Buttered toast 312.5 .10
[G] Two scrambled eggs 416.6 .15
Apple sauce with whipped cream 147.05 .05
Hot rice with poached egg 416.6 .15
Fish cakes with poached egg 625 .20
[G] Hot rice with milk 277.7 .10
Baked apple 138.8 .05
Baked apple with ice cream 277.7 .10
[G] Two lamb chops 833.3 .30
[G] Chicken salad sandwich 277.7 .10
[F] Boston beans on side 131.57 .05
Tomato sandwich 131.57 .05
[G] Lamb chops, breaded, with mashed potatoes 500 .20
[G] Spanish omelet with French fried potatoes 625 .25
Baked apple custard with whipped cream 250 .10
Boiled rice, side order 131.57 .05
Fresh cooked oatmeal with cream 416.6 .15
Sliced bananas with cream 250 .10
[F] Macaroni, side order 125 .05
[G] Tomato omelet with potatoes 625 .25
Green split pea soup 227.2 .10
Vanilla ice cream 227.2 .10
Strawberry tart 227.2 .10
Pineapple fruit jelly with whipped cream 108.69 .05
[G] Milk toast 312.5 .15
Strawberry cornstarch with whipped cream 104.16 .05
Strawberry ice cream 208.3 .10
[F] Chicken soup 312.5 .15
Vegetable soup 192.3 .10
Stewed rhubarb 92.59 .05
Strawberries with cream 277.7 .15
Strawberry short cake 277.7 .15
Sliced bananas 89.28 .05
[G] Minced chicken sandwich with lettuce 166.66 .10
[F] Bean soup with croutons 166.66 .10
Strawberries with ice cream 192.3 .15
[F] Cream of wheat 125 .10
Blackberries and cream 113.63 .10
Stewed corn 52.08 .05
[F] Creamed asparagus on toast 192.3 .20
Watermelon 125 .15
[F] Tomato soup with rice 73.52 .10
Sliced pineapple 35.21 .05
Grape Fruit 78.12 .15
Sliced tomatoes with lettuce 50 .15
[F] Sliced tomatoes 30.48 .10
Tomatoes and lettuce with dressing 53.19 .20
Cantaloupe 36.23 .15
Champagne[H] 357 1.00
The Minimal Cost of Food
Professor Graham Lusk has very kindly contributed the following comments and additional table, derived from this material:
“The above are analyses of 350 different samples of foods purchased over the counters of a company which maintains a chain of restaurants in New York City, and obtained without knowledge on the part of these restaurants that the analyses were contemplated.
“One may reliably assume that for the man of ordinary size, who lives without doing any special muscular exercise, the fuel requirement of the body each day amounts to 2,500 calories of heat. Translated into common terms, this is the quantity of heat which would be required to raise about 25 quarts of water from the freezing to the boiling point. Miss Cauble, a special investigator of the Association for the Improvement of the Condition of the Poor, kindly estimated the cost at wholesale prices of the ingredients of different portions sold in the restaurants. These are given in Table 9 beginning on page 64 of the pamphlet from which the above table was derived. The data enable one to construct a new table which gives the estimated wholesale cost of 2,500 calories in the various familiar forms of food sold in the restaurant. This represents the minimum cost of fuel for the support of an adult during twenty-four hours without taking into consideration labor, fuel or rent which, in the case of the restaurant, must be included in the cost of the foods when they are eaten. It represents the minimal cost of food in the home.
“It appears from the table given below that the cost of 2,500 calories in the wholesale market varies from $.04 in the case of boiled rice to $.61 for shad. About half of the dishes can be obtained at wholesale at a price less than $.25 for 2,500 calories, or less than a cent per hundred calories, a cost which is the standard striven for in school lunches. The table is given on the next page.
ESTIMATED WHOLESALE COST OF THE UNCOOKED INGREDIENTS OF 2500 CALORIES CONTAINED IN STANDARD FOODS ARRANGED ACCORDING TO THEIR INCREASING COST.
Apple tapioca pudding $.04
Rice, boiled (side order) .04
Bath buns .06
Pie, apple .07
Pie, rhubarb .08
Apple, baked .09
Pie, strawberry .09
Cocoa .09
Crullers .10
[I] Fish cakes with tomato sauce .13
Muffins, corn .13
[I] Lamb croquette and mashed potatoes .14
[I] Beans, Boston baked .15
[I] Beef, corned .15
Pie, lemon .15
Chicken wings on toast .16
Napoleon .16
[I] Salad, potato .16
Toast, buttered .16
Cream roll .17
[I] Beef, creamed, chipped, on toast .18
Cakes, butter .19
[I] Roast, Vienna, and spaghetti and potatoes .19
Pudding, tapioca, creamed .20
Sandwich, oyster .20
[I] Veal cutlet, breaded and tomato sauce .20
[I] Beef, corned, hash browned in pan .21
[I] Liver and bacon .21
[I] Roast, Vienna, with French fried potatoes .21
[I] Stew, lamb .21
[I] Beans, New York, baked .22
Cakes, buckwheat, with maple cane sirup .22
Coffee, cup of (contained cream and sugar) .22
Pudding, bread, with vanilla sauce .24
[I] Beef, corned, hashed, steamed .25
Oatmeal, fresh cooked, with cream .25
[I] Stew, beef .25
Pie, oyster .26
Potatoes, French fried, extra order .26
[I] Sandwich, ham .26
[I] Beef, creamed, chipped .27
[I] Sandwich, corned beef .27
[I] Beef, corned, hashed, steamed, with poached egg .28
[I] Mackerel, broiled salt, with mashed potatoes .28
Milk .29
Pudding, rice, cold .29
[I] Rice, hot, with poached egg .29
Soup, bean, with croutons .29
[I] Sandwich, minced chicken .30
Cornstarch, chocolate, with cream .31
Ice cream, strawberry .31
[I] Omelet, ham .32
Sandwich, cream cheese walnut .32
[I] Omelet, plain .33
Cornstarch, vanilla, with cream .34
[I] Omelet, onion .34
[I] Oyster fry, small .34
[I] Eggs, fried (2) .35
[I] Sandwich, fried egg .35
Sausage, country .35
[I] Chicken croquette and French fried potatoes .36
[I] Eggs, creamed, on toast .36
[I] Omelet, parsley .37
[I] Omelet, Spanish, with French fried potatoes .37
[I] Sandwich, tomato .39
[I] Eggs, scrambled (2) .40
[I] Lamb chops (2) .40
Sandwich, club .40
[I] Salad, tuna fish .41
Custard .43
[I] Sandwich, chicken, sliced .43
[I] Steak, tenderloin .43
[I] Ham, fried .44
[I] Sandwich, roast beef, hot .44
Strawberries with cream .44
Toast, milk .45
[I] Eggs, boiled (2) .47
[I] Omelet, chicken .47
[I] Sandwich, minced chicken with lettuce .49
[I] Eggs, poached on toast (2) .59
[I] Shad, baked, and dressing .61
“Contemplation of these results may be made after the housekeeper has carefully gone through the monthly hills for food, divided the cost of the total food by the number of days in the month and then divided this figure by the number of people in the family, counting children between five and fifteen years of age at two-thirds of an adult.
“It would be interesting to know whether the cost of food for the adult as determined in this fashion was $.25, $.50 or $1.00 per day. Wherever the higher values are reached it is certain that extravagant profits are paid to middlemen or great waste exists in the kitchen.
“The theme might still further be elaborated, but the essential data for those interested in food economics can be obtained from the table itself. Wholesale prices are used for the reason that retail prices are subject to great variation. The fluctuation of retail prices does not make it feasible to give their equivalents for the wholesale list, but the relationship can be judged by noting the equivalents for the extremes. In this table, for example, the retail price of 2500 calories of rice would be about 13 cents as against 4 cents wholesale, and for shad about $1.50, retail as against 61 cents wholesale.”
CALORIES OF FOOD CONSUMED DAILY[J]
The following table is derived from data produced by Becker and Hamalainen of the University of Helsingfors, Finland, from actual experiment with individuals alternately resting and working at their respective trades while in the “respiration calorimeter.”
Occupation Age Height Ft.–Ins. Wgt. Lbs. During Rest During Work Total Calories per Day (8 Hrs Work, 16 Hrs. Rest)
Calories per Hour Calories per Hour per Lb. of Body Weight Calories per Hour
MEN
Shoemaker 56 5–0 145 73 .50 172 2544
Shoemaker 30 5–8 143 87 .60 171 2760
Tailor 39 5–5 141 72 .50 124 2144
Tailor 46 5–10½ 161 102 .63 135 2712
Bookbinder 19 6–0 150 87 .58 164 2704
Bookbinder 23 5–4½ 143 85 .59 163 2664
Metalworker 34 5–4 139 81 .58 216 3024
Metalworker 27 5–5 130 99 .76 219 3336
Painter 25 5–11 154 104 .67 231 3512
Painter 27 5–8 147 111 .79 230 3616
Joiner 42 5–7 154 81 .50 204 2928
Joiner 24 5–5½ 141 85 .60 244 3312
Stone-worker 27 5–11 156 90 .57 408 4704
Stone-worker 22 5–8 141 85 .60 366 4288
Sawyer 42 5–5 167 86 .50 501 5384
Sawyer 43 5–5 143 84 .59 451 4952
WOMEN
Hand-sewer 53 5–3 139 75 .54 83 1864
Hand-sewer 35 5–6 143 64 .45 88 1728
Machine-sewer 53 5–3 139 75 .54 103 2024
Machine-sewer 19 5–3 110 64 .58 119 1976
Wash-woman 43 5–3 125 75 .60 285 3480
Wash-woman 19 5–3 110 64 .58 186 2512
Waitress 43 5–3 125 75 .60 228 3024
Waitress 19 5–3 110 64 .58 143 2168
Bookbinder 22 5–4 105 70 .65 98 1904
Bookbinder 22 5–3 112 61 .54 127 1992
For example, for sawyers (an active occupation), the heat production and consequent requirement in calories worked out as follows:
During rest 84 calories × 16 h.1344
During work 451 calories × 8 h.3608
Total calories4952
The tailor (sedentary occupation) showed the following heat production and calorific requirement:
72 calories × 16 h.1152
124 calories × 8 h. 992
Total calories2144
These figures show the wide variation in food requirements according to age, weight and occupation.
Basal Metabolism
Francis G. Benedict and his co-workers at the Nutrition Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, and Prof. Graham Lusk of Cornell University, have also made a large number of experiments to ascertain what is termed the basal metabolism or heat production of the body at perfect rest, and also that under varying degrees of activity. The results are closely in agreement with the above.
Benedict has lately produced evidence to show that the basal metabolism, or heat production, at rest is not governed entirely by such factors as body weight and body surface, but by the amount and activity of the active protoplasmic cells of the body—the cells that compose the organs and muscles and blood. The condition of these cells when the measurements are taken (which may be influenced by age, sleep, previous muscular exercise and diet) materially affects the amount of heat production and the requirements in energy food. Such experiments show why a man must literally burn up his own body, if he takes in no fuel in the form of food. Benedict’s views also account for the higher energy requirement of men as compared to women, who, as a rule, have more fat and less muscular tissue than men.
Diet and Endurance
We have quoted Rubner (vide page 38) as condemning the very old popular idea that meat is very “strengthening.” Actual experiments on this point have shown exactly the opposite to be the case. Meat eating and a high-protein diet instead of increasing one’s endurance, have been shown, like alcohol, to actually reduce it.
An experiment was made by one of the authors to determine this question. The experiment consisted of endurance tests made on 49 persons representing the two types of dietetic habits. The persons experimented upon constituted three classes: first, athletes accustomed to high-protein and full-flesh dietary; second, athletes accustomed to a low-protein and non-flesh dietary; third, sedentary persons accustomed to a low-protein and non-flesh dietary. The subjects consisted of Yale students and instructors, a Connecticut physician, and several other physicians and nurses. All of the low-protein and non-flesh subjects except one had abstained from flesh foods for periods of 4 to 20 years, and 5 of them had never eaten such foods.
The experiments furnished a severe test of the claims of the flesh-abstainers. Two comparisons were planned, one between flesh-eating athletes and flesh-abstaining athletes, and the other between flesh-eating athletes and flesh-abstaining sedentary workers. The results would indicate that the users of low-protein and the non-flesh dietaries have far greater endurance than those who are accustomed to the ordinary American diet.
In the absence of any exact mechanical method of measuring endurance, simple endurance tests were employed, such as holding the arms horizontally as long as possible and deep knee bending. The tests were made before witnesses.
The comparison for arm holding shows a great superiority on the side of the flesh-abstainers. Only 2 of the 15 flesh-eaters succeeded in holding their arms out over a quarter of an hour, whereas 22 of the 32 abstainers surpassed that limit. None of the flesh-eaters reached half an hour, but 15 of the 32 abstainers exceeded that limit. Of these 9 exceeded an hour, 4 exceeded 2 hours and 1 exceeded 3 hours.
In respect to deep knee bending, if we take the number 325 for reference, we find that, of the 9 flesh-eaters only 3 surpassed this figure, while of the 21 abstainers, 17 surpassed it. Only 1 of the 9 flesh-eaters reached 1,000 as against 6 of the 21 abstainers. None of the former surpassed 2,000 as against 2 of the latter.
Similar results have been found in other investigations. It is probable that the inferiority of meat-eaters in staying power is due primarily to high protein, not to meat per se.
In 1906, nine Yale students under the direction of one of the authors experimented with Mr. Horace Fletcher’s method of thorough mastication and instinctive eating. The experiment began with an endurance test on January 14, and consisted mainly of two parts, each of which lasted about ten weeks.
The object of the first half of the experiment was to test the claims which have been made as to the effects upon endurance of thorough mastication combined with implicit obedience to appetite. Our conclusion in brief is that these claims, so far as they relate to endurance, are justified.
The method may be briefly expressed in two rules.
1. Mastication.—Thorough mastication of all food up to the point of involuntary swallowing, with the attention directed, however, not on the mechanical act of chewing, but on the tasting and enjoyment of the food; liquid foods to be sipped and tasted, not drunk down like water. There should be no artificial holding of food in the mouth beyond the time of natural swallowing, even if, as is to be expected at the start, that swallowing is premature. It is not intended to “count the chews,” or to hold the food forcibly in the front of the mouth, or to allow the tongue muscles to become fatigued by any unnatural effort or position, or in any other way to make eating a bore. On the contrary, every such effort distracts one from the natural enjoyment of food. Pavlov has shown that without such attention and enjoyment of the taste of food, the secretion of gastric juice is lessened. The point of involuntary swallowing is thus a variable point, gradually coming later and later as the practise of thorough mastication proceeds, until the result is reached that the food remains in the mouth without effort and becomes practically tasteless. Thus the food, so to speak, swallows itself, and the person eats without thought either of swallowing or of not swallowing it; swallowing is put into the same category of physiological functions as breathing, which ordinarily is involuntary.
2. Following instinct.—Never to eat when not hungry, even if a meal (or more than one, for that matter) is skipped. And when a meal is taken, not to be guided by the quantity of food offered, or by past habit, or by any theories as to the amount of food needed. The natural taste or appetite is alone consulted, and the subject selects, from the food available, only those kinds and amounts which are actually craved by the appetite. After practise, the appetite gradually becomes more definite and discriminating in its indications.
During the second half of the experiment the two rules above mentioned were continued in force, but a third rule was added, namely, when the appetite was in doubt, to give the benefit of that doubt to low-protein and non-flesh foods. In other words, the influence of suggestion was invoked to hasten the change which had been inaugurated by arousing the natural appetite. Suggestion was introduced merely because the experiment was limited in time. In no case was it allowed to override the dictates of appetite.
Careful records of the amount of food taken and the constituents in (1) protein, (2) fats and (3) starches and sugars, were kept for each man for each day. In order to avoid weighing the food at the table and the annoyance which such a procedure involves, the food was all weighed in the kitchen and served in definite portions of known food value. From the records thus supplied, it was easy, by means of a “mechanical diet indicator” devised for the purpose, to find the proportions of food elements. The first result of the experiment was a reduction in the amount of protein consumed.
During the first four weeks, the men consumed an average of from 2,760 to 3,030 calories per day, of which 120 to 240 were in the flesh foods, such as meats, poultry, fish and shell-fish, and that 2.4 to 2.7 calories of protein were ingested for each pound of body-weight. Translating Professor Chittenden’s figures for the physiological requirement of ingested protein, we find it to be from 1.3 to 1.7 calories per pound of body-weight. Thus the men were at this time consuming nearly double the Chittenden allowance. During the last four weeks of the experiment all these magnitudes were lower. The per capita calories ranged from 2,220 to 2,620, of which only 40 were in flesh foods, and the protein had fallen to 1.4 to 1.9 calories per pound of body-weight, which corresponds closely to the Chittenden standard.
Gymnasium tests were made at the beginning, middle and end of the experiment. These tests were of two kinds—tests of strength and tests of endurance.
During the first period there was a slight increase in strength (from an average “total” strength of 1,076 to 1,118), and during the second period a slight fall to 995, which is about 12 per cent. from the mid-year’s 1,118, and about 8 per cent. from the original 1,076. Thus the strength of the men remained nearly stationary throughout the experiment.
It is fortunate that the strength of the men remained so nearly stationary; for it demonstrates the more clearly that the increase in endurance which will be shown below was an increase in endurance per se, and not in any degree due to an increase in strength. Strength and endurance are entirely distinct and should be separately measured. The strength of a muscle is measured by the utmost force which it can exert once; its endurance by the number of times it can repeat a given exertion well within its strength.
After much consideration and consultation it was decided not to place reliance on the ordinary ergographs as a means of measuring endurance. Instead, seven simple gymnastic tests of physical endurance were employed, and one of mental endurance. The seven physical tests were:
(1) Rising on the toes as many times as possible.
(2) Deep knee bending, or squatting as far as possible and rising to the standing posture, repeating as often as possible.
(3) While lying on the back, raising the legs from the floor to a vertical position and lowering them again, repeating to the point of physical exhaustion.
(4) Raising a 5-lb. dumb-bell (with the triceps) in each hand from the shoulder up to the highest point above the head, repeating to the point of physical exhaustion.
(5) Holding the arms from the sides horizontally for as long a time as possible.
(6) Raising a dumb-bell (with the biceps) in one hand from a position in which the arm hangs down, up to the shoulder and lowering it again, repeating the motion to the point of physical exhaustion. This test was taken with four successive dumb-bells of decreasing weight, viz., 50, 25, 10 and 5 lbs. respectively.
(7) Running on the gymnasium track at a speed to suit the subject, to as great a distance as possible.
The mental test consisted of adding specified columns of figures as rapidly as possible, the object being to find out whether the rapidity of performing such work tended to improve during the experiment.
PERCENTAGE OF IMPROVEMENT IN ENDURANCE (EXACT OR UNDERSTATED) OF EIGHT MEN.
Average.
B Lq. Lw. M P R T W
Jan.–Mar. 33+ 36 50 — 26 18+ 66+ 33
Jan.–June 84+ 84+ 181 29 56+ 89+ 80+ 107+
The figures of this table show an undoubted increase in endurance, both for the first half and more especially for the whole period of the experiment.
Three methods of estimating the increase of endurance between January and June were used. These may be put together in the following table:
PERCENTAGE OF INCREASE OF ENDURANCE, JANUARY TO JUNE, BY THREE METHODS.
Average Six Tests.
B E Lq. Lw. M P R T W
85 13 194 95 212 56+ 73 66 109
Omitting Doubtful Cases “+”
84+ ... 84+ 181 29+ 56+ 89 80 107+
“Pure” Endurance of Biceps.
... ... 62 ... 50 ... 170 200 100+
The first line of this table tells us the average of the recorded improvement in endurance shown for each man. The average of these averages is 101 per cent. for the entire club, and is probably within the truth; for most of the individual figures which go to make up this result are understatements, not overstatements.
The second line shows the average improvement in tests in which there is no doubt that the figure is at least not too high, though it may be too low. The average of these is 89 per cent., and is therefore certainly too low an estimate of the average improvement for the eight men who improved at all.
The third line shows the increase of pure endurance (that is, endurance considered apart from strength) for the five men for whom the figures were available. The average of these is 116 per cent.
We are quite safe in saying, therefore, that the average improvement of the eight men who improved was 90 per cent.
The phenomena observed during the experiment may be summarized as a slight reduction of total food consumed, a large reduction of the protein element, especially of flesh foods, a lessened excretion of nitrogen, a reduction in the odor, putrefaction, fermentation and quantity of the feces, a slight loss of weight, a slight loss of strength, an enormous increase of physical endurance, a slight increase in mental quickness. These phenomena varied somewhat with different individuals, the variations corresponding in general to the varying degree in which the men adhered to the rules of the experiment.
That we are correct in ascribing the results, especially in endurance, to dietetic causes alone, cannot reasonably be doubted when it is considered that no other factors of known significance were allowed to aid in this result.
While the results of the present experiment lean toward “vegetarianism,” they are only incidentally related to its propaganda. Meat was by no means excluded; on the contrary, the subjects were urged to eat it if their appetite distinctly preferred it to other foods.
The sudden and complete exclusion of meat is not always desirable, unless more skill and knowledge in food matters are employed than most persons possess. On the contrary, disaster has repeatedly overtaken many who have made this attempt. Pavlov has shown that meat is one of the most and perhaps the most “peptogenic” of foods. Whether the stimulus it gives to the stomach is natural, or in the nature of an improper goad or whip, certain it is that some stomachs which are accustomed to this daily whip have failed, for a time at least, to act when it was withdrawn.
Nor is it necessary that meat should be permanently abjured, even when it ceases to become a daily necessity. The safer course, at least, is to indulge the craving whenever one is “meat hungry,” even if, as in many cases, this be not oftener than once in several months. The rule of selection employed in the experiment was merely to give the benefit of the doubt to the non-flesh food; but even a slight preference for flesh foods was to be followed.
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