Supplement 3 REFERENCES
Reading edition
A book like the present one can cover only a part of the subject of machines that think. To obtain more information about these machines and other topics to which they are related there are many references that may be consulted. There are still few books directly on the subject of machines that think, but there are many articles and papers, most of them rather specialized.
The purpose of this supplement is to give a number of these references and to provide a brief, general introduction to some of them. The references are subdivided into groups, each dealing with a branch of the subject. The references in each group are in alphabetical order by name of author (with “anonymous” last), and under each author they are in chronological order by publication date. Some publications, especially a forum or symposium, are listed more than once, according as the topic discussed falls in different groups. In this supplement, the sign three dots ( ...) next to the page numbers for an article indicates that the article is continued on later, nonconsecutive pages.
It seemed undesirable to try to make the group of references dealing with a subject absolutely complete, so long as enough were given to provide a good introduction to the subject. It proved impractical to try to make the citation of every single reference technically complete, so long as enough citation was given so that the reference could certainly be found. Furthermore, in a list of more than 250 references, errors are almost certain to occur. If any reader should send me additions or corrections, I shall be more than grateful.
THE HUMAN BRAIN
No one yet knows specifically how particular ideas are thought about in the human brain. The references listed in this section, however, contain some information about such topics as:
The structural differences, development, and evolution of the brains of animals, apes, primitive man, and modern man.
The effect on the brain of blood composition, body temperature, supply of oxygen, and other biochemical factors.
The structure and physiology of the brain, the nervous system, and nerve impulses.
The theory of learning, intelligence, and memory.
Barcroft, Joseph, The Brain and Its Environment, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1948, 117 pp.
Beach, Frank A., Payday for Primates, Natural History, vol. 56, no. 10, Dec. 1947, pp. 448-451.
Beach, Frank A., Can Animals Reason? Natural History, vol. 57, no. 3, Mar. 1948, pp. 112-116 ...
Berry, R. J. A., Brain and Mind, or the Nervous System of Man, New York: The Macmillan Co., 1928, 608 pp.
Boring, Edwin G., A History of Experimental Psychology, New York: Century Co., 1929, 699 pp.
Franz, Shepherd I., The Evolution of an Idea; How the Brain Works, Los Angeles: University of California, 1929, 35 pp.
Herrick, C. Judson, The Thinking Machine, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1929, 374 pp.
Herrick, C. Judson, Brains of Rats and Men, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1930, 382 pp.
Lashley, Karl S., Brain Mechanisms and Intelligence, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1929, 186 pp.
Pieron, Henri, Thought and the Brain, London: Kegan, Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co., 1927, 262 pp. Also New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co.
Schrödinger, Erwin, What is Life?, New York: The Macmillan Co., 1945, 90 pp.
Sherrington, Charles S., The Brain and Its Mechanism, Cambridge, England: The University Press, 1933, 35 pp.
Tilney, Frederick, The Brain from Ape to Man, New York: P. B. Hoeber, Inc., 1928, 2 vol., 1075 pp.
Wiener, Norbert, Cybernetics, or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine, New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1948, 194 pp.
Anonymous, Ten Billion Relays, Time, Feb. 14, 1949, p. 67.
MATHEMATICAL BIOPHYSICS
There has recently been another approach to the problem: How does a brain think? A group of men, many of them in and near Chicago, have been saying: “We know the properties of nerves, nerve impulses, and simple nerve networks. We know the activity of the brain. What mathematical model of nerve networks is necessary to account for the activity of the brain?” These men have used mathematics, statistics, and mathematical logic in the effort to attack this problem, and they support a Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics.
Householder, Alston S., A Neural Mechanism for Discrimination, Psychometrika, vol. 4, no. 1, Dec. 1939, pp. 45-58.
Householder, Alston S., and Herbert D. Landahl, Mathematical Biophysics of the Central Nervous System, Bloomington, Ind.: Principia Press, 1945.
Landahl, Herbert D., Contributions to the Mathematical Biophysics of the Central Nervous System, Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics, vol. 1, no. 2, June 1939, pp. 95-118.
Landahl, Herbert D., Warren S. McCulloch, and Walter Pitts, A Statistical Consequence of the Logical Calculus of Nervous Nets, Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics, vol. 5, no. 4, Dec. 1943, pp. 135-137.
Landahl, Herbert D., A Note on the Mathematical Biophysics of Central Excitation and Inhibition, Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics, vol. 7, no. 4, Dec. 1945, pp. 219-221.
Lettvin, Jerome Y., and Walter Pitts, A Mathematical Theory of the Affective Psychoses, Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics, vol. 5, no. 4, Dec. 1943, pp. 139-148.
McCulloch, Warren S., and Walter Pitts, A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity, Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics, vol. 5, no. 4, Dec. 1943, pp. 115-133.
Rashevsky, N., Mathematical Biophysics, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Revised edition, 1948, 669 pp.
Rashevsky, N., Mathematical Biophysics of Abstraction and Logical Thinking, Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics, vol. 7, no. 3, Sept. 1945, pp. 133-148.
Rashevsky, N., Some Remarks on the Boolean Algebra of Nervous Nets in Mathematical Biophysics, Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics, vol. 7, no. 4, Dec. 1945, pp. 203-211.
Rashevsky, N., A Suggestion for Another Statistical Interpretation of the Fundamental Equations of the Mathematical Biophysics of the Central Nervous System, Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics, vol. 7, no. 4, Dec. 1945, pp. 223-226.
Rashevsky, N., The Neural Mechanism of Logical Thinking, Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics, vol. 8, no. 1, Mar. 1946, pp. 29-40.
LANGUAGES: WORDS AND SYMBOLS FOR THINKING
Hardly any field of techniques for thinking is more fascinating than language. The following list of references, of course, is short; it is meant chiefly as an introduction pointing out a number of different paths into the field of language and languages. Such topics as the following are introduced by the references in this list:
The origin of languages and alphabets.
The languages of the world, and speech communities.
The comparison of words and structure from language to language.
The significance of grammar and syntax.
The problem of clear meanings.
Writing and speaking that is easy to understand.
Bloomfield, Leonard, Language, New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1933, 564 pp.
Bodmer, Frederick, and Launcelot Hogben, The Loom of Language, New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1944, 692 pp.
Flesch, Rudolf, The Art of Plain Talk, New York: Harper & Brothers, 1946, 210 pp.
Graff, Willem L., Language and Languages: An Introduction to Linguistics, New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1932, 487 pp.
Hayakawa, S. I., Language in Action, New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co., 1941, 345 pp.
Jespersen, Otto, The Philosophy of Grammar, New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1929 (third printing), 359 pp.
Jespersen, Otto, Analytic Syntax,
In this book, by means of a well-contrived system of letters and signs, the great linguistic scholar Jespersen depicts all the important inter-relations of English words and parts of words in connected speech.
Ogden, C. K., The System of Basic English, New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co., 1934, 320 pp.
Schlauch, Margaret, The Gift of Tongues, New York: Modern Age Books, 1942, 342 pp.
Walpole, Hugh R., Semantics: The Nature of Words and Their Meanings, New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1941, 264 pp.
LANGUAGES: MACHINES FOR THINKING
For many years, nearly all references about machines as a language for thinking have been specialized and limited. Colleges with scholars who write textbooks usually have not had a variety of expensive and versatile computing machinery. As a result, the main environment for stimulating possible authors has until recently been missing. The list of references is accordingly brief.
Aiken, Howard H., and others, Proceedings of a Symposium on Large-Scale Digital Calculating Machinery, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1948, 302 pp.
Comrie, John Leslie, The Application of Commercial Calculating Machines to Scientific Computing, Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation, vol. 2, no. 16, Oct. 1946, pp. 149-159.
Crew, E. W., Calculating Machines, The Engineer, vol. 172, Dec. 1941, pp. 438-441.
Fry, Macon, Designing Computing Mechanisms, Cleveland, Ohio: Penton Publishing Co., 1946, 48 pp. (Reprinted from Machine Design, Aug. 1945 through Feb. 1946.)
Hartree, D. R., Calculating Machines: Recent and Prospective Developments and Their Impact on Mathematical Physics, Cambridge, England: The University Press, 1947, 40 pp.
Horsburgh, E. H., Modern Instruments and Methods of Calculation, London: G. Bell and Sons, Ltd., 1914, 343 pp.
Lilley, S., Mathematical Machines, Nature, vol. 149, Apr. 25, 1942, pp. 462-465.
Murray, Francis J., The Theory of Mathematical Machines, New York: King’s Crown Press, 1947, 116 pp.
The author states that a mathematical machine is a mechanism that provides information concerning the relationships among a specified set of mathematical concepts.
Turck, J. A. V., The Origin of Modern Calculating Machines, Chicago: Western Society of Engineers, 1921.
Recently, however, some magazine and newspaper publishers have seen news value in machines that think, and some good general articles with appeal to a wide audience have appeared. For the references to these articles, see the section of this supplement entitled “Digital Machines—Miscellaneous.”
PUNCH-CARD CALCULATING MACHINES
There are a few general references on punch-card calculating machines:
Baehne, G. Walter, editor, and others, Practical Applications of the Punched Card Method in Colleges and Universities, New York: Columbia University Press, 1935, 442 pp.
This is a collection of many contributions from a number of authors, describing various applications, chiefly educational.
Eckert, W. J., Punched-Card Methods in Scientific Computation, New York: Columbia University, The Thomas J. Watson Astronomical Computing Bureau, 1940, 136 pp.
This is a scientific treatise, chiefly relating to the computation of orbits in astronomy.
Hartkemeier, Harry Pelle, Principles of Punch-Card Machine Operation (Subtitle: How to Operate Punch-Card Tabulating and Alphabetic Accounting Machines), New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Co., 1942, 269 pp.
This is based on the author’s experience in teaching statistical analysis using IBM tabulators. The book does not deal with the collator or multiplying punch.
Hedley, K. J., The Development of the Punched-Card Method, Actuarial Society of Australasia, 1946, 20 pp.
International Business Machines Corporation, International Business Machines (form no. A-4036-6-45), New York: International Business Machines Corporation, 1945, 65 pp.
Pages 6 to 31 show pictures and brief descriptions of about 20 punch-card machines, available in 1945.
Schnackel, H. G., and H. C. Lang, Accounting by Machine Methods, New York: Ronald Press Co., 1939, 53 pp.
Wolf, Arthur W., and Edmund C. Berkeley, Advanced Course in Punched Card Operations, Newark, N. J.: Prudential Insurance Company of America, 1942, 98 pp.
A useful and authoritative description of IBM punch-card calculating machinery is the following:
International Business Machines Corporation, Department of Education, Machine Methods of Accounting, Endicott, N. Y.: International Business Machines Corporation, 1936-41, 385 pp.
This is a collection of 28 separate booklets telling the detailed operation of IBM punch-card machinery. They were written for employees of IBM and users of IBM equipment. The following list of the booklets is useful in locating them:
Title Form No. Date No. of Pages
Machine Methods of Accounting—Foreword AM 1936 6
Development of IBM Corporation AM-1-1 1936 14
Principles of the Electric Accounting Machine Method AM-2 1936 12
The Tabulating Card AM-3-1 1936 20
Design of Tabulating Cards AM-4-1 1936 16
Preparation and Use of Codes AM-5 1936 28
Organization and Supervision of the Tabulating Department AM-6 1936 16
Selection and Training of Key Punch Operators AM-7 1936 12
Accounting Control AM-8 1936 8
Punches AM-9 1936 12
Alphabetic Printing Punches AM-10 1936 7
Facts to Know about Key Punches AM-11 1936 4
Verifiers AM-12 1936 4
Gang Punches AM-13 1936 8
Card-Operated Sorting Machines AM-14 1936 12
Facts to Know about Sorters AM-14a 1936 4
Electric Tabulating Machines AM-15 1936 20
Electric Accounting Machines (Type 285 and Type 297) AM-16 1936 16
Alphabetic Direct Subtraction Accounting Machine AM-17 1936 28
Numerical Interpreters AM-18 1936 8
Electric Punched-Card Interpreter (Type 552) AM-18a 1941 8
Reproducing Punches (Type 512) AM-19 1936 16
Automatic Summary Punches for Use with
the Numerical Accounting Machines (Type 285-297) AM-20 1936 16
Automatic Summary Punches for Use with the
Alphabetic Accounting Machines (Type 405) AM-20a 1940 16
Multiplying Punches AM-21 1936 16
Application of Machines to Accounting Functions AM-22 1936 24
Other International Products AM-23-2 1936 19
The International Automatic Carriage (Type 921) AM-24 1938 15
The Department of Education of IBM has begun a second series of booklets on the principles of operation of punch-card calculating machinery:
International Business Machines Corporation, Department of Education, Principles of Operation, Endicott, N. Y.: International Business Machines Corporation, 1942 and later (except for one published in 1939).
Many of the booklets in this series have good examples of machine operation and applications. Also, for the first time, letters and numbers have been used as coordinates to label the hubs on the plugboards. This series includes the following:
Title Form No. Date No. of Pages
CARD PUNCHES AND VERIFIERS
Card-Punching and Verifying Machines 52-3176-0 1946 21
Alphabetical Verifier, Type 055 52-3295-1 1946 4
INTERPRETERS
Card Interpreters, Type 550, 551, and 552 52-3178-0 1946 14
REPRODUCERS
Automatic Reproducing Punch, Type 513 52-3180-0 1945 22
End Printing Reproducing Punch, Type 519 52-3292-1 1946 26
Electric Document-Originating Machine, June
Type 519 52-3292-2 1948 26
COLLATORS
Collator AM-25 1943 31
Collator Counting Device C.R. 9178 1942 12
CALCULATING PUNCHES
Electric Multiplier, Type 601 52-3408-1 1947 47
Calculating Punch, Type 602 52-3409-0 1946 83
Calculating Punch, Type 602 52-3409-5 1947 93
Calculating Punch, Type 602-A (Preliminary Manual) 22-5489-0 1948 59
Electronic Multiplier, Type 603 52-3561-0 1946 5
Electronic Calculating Punch, Type 604 22-5279-0 1948 51
TABULATORS
Accounting Machine, Type 402 and 403 (Preliminary Manual) 22-5654-0 1949 146
Alphabetical Accounting Machine, Type 404 52-3395-1 1946 96
Typical Applications, Alphabetical Accounting Machine,
Type 404, with Multiple Line Printing 22-3771-1 1947 47
Alphabetical Accounting Machine, Type 405 AM 17 (1), 1943 90
Revised 1/1/43
Alphabetical Accounting Machine, Nov.
Type 405 52-3179-2 1948 81
AUTOMATIC PRINTING CARRIAGES
Bill Feed, Type 920 52-3184-0 1945 21
Form Feeding Device 52-3235-0 1946 11
Automatic Carriage, Type 921 52-3183-0 1945 36
Tape-Controlled Carriage
(Preliminary Manual, Revised) 22-5415-1 1948 27
TEST SCORING MACHINE
Test Scoring Machine 94-2333-0 1939 19
May
Test Scoring Machine 32-9145-1 1946 20
Published Tests Adapted for Use with June
the IBM Electric Test Scoring Machine 27-4286-9 1948 8
In addition to the new types of punch-card machines referred to in the above list, an elaborate punch-card calculating machine is described in the following reference:
Eckert, W. J., The IBM Pluggable Sequence Relay Calculator, Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation, vol. 3, no. 23, July 1948, pp. 149-161.
A description of punch-card machinery in rather a light vein is contained in:
Anonymous, Speaking of Pictures: New Mechanical Monsters Ease Life’s Growing Pains, Life, Sept. 15, 1947, pp. 15-16.
Anonymous, 540, Chicago: Time-Life-Fortune Magazine, Subscription Fulfillment Office, 1948, 15 pp.
New types of punch-card machinery are continually coming into use. Among them are: machines that take in punch cards and make punched paper tape (such as teletype tape), and vice versa—useful for transmitting punch-card information over wires; an electric typewriter operated by punch cards—useful for preparing almanacs for sea and air navigation, etc.; a calculator programmed by punch cards, consisting of an assembly of a tabulator, an electronic calculating punch, and an auxiliary storage unit, all cabled together—useful for some types of long calculation; etc. For information about such machinery, the manufacturers may be consulted.
PUNCH-CARD CALCULATING MACHINERY: APPLICATIONS
There are many articles in scientific journals on applications of punch-card calculating machinery to technical problems. The fields of engineering, education, indexing, mathematics, surveying, statistics, and others are all represented in the following list of sample references:
Alt, Franz L., Multiplication of Matrices, Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation, vol. 2, no. 13, Jan. 1946, pp. 12-13.
Bailey, C. F., and others, Punch Cards for Indexing Scientific Data, Science, vol. 104, Aug. 23, 1946, p. 181.
Bower, E. C., On Subdividing Tables, Lick Observatory Bulletin, vol. 16, no. 455, Nov. 1933, pp. 143-144.
Bower, E. C., Systematic Subdivision of Tables, Lick Observatory Bulletin, vol. 17, no. 467, Apr. 1935, pp. 65-74.
Clemence, G. M., and Paul Herget, Optimum-Interval Punched-Card Tables, Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation, vol. 1, no. 6, Apr. 1944, pp. 173-176.
Culley, Frank L., Use of Accounting Machines for Mass-Transformation from Geographic to Military-Grid Coordinates, Washington, D. C.: National Research Council, American Geophysical Union Transactions of 1942, part 2, pp. 190-197.
Deming, W. Edwards, and Morris H. Hansen, On Some Census Aids to Sampling, Journal of the American Statistical Association, vol. 38, no. 225, Sept. 1943, pp. 353-357.
Dunlap, Jack W., The Computation of Means, Standard Deviations, and Correlations by the Tabulator When the Numbers Are Both Positive and Negative, Proceedings of the Educational Research Forum, International Business Machines Corporation, Aug. 1940, pp. 16-19.
Dwyer, Paul S., The Use of Tables in the Form of Prepunched Cards, Proceedings of the Educational Research Forum, International Business Machines Corporation, Aug. 1940, pp. 125-127.
Dwyer, Paul S., Summary of Problems in the Computation of Statistical Constants with Tabulating and Sorting Machines, Proceedings of the Educational Research Forum, International Business Machines Corporation, Aug. 1940, pp. 20-28.
Dwyer, Paul S., and Alan D. Meacham, The Preparation of Correlation Tables on a Tabulator Equipped with Digit Selection, Journal of the American Statistical Association, vol. 32, 1937, pp. 654-662.
Dyer, H. S., Making Test Score Data Effective in the Admission and Course Placement of Harvard Freshmen, Proceedings of the Research Forum, International Business Machines Corporation, 1946, pp. 55-62.
Eckert, W. J., and Ralph F. Haupt, The Printing of Mathematical Tables, Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation, vol. 2, no. 17, Jan. 1947, pp. 196-202.
Feinstein, Lillian, and Martin Schwarzchild, Automatic Integration of Linear Second-Order Differential Equations by Means of Punched-Card Machines, Review of Scientific Instruments, vol. 12, no. 8, Aug. 1941, pp. 405-408.
Hotelling, Harold, Some New Methods in Matrix Calculation, The Annals of Mathematical Statistics, vol. 14, no. 1, Mar. 1943, pp. 1-34.
International Business Machines Corporation, editor, and others, Proceedings of the Educational Research Forum, Endicott, N. Y.: International Business Machines Corporation, 1941.
International Business Machines Corporation, editor, and others, Proceedings of the Research Forum, Endicott, N. Y.: International Business Machines Corporation, 1946, 94 pp.
King, Gilbert W., Punched-Card Tables of the Exponential Function, Review of Scientific Instruments, vol. 15, no. 12, Dec. 1944, pp. 349-350.
King, Gilbert W., and George B. Thomas, Preparation of Punched-Card Tables of Logarithms, Review of Scientific Instruments, vol. 15, no. 12, Dec. 1944, p. 350.
Kormes, Mark, A Note on the Integration of Linear Second-Order Differential Equations by Means of Punched Cards, Review of Scientific Instruments, vol. 14, no. 4, Apr. 1943, p. 118.
Kormes, Mark, Numerical Solution of the Boundary Value Problem for the Potential Equation by Means of Punched Cards, Review of Scientific Instruments, vol. 14, no. 8, Aug. 1943, pp. 248-250.
Kormes, Mark, and Jennie P. Kormes, Numerical Solution of Initial Value Problems by Means of Punched-Card Machines, Review of Scientific Instruments, vol. 16, no. 1, Jan. 1945, pp. 7-9.
Kuder, G. Frederic, Use of the IBM Scoring Machine for Rapid Computation of Tables of Intercorrelations, Journal of Applied Psychology, vol. 22, no. 6, Dec. 1938, pp. 587-596.
Maxfield, D. K., Library Punched Card Procedures, Library Journal, vol. 71, no. 12, June 15, 1946, pp. 902-905 ...
McLaughlin, Kathleen, Adding Machines Nip AEF Epidemics, New York: New York Times, Apr. 27, 1945.
McPherson, John C., On Mechanical Tabulation of Polynomials, Annals of Mathematical Statistics, Sept. 1941, pp. 317-327.
McPherson, John C., Mathematical Operations with Punched Cards, Journal of the American Statistical Association, vol. 37, June 1942, pp. 275-281.
Milliman, Wendell A., Mechanical Multiplication by the Use of Tabulating Machines, Transactions of the Actuarial Society of America, vol. 35, part 2, Oct. 1934, pp. 253-264; for discussion see also vol. 36, part 1, May 1935, pp. 77-84.
Royer, Elmer B., A Machine Method for Computing the Biserial Correlation Coefficient in Item Validation, Psychometrika, vol. 6, no. 1, Feb. 1941, pp. 55-59.
Whitten, C. A., Triangulation Adjustment by International Business Machines, Washington, D. C.: National Research Council, American Geophysical Union Transactions of 1943, part 1, p. 31.
The following bibliography may be obtained on request to the Watson Scientific Computing Laboratory, Columbia University, 612 West 116 Street, New York 27, N. Y.:
Watson Scientific Computing Laboratory, Bibliography: The Use of IBM Machines in Scientific Research, Statistics, and Education, New York: International Business Machines Corporation (form no. 50-3813-0), Sept. 1947, 25 pp.
The organization and equipment of this laboratory are described in:
Eckert, W. J., Facilities of the Watson Scientific Computing Laboratory, Proceedings of the Research Forum, International Business Machines Corporation, 1946, pp. 75-80.
THE DIFFERENTIAL ANALYZER
The basic scientific articles on the two differential analyzers at Massachusetts Institute of Technology are:
Bush, Vannevar, The Differential Analyzer: A New Machine for Solving Differential Equations, Journal of the Franklin Institute, vol. 212, no. 4, Oct. 1931, pp. 447-488.
Bush, Vannevar, and Samuel H. Caldwell, A New Type of Differential Analyzer, Journal of the Franklin Institute, vol. 240, no. 4, Oct. 1945, pp. 255-326.
Some of the less technical articles about the second differential analyzer at M.I.T. are:
Caldwell, Samuel H., Educated Machinery, Technology Review, vol. 48, no. 1, Nov. 1945, pp. 31-34.
Genet, N., 100-Ton Brain at M.I.T., Scholastic, vol. 48, Feb. 4, 1946, p. 36.
Anonymous, Mathematical Machine; New Electronic Differential Analyzer, Science News Letter, vol. 48, Nov. 10, 1945, p. 291.
Anonymous, Robot Einstein: Differential Analyzer at M.I.T., Newsweek, vol. 26, Nov. 12, 1945, p. 93.
Anonymous, M.I.T.’s 100-Ton Mathematical Brain is Now to Tackle Problems of Peace, Popular Science, vol. 148, Jan. 1946, p. 81.
Anonymous, The Great Electro-Mechanical Brain; M.I.T.’s Differential Analyzer, Life, vol. 20, Jan. 14, 1946, pp. 73-74 ...
Anonymous, All the Answers at Your Fingertips; in the Laboratory of M.I.T., Popular Mechanics, vol. 85, Mar. 1946, pp. 164-167 ...
A differential analyzer was built at the Moore School of Electrical Engineering:
Travis, Irven, Differential Analyzer Eliminates Brain Fag, Machine Design, July 1935, pp. 15-18.
A differential analyzer was built at the General Electric Company, Schenectady, N. Y. Instead of using a mechanical or electrical amplifier of the motion of the little turning wheel riding on the disc, this machine follows the motion using polarized light. This machine is described in:
Berry, T. M., Polarized Light Servo System, Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, vol. 63, Apr. 1944, pp. 195-197.
Kuehni, H. P., and H. A. Peterson, A New Differential Analyzer, Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, vol. 63, May 1944, pp. 221-227.
A differential analyzer has been put into use at the University of California:
Boelter, L. M. K., and others, The Differential Analyzer of the University of California, Los Angeles: University of California, 1947, 25 pp.
A differential analyzer was built at Manchester University, England. It was built first from “Meccano” parts, at a total cost of about 20 pounds, and later refined for more exact work. Some articles dealing with this differential analyzer are:
Hartree, D. R., The Differential Analyzer, Nature, vol. 135, June 8, 1935, p. 940.
Hartree, D. R., The Mechanical Integration of Differential Equations, The Mathematical Gazette, vol. 22, 1938, pp. 342-364.
Hartree, D. R., and A. Porter, The Construction of a Model Differential Analyser, Memoirs and Proceedings of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, vol. 79, July 1935, pp. 51-72.
Other small scale differential analyzers built in England are covered in:
Beard, R. E., The Construction of a Small Scale Differential Analyser and Its Application to the Calculation of Actuarial Functions, Journal of the Institute of Actuaries, vol. 71, 1942, pp. 193-227.
Massey, H. S. W., J. Wylie, and R. A. Buckingham, A Small Scale Differential Analyser: Its Construction and Operation, Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, vol. 45, 1938, pp. 1-21.
A differential analyzer constructed in Germany is briefly described in the following:
Sauer, R., and H. Poesch, Integrating Machine for Solving Ordinary Differential Equations, Engineers Digest (American Edition), vol. 1, May 1944, pp. 326-328.
From the historical point of view there are some interesting papers on a machine for solving differential equations by Sir William Thomson (Lord Kelvin), including one by his brother James Thomson. They are in the Proceedings of the Royal Society, vol. 24, Feb. 1876, pp. 262-275. The method of integration by a machine is described, but the state of machine tools at the time was such that no accurate mechanism was constructed. Another interesting paper foreshadowing the differential analyzer is:
Wainwright, Lawrence L., A Ballistic Engine, Chicago: University of Chicago, thesis for Master’s Degree, 1923, 28 pp.
Some of the applications and mathematical limitations of differential analyzers are covered in:
Bush, V., and S. H. Caldwell, Thomas-Fermi Equation Solution by the Differential Analyzer, Physical Review, vol. 38, no. 10, 1931, pp. 1898-1902.
Hartree, D. R., A Great Calculating Machine: the Bush Differential Analyser and Its Applications in Science and Industry, Proceedings of the Royal Institution of Great Britain, vol. 31, 1940, pp. 151-170.
Hartree, D. R., and A. Porter, The Application of the Differential Analyser to Transients on a Distortionless Transmission Line, Journal of the Institute of Electrical Engineering, vol. 83, no. 503, Nov. 1938, pp. 648-656.
Hartree, D. R., and J. R. Womersley, A Method for the Numerical or Mechanical Solution of Certain Types of Partial Differential Equations, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, series A, vol. 161, 1937, pp. 353-366.
Maginniss, F. J., Differential Analyzer Applications, General Electric Review, vol. 48, no. 5, May 1945, pp. 54-59.
Shannon, Claude E., Mathematical Theory of the Differential Analyzer, Journal of Mathematics and Physics, Cambridge, Mass.: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, vol. 20, no. 4, 1941, pp. 337-354.
HARMONIC ANALYZERS AND SYNTHESIZERS
Another branch of the analogue calculating machine is the harmonic analyzer and synthesizer. These are machines that study wave motions and related physical and mathematical functions. A brief list of articles on this type of machine follows:
Archer, R. M., Projecting Apparatus for Compounding Harmonic Vibrations, Journal of Scientific Instruments, vol. 14, 1937, pp. 408-410.
Brown, S. L., A Mechanical Harmonic Synthesizer-Analyzer, Journal of the Franklin Institute, vol. 228, 1939, pp. 675-694.
Brown, S. L., and L. L. Wheeler, A Mechanical Method for Graphical Solution of Polynomials, Journal of the Franklin Institute, vol. 231, 1941, pp. 223-243.
Brown, S. L., and L. L. Wheeler, Use of the Mechanical Multiharmonograph for Graphing Types of Functions and for Solution of Pairs of Non-Linear Simultaneous Equations, Review of Scientific Instruments, vol. 13, Nov. 1942, pp. 493-495.
Brown, S. L., and L. L. Wheeler, The Use of a Mechanical Synthesizer to Solve Trigonometric and Certain Types of Transcendental Equations, and for the Double Summations Involved in Patterson Contours, Journal of Applied Physics, vol. 14, Jan. 1943, pp. 30-36.
Fürth, R., and R. W. Pringle, A New Photo-Electric Method for Fourier Synthesis and Analysis, London, Edinburgh and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science, vol. 35, series 7, 1944, pp. 643-656.
International Hydrographic Bureau, Tide Predicting Machines, International Hydrographic Bureau, Special Publication 13, July 1926.
Kranz, Frederick W., A Mechanical Synthesizer and Analyzer, Journal of the Franklin Institute, vol. 204, 1927, pp. 245-262.
Marble, F. G., An Automatic Vibration Analyzer, Bell Laboratories Record, vol. 22, Apr. 1944, pp. 376-380.
Maxwell, L. R., An Electrical Method for Compounding Sine Functions, Review of Scientific Instruments, vol. 11, Feb. 1940, pp. 47-54.
Miller, Dayton C., A 32-Element Harmonic Synthesizer, Journal of the Franklin Institute, vol. 181, 1916, pp. 51-81.
Miller, Dayton C., The Henrici Harmonic Analyzer and Devices for Extending and Facilitating Its Use, Journal of the Franklin Institute, vol. 182, 1916, pp. 285-322.
Milne, J. R., A “Duplex” Form of Harmonic Synthetiser and Its Mathematical Theory, Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. 39, 1918-19, pp. 234-242.
Montgomery, H. C., An Optical Harmonic Analyzer, Bell System Technical Journal, vol. 17, no. 3, July 1938, pp. 406-415.
Raymond, W. J., An Harmonic Synthesizer Having Components of Incommensurable Period and Any Desired Decrement, Physical Review, vol. 11, series 2, 1918, pp. 479-481.
Robertson, J. M., A Simple Harmonic Continuous Calculating Machine, London, Edinburgh and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science, vol. 13, 1932, pp. 413-419.
Somerville, J. M., Harmonic Synthesizer for Demonstrating and Studying Complex Wave Forms, Journal of Scientific Instruments, vol. 21, Oct. 1944, pp. 174-177.
Straiton, A. W., and G. K. Terhune, Harmonic Analysis by Photographic Method, Journal of Applied Physics, vol. 14, 1943, pp. 535-536.
Wegel, R. L., and C. R. Moore, An Electrical Frequency Analyzer, Bell System Technical Journal, vol. 3, 1924, pp. 299-323.
NETWORK ANALYZERS
A third branch of the analogue calculating machine is the network analyzer. To solve problems, this machine uses the laws governing a network of electrical circuits. For example, an electric power company with a system of power lines over hundreds of miles may have a problem about electrical power: will an accident or a sudden demand cause a breakdown anywhere in the system? In the General Electric Company in Schenectady, N. Y., there is a machine called the A.C. Network Analyzer. All the properties of the power company’s network of lines can be fed on a small scale into the analyzer. Certain dials are turned and certain plugwires are connected. Then various kinds of “accidents” and “sudden demands” are fed into the machine, and the response of the system is noted. The answers given by the machine are multiplied by the proper scale factor, and in this way the problem of the power company is solved.
There are two kinds of problems that network analyzers are built to solve: the steady state conditions and the transient conditions. For example, you may not overload a fuse with an electric iron when it is plugged in and being used, but as you pull out the cord, you may blow the fuse: the steady state does not overstrain the system, but the transient does.
Some articles on network analyzers are:
Enns, W. E., A New Simple Calculator of Load Flow in A.C. Networks, Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, vol. 62, 1943, pp. 786-790.
Hazen, H. L., and others, The M.I.T. Network Analyzer, Cambridge, Mass.: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Electrical Engineering, Serial No. 69, Apr. 1931.
Kuehni, H. P., and R. G. Lorraine, A New A.C. Network Analyzer, Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, vol. 57, 1938, pp. 67-73.
Parker, W. W., Dual A.C. Network Calculator, Electrical Engineering, May 1945, pp. 182-183.
Parker, W. W., The Modern A.C. Network Calculator, Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, vol. 60, Nov. 1941, pp. 977-982.
Peterson, H. A., An Electric Circuit Transient Analyzer, General Electric Review, Sept. 1939, pp. 394-400.
Varney, R. N., An All-Electric Integrator for Solving Differential Equations, Review of Scientific Instruments, vol. 13, Jan. 1942, pp. 10-16.
Some of the articles on applications of network analyzers to various problems are:
Kron, Gabriel, Equivalent Circuits of the Elastic Field, Journal of Applied Mechanics, vol. A11, Sept. 1944, pp. 146-161.
Kron, Gabriel, Tensorial Analysis and Equivalent Circuits of Elastic Structures, Journal of the Franklin Institute, vol. 238, Dec. 1944, pp. 399-442.
Kron, Gabriel, Numerical Solution of Ordinary and Partial Differential Equations by Means of Equivalent Circuits, Journal of Applied Physics, vol. 16, 1945, pp. 172-186.
Kron, Gabriel, Electric Circuit Models for the Vibration Spectrum of Polyatomic Molecules, Journal of Chemical Physics, vol. 14, no. 1, Jan. 1946, pp. 19-31.
Kron, G., and G. K. Carter, A.C. Network Analyzer Study of the Schrödinger Equation, Physical Review, vol. 67, 1945, pp. 44-49.
Kron, G., and G. K. Carter, Network Analyzer Tests of Equivalent Circuits of Vibrating Polyatomic Molecules, Journal of Chemical Physics, vol. 14, no. 1, Jan. 1946, pp. 32-34.
Peterson, H. A., and C. Concordia, Analyzers for Use in Engineering and Scientific Problems, General Electric Review, vol. 48, no. 9, Sept. 1945, pp. 29-37.
MACHINES FOR SOLVING ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS
Another branch of the analogue calculating machine is a type of machine that will solve various kinds of algebraic equations (see Supplement 2). A list of some articles follows. The article by Mallock describes a machine for solving up to 10 linear simultaneous equations in 10 unknowns, and the article by Wilbur, a machine for solving up to 9.
Dietzold, Robert L., The Isograph—A Mechanical Root-Finder, Bell Laboratories Record, vol. 16, no. 4, Dec. 1937, pp. 130-134.
Duncan, W. J., Some Devices for the Solution of Large Sets of Simultaneous Linear Equations, London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science, vol. 35, series 7, 1944, pp. 660-670.
Frame, J. Sutherland, Machines for Solving Algebraic Equations, Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation, vol. 1, no. 9, Jan. 1945, pp. 337-353.
Hart, H. C., and Irven Travis, Mechanical Solution of Algebraic Equations, Journal of the Franklin Institute, vol. 225, Jan. 1938, pp. 63-72.
Herr, D. L., and R. S. Graham, An Electrical Algebraic Equation Solver, Review of Scientific Instruments, vol. 9, Oct. 1938, pp. 310-315.
Mallock, R. R. M., An Electrical Calculating Machine, Proceedings of the Royal Society, series A, vol. 140, 1933, pp. 457-483.
Mercner, R. O., The Mechanism of the Isograph, Bell Laboratories Record, vol. 16, no. 4, Dec. 1937, pp. 135-140.
Stibitz, George R., Electric Root-finder, Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation, vol. 3, no. 24, Oct. 1948, pp. 328-329.
Wilbur, J. B., The Mechanical Solution of Simultaneous Equations, Journal of the Franklin Institute, vol. 222, Dec. 1936, pp. 715-724.
ANALOGUE MACHINES— MISCELLANEOUS
Some articles referring to various other kinds of analogue machines and their applications are here listed together:
Bush, V., F. D. Gage, and R. R. Stewart, A Continuous Integraph, Journal of the Franklin Institute, vol. 203, 1927, pp. 63-84.
Gray, T. S., A Photo-Electric Integraph, Journal of the Franklin Institute, vol. 212, 1931, pp. 77-102.
Hazen, H. L., G. S. Brown, and W. R. Hedeman, The Cinema Integraph: A Machine for Evaluating a Parametric Product Integral (two parts and appendix), Journal of the Franklin Institute, vol. 230, July 1940, pp. 19-44, and Aug. 1940, pp. 183-205.
McCann, G. D., and H. E. Criner, Mechanical Problems Solved Electrically, Westinghouse Engineer, vol. 6, no. 2, March 1946, pp. 49-56.
Myers, D. M., An Integraph for the Solution of Differential Equations of the Second-Order, Journal of Scientific Instruments, vol. 16, 1939, pp. 209-222.
Pekeris, C. L., and W. T. White, Differentiation with the Cinema Integraph, Journal of the Franklin Institute, vol. 234, July 1942, pp. 17-29.
Smith, C. E., and E. L. Gove, An Electromechanical Calculator for Directional-Antenna Patterns, Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, vol. 62, 1943, pp. 78-82.
Yavne, R. O., High Accuracy Contour Cams, Product Engineering, vol. 19, part 2, Aug. 1948, 3 pp.
Anonymous, Electrical Gun Director Demonstrated, Bell Laboratories Record, vol. 22, no. 4, Dec. 1943, pp. 157-167.
Anonymous, Development of the Electric Director, Bell Laboratories Record, vol. 22, no. 5, Jan. 1944, pp. 225-230.
Anonymous, Old Field Fortune Teller: Electronic Oil Pool Analyzer, Popular Mechanics, vol. 86, Sept. 1946, p. 154.
HARVARD IBM AUTOMATIC SEQUENCE-CONTROLLED CALCULATOR
The basic scientific description of this machine as of September 1, 1945, is contained in:
Aiken, Howard H., and Staff of the Computation Laboratory, A Manual of Operation for the Automatic Sequence-Controlled Calculator, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1946, 561 pp.
The machine has changed rather a good deal since Sept. 1, 1945. Some circuits have been removed. Other circuits have been added. The capacity of the machine to do problems has been greatly increased. The Computation Laboratory at Harvard University is cordial towards scientific inquiries, and some unpublished, mimeographed information is available at the laboratory regarding the details of these changes.
Some shorter scientific and technical descriptions of the machine are contained in:
Aiken, Howard H., and Grace M. Hopper, The Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator (3 parts), Electrical Engineering, vol. 65, nos. 8, 9, and 10, Aug. to Nov. 1946, p. 384 ... (21 pp.).
Bloch, Richard M., Mark I Calculator, Proceedings of a Symposium on Large-Scale Digital Calculating Machinery, Harvard University Press, 1948, pp. 23-30.
Harrison, Joseph O., Jr., The Preparation of Problems for the Mark I Calculator, Proceedings of a Symposium on Large-Scale Digital Calculating Machinery, Harvard University Press, 1948, pp. 208-210.
International Business Machines Corporation, IBM Automatic Sequence-Controlled Calculator, Endicott, N. Y.: International Business Machines Corporation, 1945, 6 pp.
Some of the less technical articles regarding the machine are:
Genet, N., Got a Problem? Harvard’s Amazing New Mathematical Robot, Scholastic, vol. 45, Sept. 18, 1944, p. 35.
Torrey, V., Robot Mathematician Knows All the Answers, Popular Science, vol. 145, Oct. 1944, pp. 86-89....
Anonymous, Giant New Calculator, Science News Letter, vol. 46, Aug. 12, 1944, p. 111.
Anonymous, Mathematical Robot Presented to Harvard, Time, vol. 44, Aug. 14, 1944, p. 72.
Anonymous, World’s Greatest Machine for Automatic Calculation, Science News Letter, vol. 46, Aug. 19, 1944, p. 123.
Anonymous, Superbrain, Nation’s Business, vol. 32, Sept. 1944, p. 8.
Anonymous, Robot Works Problems Never Before Solved, Popular Mechanics, vol. 82, Oct. 1944, p. 13.
ENIAC, THE ELECTRONIC NUMERIC INTEGRATOR AND CALCULATOR
There is as yet no full-scale, published scientific account of the Eniac. At the Ballistic Research Laboratories, Aberdeen, Md., where the machine now is, there are a few copies of some long mimeographed reports on the machine and the way it works. These were prepared by H. H. Goldstine and others when at the Moore School of Electrical Engineering, as a part of the contract under which the machine was constructed for the U. S. Government. It is possible that these reports might be consulted on request by serious students.
Some scientific descriptions of the machine and its properties are:
Burks, Arthur W., Electronic Computing Circuits of the ENIAC, Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers, vol. 35, no. 8, Aug. 1947, pp. 756-767.
Clippinger, R. F., A Logical Coding System Applied to the Eniac, B. R. L. Report No. 673, Aberdeen, Md.: Ballistic Research Laboratories, Sept. 29, 1948, 41 pp.
Eckert, J. Presper, Jr., John W. Mauchly, Herman H. Goldstine, and J. G. Brainerd, Description of the ENIAC and Comments on Electronic Digital Computing Machines, Applied Mathematics Panel Report 171.2R, Washington, D. C.: National Defense Research Committee, Nov. 1945, 78 pp.
Goldstine, Herman H., and Adele Goldstine, The Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC), Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation, vol. 2, no. 15, July 1946, pp. 97-110.
Hartree, D. R., The ENIAC, an Electronic Computing Machine, Nature, vol. 158, Oct. 12, 1946, pp. 500-506.
Hartree, D. R., Calculating Machines: Recent and Prospective Developments and Their Impact on Mathematical Physics, Cambridge, England: The University Press, 1947, 40 pp. (Pages 14 to 27 are devoted to the Eniac.)
Tabor, Lewis P., Brief Description and Operating Characteristics of the ENIAC, Proceedings of a Symposium on Large-Scale Digital Calculating Machinery, Harvard University Press, 1948, pp. 31-39.
Some of the less technical articles on Eniac are:
Rose, A., Lightning Strikes Mathematics: ENIAC, Popular Science, vol. 148, Apr. 1946, pp. 83-86.
Anonymous, Robot Calculator: ENIAC, All Electronic Device, Business Week, Feb. 16, 1946, p. 50 ...
Anonymous, Answers by ENY: Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer, ENIAC, Newsweek, vol. 27, Feb. 18, 1946, p. 76.
Anonymous, Adds in ¹/₅₀₀₀ Second: Electronic Computing Machine at the University of Pennsylvania, Science News Letter, vol. 49, Feb. 23, 1946, p. 113 ...
Anonymous, ENIAC: at the University of Pennsylvania, Time, vol. 47, Feb. 25, 1946, p. 90.
Anonymous, It Thinks with Electrons; the ENIAC, Popular Mechanics, vol. 85, June 1946, p. 139.
Anonymous, Electronic Calculator: ENIAC, Scientific American, vol. 174, June 1946, p. 248.
BELL LABORATORIES RELAY COMPUTERS
As yet no full-scale scientific report is available on the Bell Laboratories general-purpose relay computers that went to Aberdeen and Langley Field. However, there is some information about these and other Bell Laboratories relay computing machines in the following articles:
Alt, Franz L., A Bell Telephone Laboratories’ Computing Machine (two parts), Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation, vol. 3, no. 21, Jan. 1948, pp. 1-13, and vol. 3, no. 22, Apr. 1948, pp. 69-84.
Cesareo, O., The Relay Interpolator, Bell Laboratories Record, vol. 24, no. 12, Dec. 1946, pp. 457-460.
Juley, Joseph, The Ballistic Computer, Bell Laboratories Record, vol. 25, no. 1, Jan. 1947, pp. 5-9.
Williams, Samuel B., A Relay Computer for General Application, Bell Laboratories Record, vol. 25, no. 2, Feb. 1947, pp. 49-54.
Williams, Samuel B., Bell Telephone Laboratories’ Relay Computing System, Proceedings of a Symposium on Large-Scale Digital Calculating Machinery, Harvard University Press, 1948, pp. 40-68.
Anonymous, Complex Computer Demonstrated, Bell Laboratories Record, vol. 19, no. 2, Oct. 1940, pp. v-vi.
Anonymous, Computer Mark 22 Mod. 0: Development and Description, Navord Report No. 178-45, Washington, D. C.: Navy Department, Dec. 6, 1945, 225 pp.
Anonymous, Relay Computer for the Army, Bell Laboratories Record, vol. 26, no. 5, May 1948, pp. 208-209.
THE KALIN-BURKHART LOGICAL-TRUTH CALCULATOR
As yet there are no published references on the Kalin-Burkhart Logical-Truth Calculator.
Some books covering a good deal of mathematical logic are:
Quine, W. V., Mathematical Logic, New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1940, 348 pp.
Reichenbach, Hans, Elements of Symbolic Logic, New York: The Macmillan Co., 1947, 444 pp.
Tarski, Alfred, Introduction to Logic, New York: Oxford University Press, 1941, 239 pp.
Woodger, J. H., The Axiomatic Method in Biology, Cambridge, England: The University Press, 1937, 174 pp.
Chapter 2, pp. 18-52, is an excellent and understandable summary of the concepts of mathematical logic.
Several papers on the application of mathematical logic to the analysis of practical situations are:
Berkeley, Edmund C., Boolean Algebra (The Technique for Manipulating “And,” “Or,” “Not,” and Conditions) and Applications to Insurance, Record of the American Institute of Actuaries, vol. 26, Oct. 1937, pp. 373-414.
Berkeley, Edmund C., Conditions Affecting the Application of Symbolic Logic, Journal of Symbolic Logic, vol. 7, no. 4, Dec. 1942, pp. 160-168.
Shannon, Claude E., A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits, Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, vol. 57, 1938, pp. 713-723.
This paper has had a good deal of influence here and there on the development of electric circuits using relays.
The following report discusses the solution of some problems of mathematical logic by means of a large-scale digital calculator:
Tarski, Alfred, A Decision Method for Elementary Algebra and Geometry, Report R-109, California: Rand Corporation, Aug. 1, 1948, 60 pp.
OTHER DIGITAL MACHINES FINISHED OR UNDER DEVELOPMENT
The Aiken Mark II Relay Calculator
The Computation Laboratory of Harvard University finished during 1947 a second large relay calculator, called the Aiken Mark II Relay Calculator. This machine is alluded to briefly at the end of Chapter 10 and is described more fully in the following:
Campbell, Robert V. D., Mark II Calculator, Proceedings of a Symposium on Large-Scale Digital Calculating Machinery, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1948, pp. 69-79.
Freeland, Stephen L., Inside the Biggest Man-Made Brain, Popular Science, May 1947, pp. 95-100.
Miller, Frederick G., Application of Printing Telegraph Equipment to Large-Scale Calculating Machinery, Proceedings of a Symposium on Large-Scale Digital Calculating Machinery, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1948, pp. 213-222.
The Edsac
The Edsac is a machine under construction in England.
Wilkes, M. V., The Design of a Practical High-Speed Computing Machine: the EDSAC, Proceedings of the Royal Society, series A, vol. 195, 1948, pp. 274-279.
Wilkes, M. V., and W. Renwick, An Ultrasonic Memory Unit for the EDSAC, Electronic Engineering, vol. 20, no. 245, July 1948, pp. 208-213.
The Edvac
The Edvac is a machine under construction at the Moore School of Electrical Engineering, Philadelphia.
Koons, Florence, and Samuel Lubkin, Conversion of Numbers from Decimal to Binary Form in the EDVAC, Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation, vol. 3, no. 26, Apr. 1949, pp. 427-431.
Anonymous, EDVAC Replaces ENIAC, The Pennsylvania Gazette, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, vol. 45, no. 8, Apr. 1947, pp. 9-10.
The IBM Selective-Sequence Electronic Calculator
The IBM Selective-Sequence Electronic Calculator was finished and announced in January 1948, and is alluded to briefly at the end of Chapter 10. More information about this machine is in the following references:
Eckert, W. J., Electrons and Computation, The Scientific Monthly, vol. 67, no. 5, Nov. 1948, pp. 315-323.
International Business Machines Corporation, IBM Selective-Sequence Electronic Calculator, New York: International Business Machines Corporation (form no. 52-3927-0), 1948, 16 pp.
The Raytheon Computer
The Raytheon Computer is a machine under construction at the Raytheon Manufacturing Co., Waltham, Mass.
Bloch, R. M., R. V. D. Campbell, and M. Ellis, The Logical Design of the Raytheon Computer, Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation, vol. 3, no. 24, Oct. 1948, pp. 286-295.
Bloch, R. M., R. V. D. Campbell, and M. Ellis, General Design Considerations for the Raytheon Computer, Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation, vol. 3, no. 24, Oct. 1948, pp. 317-323.
A “System of Electric Remote-Control Accounting”
During the 1930’s a system using connected punch-card machinery was experimented with in a department store in Pittsburgh. The purpose of the system was automatic accounting and analysis of sales. This system is described in:
Woodruff, L. F., A System of Electric Remote-Control Accounting, Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, vol. 57, Feb. 1938, pp. 78-87.
The Univac
The Univac is a machine under construction at the Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation, Philadelphia. A similar but smaller digital computer called the Binac is also being developed.
Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation, The Univac System, Philadelphia: Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corp., 1948, 8 pp.
Electronic Control Co. (now Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corp.), A Tentative Instruction Code for a Statistical Edvac, Philadelphia: Electronic Control Co. (now Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corp.), May 7, 1947, 19 pp.
Snyder, Frances E., and Hubert M. Livingston, Coding of a Laplace Boundary Value Problem for the UNIVAC, Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation, vol. 3, no. 25, Jan. 1949, pp. 341-350.
The Zuse Computer
The Zuse Computer is a small digital computer constructed in Germany.
Lyndon, Roger C., The Zuse Computer, Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation, vol. 2, no. 20, Oct. 1947, pp. 355-359.
THE DESIGN OF DIGITAL MACHINES
Following are a number of references on various aspects of the design of digital computing machines:
Organization
Burks, Arthur W., Super-Electronic Computing Machine, Electronic Industries, vol. 5, no. 7, July 1946, p. 62.
Burks, Arthur W., Herman H. Goldstine and John von Neumann, Preliminary Discussion of the Logical Design of an Electronic Computing Instrument, Princeton, N. J.: Institute for Advanced Study, 2nd edition, Sept. 1947, 42 pp.
Eckert, J. Presper, Jr., John W. Mauchly, and J. R. Weiner, An Octal System Automatic Computer, Electrical Engineering, vol. 68, no. 4, Apr. 1949, p. 335.
Forrester, Jay W., Warren S. Loud, Robert R. Everett, and David R. Brown, Lectures by Project Whirlwind Staff on Electronic Digital Computation, Cambridge, Mass.: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Servo-mechanisms Laboratory, Mar. and Apr. 1947, 149 pp.
Lubkin, Samuel, Decimal Point Location in Computing Machines, Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation, vol. 3, no. 21, Jan. 1948, pp. 44-50.
Patterson, George W., editor, and others, Theory and Techniques for Design of Electronic Digital Computers (subtitle: Lectures Given at the Moore School 8 July 1946-31 August 1946), Philadelphia: The University of Pennsylvania, Moore School of Electrical Engineering, vol. 1, lectures 1-10, Sept. 10, 1947, 161 pp.; vol. 2, lectures 11-21, Nov. 1, 1947, 173 pp.; vol. 3 and 4 in preparation.
Stibitz, George R., Relay Computers, Applied Mathematics Panel Report 171.1R, Washington, D. C.: National Defense Research Council, Feb. 1945, 83 pp.
Stibitz, George R., Should Automatic Computers be Large or Small? Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation, vol. 2, no. 20, Oct. 1947, pp. 362-364.
Stibitz, George R., The Organization of Large-Scale Calculating Machinery, Proceedings of a Symposium on Large-Scale Digital Calculating Machinery, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1948, pp. 91-100.
Stibitz, George R., A New Class of Computing Aids, Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation, vol. 3, no. 23, July 1948, pp. 217-221.
Input and Output Devices
Alexander, Samuel N., Input and Output Devices for Electronic Digital Calculating Machinery, Proceedings of a Symposium on Large-Scale Digital Calculating Machinery, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1948, pp. 248-253.
Fuller, Harrison W., The Numeroscope, Proceedings of a Symposium on Large-Scale Digital Calculating Machinery, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1948, pp. 238-247.
O’neal, R. D., Photographic Methods for Handling Input and Output Data, Proceedings of a Symposium on Large-Scale Digital Calculating Machinery, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1948, pp. 260-266.
Tyler, Arthur W., Optical and Photographic Storage Techniques, Proceedings of a Symposium on Large-Scale Digital Calculating Machinery, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1948, pp. 146-150.
Zworykin, V. K., L. E. Flory, and W. S. Pike, Letter-Reading Machine, Electronics, vol. 22, no. 6, June 1949, pp. 80-86.
Anonymous, Letter-Printing Cathode-Ray Tube, Electronics, vol. 22, no. 6, June 1949, pp. 160-162.
Storage Devices
Brillouin, Leon N., Electromagnetic Delay Lines, Proceedings of a Symposium on Large-Scale Digital Calculating Machinery, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1948, pp. 110-124.
Forrester, Jay W., High-Speed Electrostatic Storage, Proceedings of a Symposium on Large-Scale Digital Calculating Machinery, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1948, pp. 125-129.
Haeff, Andrew V., The Memory Tube and its Application to Electronic Computation, Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation, vol. 3, no. 24, Oct. 1948, pp. 281-286.
Kornei, Otto, Survey of Magnetic Recording, Proceedings of a Symposium on Large-Scale Digital Calculating Machinery, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1948, pp. 223-237.
Moore, Benjamin L., Magnetic and Phosphor Coated Discs, Proceedings of a Symposium on Large-Scale Digital Calculating Machinery, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1948, pp. 130-132.
Rajchman, Jan A., The Selectron—A Tube for Selective Electrostatic Storage, Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation, vol. 2, no. 20, Oct. 1947, pp. 359-361 and frontispiece.
Sharpless, T. Kite, Mercury Delay Lines as a Memory Unit, Proceedings of a Symposium on Large-Scale Digital Calculating Machinery, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1948, pp. 103-109.
Sheppard, C. Bradford, Transfer Between External and Internal Memory, Proceedings of a Symposium on Large-Scale Digital Calculating Machinery, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1948, pp. 267-273.
Programming or Coding
Everett, Robert R., Digital Computing Machine Logic (memorandum M-63), Cambridge, Mass.: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Servo-mechanisms Laboratory, Mar. 19, 1947, 48 pp.
Goldstine, Herman H., and John von Neumann, Planning and Coding of Problems for an Electronic Computing Instrument, Princeton, N. J.: Institute for Advanced Study, 1947, 69 pp.
Goldstine, Herman H., and John von Neumann, Planning and Coding of Problems for an Electronic Computing Instrument, Princeton, N. J.: Institute for Advanced Study, part 2, vol. 3, 1948, 23 pp.
Mauchly, John W., Preparation of Problems for Edvac-Type Machines, Proceedings of a Symposium on Large-Scale Digital Calculating Machinery, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1948, pp. 203-207.
DIGITAL MACHINES— MISCELLANEOUS
Many of the following articles are nontechnical and contain much interesting information about machines that think:
Alt, Franz L., New High-Speed Computing Devices, The American Statistician, vol. 1, no. 1, Aug. 1947, pp. 14-15.
Bush, Vannevar, As We May Think, Atlantic Monthly, July 1945, pp. 101-108.
Condon, Edward U., The Electronic Brain Means a Better Future for You (broadcast), Columbia Broadcasting System, Jan. 4, 1948.
Davis, Harry M., Mathematical Machines, Scientific American, vol. 180, no. 4, Apr. 1949, pp. 29-39.
Lagemann, John K., It All Adds Up, Collier’s Magazine, May 31, 1947, pp. 22-23 ...
Locke, E. L., Modern Calculators, Astounding Science Fiction, vol. 52, no. 5, Jan. 1949, pp. 87-106.
MacLaughlan, Lorne, Electrical Mathematicians, Astounding Science Fiction, vol. 53, no. 3, May 1949, pp. 93-108.
Mann, Martin, Want to Buy a Brain? Popular Science, vol. 154, no. 5, May 1949, pp. 148-152.
Newman, James R., Custom-Built Genius, New Republic, June 23, 1947, pp. 14-18.
Pfeiffer, John E., The Machine That Plays Gin Rummy, Science Illustrated, vol. 4, no. 3, Mar. 1949, pp. 46-48 ...
Ridenour, Louis N., Mechanical Brains, Fortune, vol. 39, no. 5, May 1949, pp. 108-118.
Tumbleson, Robert C., Calculating Machines, Federal Science Progress, June 1947, pp. 3-7.
Anonymous, Almost Human, Home Office News, Newark, N. J.: Prudential Insurance Company of America, Feb. 1947, p. 8.
APPLICATIONS OF DIGITAL MACHINES
Some of the problems that mechanical brains can solve, some of the methods for controlling them to solve problems, and some of the implications of mechanical brains for future problems are covered in the following references:
Solving Problems
Berkeley, Edmund C., Electronic Machinery for Handling Information, and its Uses in Insurance, Transactions of the Actuarial Society of America, vol. 48, May 1947, pp. 36-52.
Berkeley, Edmund C., Electronic Sequence Controlled Calculating Machinery and Applications in Insurance, Proceedings of 1947 Annual Conference, Life Office Management Association, New York: Life Office Management Association, 1947, pp. 116-129.
Curry, Haskell B., and Willa A. Wyatt, A Study of Inverse Interpolation of the Eniac, B. R. L. Report No. 615, Aberdeen, Md.: Ballistic Research Laboratories, Aug. 19, 1946, 100 pp.
Harrison, Joseph O., Jr., and Helen Malone, Piecewise Polynomial Approximation for Large-Scale Digital Calculators, Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation, vol. 3, no. 26, Apr. 1949, pp. 400-407.
Hoffleit, Dorrit, A Comparison of Various Computing Machines Used in Reduction of Doppler Observations, Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation, vol. 3, no. 25, Jan. 1949, pp. 373-377.
Leontief, Wassily W., Computational Problems Arising in Connection with Economic Analysis of Interindustrial Relationships, Proceedings of a Symposium on Large-Scale Digital Calculating Machinery, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1948, pp. 169-175.
Lotkin, Max, Inversion on the Eniac Using Osculatory Interpolation, B. R. L. Report No. 632, Aberdeen, Md.: Ballistic Research Laboratories, July 15, 1947, 42 pp.
Lowan, Arnold N., The Computation Laboratory of the National Bureau of Standards, Scripta Mathematica, vol. 15, no. 1, Mar. 1949, pp. 33-63.
Matz, Adolph, Electronics in Accounting, Accounting Review, vol. 21, no. 4, Oct. 1946, pp. 371-379.
McPherson, James L., Applications of High-Speed Computing Machines to Statistical Work, Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation, vol. 3, no. 22, Apr. 1948, pp. 121-126.
Mitchell, Herbert F., Jr., Inversion of a Matrix of Order 38, Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation, vol. 3, no. 23, July 1948, pp. 161-166.
Anonymous, Revolutionizing the Office, Business Week, May 28, 1949, no. 1030, pp. 65-72.
Speech
Some of the possibilities of machines dealing with voice and speech are indicated in:
Dudley, Homer, R. R. Riesz, and S. S. A. Watkins, A Synthetic Speaker, Journal of the Franklin Institute, vol. 227, June 1939, pp. 739-764.
This is an article on the Voder, which is an abbreviation of Voice Operation Demonstrator. The machine was exhibited at the New York World’s Fair, 1939.
Dudley, Homer, The Vocoder, Bell Laboratories Record, vol. 18, no. 4, Dec. 1939, pp. 122-126.
This is a more general type of machine than the Voder. The Vocoder is both an analyzer and synthesizer of human speech.
Potter, Ralph K., George A. Kopp, and Harriet C. Green, Visible Speech, New York: D. Van Nostrand Co., 1947, 441 pp.
Anonymous, Pedro the Voder: A Machine that Talks, Bell Laboratories Record, vol. 17, no. 6, Feb. 1939, pp. 170-171.
Weather
Some of the possibilities of machines dealing with weather information are covered in:
Lagemann, John K., Making Weather to Order, New York Herald Tribune: This Week, Feb. 23, 1947.
Shalett, Sidney, Electronics to Aid Weather Figuring, The New York Times, Jan. 11, 1946.
Zworykin, V. K., Outline of Weather Proposal, Princeton, N. J.: Radio Corporation of America Research Laboratories, Oct. 1945, 11 pp.
Anonymous, Weather Under Control, Fortune, Feb. 1948, pp. 106-111 ...
The Robot Machine
Čapek, Karel, R. U. R. (translated from the Czech by Paul Selver), New York: Doubleday, Page & Co., 1923.
Lagemann, John K., From Piggly Wiggly to Keedoozle, Collier’s Magazine, vol. 122, no. 18, Oct. 30, 1948, pp. 20-21 ...
Leaver, E. W., and J. J. Brown, Machines Without Men, Fortune, vol. 34, no. 5, Nov. 1946, pp. 165 ...
Pease, M. C., Devious Weapon, Astounding Science Fiction, vol. 53, no. 2, Apr. 1949, pp. 34-43.
Shannon, Claude E., Programming a Computer for Playing Chess, Bell Telephone Laboratories, Oct. 8, 1948, 34 pp.
Shelley, Mary W., Frankenstein (in Everyman’s Library, No. 616), New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., last reprinted 1945, 242 pp.
Spilhaus, Athelstan, Let Robot Work for You, The American Magazine, Dec. 1948, p. 47 ...
Anonymous, Another New Product for Robot Salesmen, Modern Industry, vol. 13, no. 2, Feb. 15, 1947.
Anonymous, The Automatic Factory, Fortune, vol. 34, no. 5, Nov. 1946, p. 160 ...
Anonymous, Machines Predict What Happens in Your Plant, Business Week, Sept. 25, 1948, pp. 68-69 ...