NOTES

TABLE OF ABBREVIATIONS.

Several words, which occur most frequently in the Notes, are abbreviated. Of these the following classes may require explanation. The other abbreviations are either familiar or sufficiently obvious of themselves.

1. WORKS OF TACITUS.

A. Agricola. Ann. Annals. G. Germania. H. Histories. T. Tacitus.

2. ANNOTATORS CITED AS AUTHORITIES.

Br. Brotier. D. or Död. Döderlein. Dr. Dronke. E. Ernesti. Gr. Gruber. Gün. Günther. K. Kiessling. Ky. Kingsley. Mur. Murphy. Or. Orelli. Pass. Passow. R. Roth. Rhen. Rhenanus. Rit. Ritter. Rup. Ruperti. W. Walch. Wr. Walther.

3. OTHER AUTHORITIES.

H. Harkness' Latin Grammar. Beck. Gall. Becker's Gallus. Böt. Lex. Tac. Bötticher's Lexicon Taciteun. For. and Fac. Forcellini and Facciolati's Latin Lexicon. Tur. His. Ang. Sax. Turner's History of the Anglo-Saxons. Z. Zumpt's Latin Grammar.

GERMANIA.

The Treatise DE SITU, MORIBUS ET POPULIS GERMANIAE, was written (as appears from the treatise itself see § 37) in the second consulship of the Emperor Trajan, A.U.C. 851, A.D. 98. The design of the author in its publication has been variously interpreted. From the censure which it frequently passes upon the corruption and degeneracy of the times, it has been considered as a mere satire upon Roman manners, in the age of Tacitus. But to say nothing of the ill adaptation of the whole plan to a satirical work, there are large parts of the treatise, which must have been prepared with great labor, and yet can have no possible bearing on such a design. Satires are not wont to abound in historical notices and geographical details, especially touching a foreign and distant land.

The same objection lies against the political ends, which have been imputed to the author, such as the persuading of Trajan to engage, or not to engage, in a war with the Germans, as the most potent and dangerous enemy of Rome. For both these aims have been alleged, and we might content ourselves with placing the one as an offset against the other. But aside from the neutralizing force of such contradictions, wherefore such an imposing array of geographical research, of historical lore, of political and moral philosophy, for the accomplishment of so simple a purpose? And why is the purpose so scrupulously concealed, that confessedly it can be gathered only from obscure intimations, and those of ambiguous import? Besides, there are passages whose tendency must have been directly counter to either of these alleged aims (cf. note § 33). The author does indeed, in the passage just cited, seem to appreciate with almost prophetic accuracy, those dangers to the Roman Empire, which were so fearfully illustrated in its subsequent fall beneath the power of the German Tribes; and he utters, as what true Roman would not in such forebodings, the warnings and the prayers of a patriot sage. But he does this only in episodes, which are so manifestly incidental, and yet arise so naturally out of the narrative or description, that it is truly surprising it should ever have occurred to any reader, to seek in them the key to the whole treatise.

The entire warp and woof of the work is obviously historical and geographical. The satire, the political maxims, the moral sentiments, and all the rest, are merely incidental, interwoven for the sake of instruction and embellishment, inwrought because a mind so thoughtful and so acute as that of Tacitus, could not leave them out. Tacitus had long been collecting the materials for his Roman Histories. In so doing, his attention was necessarily drawn often and with special interest to a people, who, for two centuries and more, had been the most formidable enemy of the Roman State. In introducing them into his history, he would naturally wish to give some preliminary account of their origin, manners, and institutions, as he does in introducing the Jews in the Fifth Book of his Histories, which happens to be, in part, preserved. Nor would it be strange, if he should, with this view, collect a mass of materials, which he could not incorporate entire into a work of such compass, and which any slight occasion might induce him to publish in a separate form, perhaps as a sort of forerunner to his Histories. [It has even been argued by highly respectable scholars, that the Germania of Tacitus is itself only such a collection of materials, not published by the Author, and never intended for publication in that form. But it is quite too methodical, too studied, and too finished a work to admit of that supposition (cf. Prolegom. of K.).] Such an occasion now was furnished in the campaigns and victories of Trajan, who, at the time of his elevation to the imperial power, was at the head of the Roman armies in Germany, where he also remained for a year or more after his accession to the throne, till he had received the submission of the hostile tribes and wiped away the disgrace which the Germans, beyond any other nation of that age, had brought upon the Roman arms. Such a people, at such a time, could not fail to be an object of deep interest at Rome. This was the time when Tacitus published his work on Germany; and such are believed to have been the motives and the circumstances, which led to the undertaking. His grand object was not to point a satire or to compass a political end, but as he himself informs us (§ 27), to treat of the origin and manners, the geography and history, of the German Tribes.

The same candor and sincerity, the same correctness and truthfulness, which characterize the Histories, mark also the work on Germany. The author certainly aimed to speak the truth, and nothing but the truth, on the subject of which he treats. Moreover, he had abundant means of knowing the truth, on all the main points, in the character and history of the Germans. It has even been argued from such expression as vidimus (§ 8), that Tacitus had himself been in Germany, and could, therefore, write from personal observation. Bnt the argument proceeds on a misinterpretation of his language (cf. note in loc. cit.). And the use of accepimus (as in § 27), shows that he derived his information from others. But the Romans had been in constant intercourse and connection, civil or military, with the Germans, for two hundred years. Germany furnished a wide theatre for their greatest commanders, and a fruitful theme for their best authors, some of whom, as Julius Caesar (to whom Tacitus particularly refers, 28), were themselves the chief actors in what they relate. These authors, some of whose contributions to the history of Germany are now lost (e.g. the elder Pliny, who wrote twenty books on the German wars), must have all been in the hands of Tacitus, and were, doubtless, consulted by him; not, however, as a servile copyist, or mere compiler (for he sometimes differs from his authorities, from Caesar even, whom he declares to be the best of them), but as a discriminating and judicious inquirer. The account of German customs and institutions may, therefore, be relied on, from the intrinsic credibility of the author. It receives confirmation, also, from its general accordance with other early accounts of the Germans, and with their better known subsequent history, as well as from its strong analogy to the well-known habits of our American aborigines, and other tribes in a like stage of civilization (cf. note, § 15). The geographical details are composed with all the accuracy which the ever-shifting positions and relations of warring and wandering tribes rendered possible in the nature of the case (cf. note, § 28). In sentiment, the treatise is surpassingly rich and instructive, like all the works of this prince of philosophical historians. In style, it is concise and nervous, yet quite rhetorical, and in parts, even poetical to a fault (see notes passim, cf. also, Monboddo's critique on the style of Tacitus). "The work," says La Bletterie, "is brief without being superficial. Within the compass of a few pages, it comprises more of ethics and politics, more fine delineations of character, more substance and pith (suc), than can be collected from many a ponderous volume. It is not one of those barely agreeable descriptions, which gradually diffuse their influence over the soul, and leave it in undisturbed tranquillity. It is a picture in strong light, like the subject itself, full of fire, of sentiment, of lightning-flashes, that go at once to the heart. We imagine ourselves in Germany; we become familiar with these so-called barbarians; we pardon their faults, and almost their vices, out of regard to their virtues; and in our moments of enthusiasm, we even wish we were Germans."

The following remarks of Murphy will illustrate the value of the treatise, to modern Europeans and their descendants. "It is a draught of savage manners, delineated by a masterly hand; the more interesting, as the part of the world which it describes was the seminary of the modern European nations, the VAGINA GENTIUM, as historians have emphatically called it. The work is short but, as Montesquieu observes, it is the work of a man who abridged every thing, because he knew every thing. A thorough knowledge of the transactions of barbarous ages, will throw more light than is generally imagined on the laws of modern times. Wherever the barbarians, who issued from their northern hive, settled in new habitations, they carried with them their native genius, their original manners, and the first rudiments of the political system which has prevailed in different parts of Europe. They established monarchy and liberty, subordination and freedom, the prerogative of the prince and the rights of the subject, all united in so bold a combination, that the fabric, in some places, stands to this hour the wonder of mankind. The British constitution, says Montesquieu, came out of the woods of Germany. What the state of this country (Britain) was before the arrival of our Saxon ancestors, Tacitus has shown in the life of Agricola. If we add to his account of the Germans and Britons, what has been transmitted to us, concerning them, by Julius Caesar, we shall see the origin of the Anglo-Saxon government, the great outline of that Gothic constitution under which the people enjoy their rights and liberties at this hour. Montesquieu, speaking of his own country, declares it impossible to form an adequate notion of the French monarchy, and the changes of their government, without a previous inquiry into the manners, genius, and spirit of the German nations. Much of what was incorporated with the institutions of those fierce invaders, has flowed down in the stream of time, and still mingles with our modern jurisprudence. The subject, it is conceived, is interesting to every Briton. In the manners of the Germans, the reader will see our present frame of government, as it were, in its cradle, gentis cunabula nostrae! in the Germans themselves, a fierce and warlike people, to whom this country owes that spirit of liberty, which, through so many centuries, has preserved our excellent form of government, and raised the glory of the British nation:

———Genus unde Latinum, Albanique patres, atque altae moenia Romae."

CHAP. I. Germania stands first as the emphatic word, and is followed by omnis for explanation. Germania omnis here does not include Germania Prima and Secunda, which were Roman provinces on the left bank of the Rhine (so called because settled by Germans). It denotes Germany proper, as a whole, in distinction from the provinces just mentioned and from the several tribes, of which Tacitus treats in the latter part of the work. So Caesar (B.G. 1,1) uses Gallia omnis, as exclusive of the Roman provinces called Gaul and inclusive of the three parts, which he proceeds to specify.

Gallis—Pannoniis. People used for the countries. Cf. His. 5,6: Phoenices. Gaul, now France; Rhaetia, the country of the Grisons and the Tyrol, with part of Bavaria; Pannonia, lower Hungary and part of Austria. Germany was separated from Gaul by the Rhine; from Rhaetia and Pannonia, by the Danube.—Rheno et Danubio. Rhine and Rhone are probably different forms of the same root (Rh-n). Danube, in like manner, has the same root as Dnieper (Dn-p); perhaps also the same as Don and Dwina (D-n). Probably each of these roots was originally a generic name for river, water, stream. So there are several Avons in England and Scotland. Cf. Latham's Germania sub voc.

Sarmatis Dacisque. The Slavonic Tribes were called Sarmatians by the ancients. Sarmatia included the country north of the Carpathian Mountains, between the Vistula and the Don in Europe, together with the adjacent part of Asia, without any definite limits towards the north, which was terra incognita to the ancients—in short, Sarmatia was Russia, as far as known at that time. Dacia lay between the Carpathian mountains on the north, and the Danube on the south, including Upper Hungary, Transylvania, Wallachia, and Moldavia.

Mutuo metu. Rather a poetical boundary! Observe also the alliteration. At the same time, the words are not a bad description of those wide and solitary wastes, which, as Caesar informs us (B.G. 6, 23), the Germans delighted to interpose between themselves and other nations, so that it might appear that no one dared to dwell near them.—Montibus. The Carpathian.—Cetera. Ceteram Germaniae partem.

Sinus. This word denotes any thing with a curved outline (cf. 29, also A. 23); hence bays, peninsulas, and prominent bends or borders, whether of land or water. Here peninsulas (particularly that of Jutland, now Denmark), for it is to the author's purpose here to speak of land rather than water, and the ocean is more properly said to embrace peninsulas, than gulfs and bays. Its association with islands here favors the same interpretation. So Passow, Or., Rit. Others, with less propriety, refer it to the gulfs and bays, which so mark the Baltic and the German Oceans.—Oceanus here, includes both the Baltic Sea, and the German Ocean (Oceanus Septentrionalis).

Insularum—spatia. Islands of vast extent, viz. Funen, Zealand, &c. Scandinavia also (now Sweden and Norway) was regarded by the ancients as an island, cf. Plin. Nat. His. iv. 27: quarum (insularum) clarissima Scandinavia est, incompertae magnitudinis.

Nuper—regibus. Understand with this clause ut compertum est. The above mentioned features of the Northern Ocean had been discovered in the prosecution of the late wars, of the Romans, among the tribes and kings previously unknown. Nuper is to be taken in a general sense==recentioribus temporibus, cf. nuper additum, § 2, where it goes back one hundred and fifty years to the age of Julius Caesar.—Bellum. War in general, no particular war.—Versus. This word has been considered by some as an adverb, and by others as a preposition. It is better however to regard it as a participle, like ortus, with which it is connected, though without a conjunction expressed. Ritter omits in.

Molli et clementer edito. Of gentle slope and moderate elevation in studied antithesis to inaccesso ac praecipiti, lofty and steep. In like manner, jugo, ridge, summit, is contrasted with vertice, peak, height, cf. Virg. Ecl. 9, 7: molli clivo; Ann. 17, 38: colles clementer assurgentes. The Rhaetian Alps, now the mountains of the Grisons. Alp is a Celtic word==hill. Albion has the same root==hilly country. Mons Abnoba (al. Arnoba) is the northern part of the Schwartzwald, or Black Forest.—Erumpat, al. erumpit. But the best MSS. and all the recent editions have erumpat: and Tacitus never uses the pres. ind. after donec, until, cf. Rup. & Rit. in loc. Whenever he uses the present after donec, until, he seems to have conceived the relation of the two clauses, which it connects, as that of a means to an end, or a condition to a result, and hence to have used the subj. cf. chap. 20: separet; 31: absolvat; 35: sinuetur; Ann. 2, 6: misceatur. The two examples last cited, like this, describe the course of a river and boundary line. For the general rule of the modes after donec, see H. 522; Z. 575. See also notes H. 1, 13. 35.—Septimum. According to the common understanding, the Danube had seven mouths. So Strabo, Mela, Ammian, and Ovid; Pliny makes six. T. reconciles the two accounts. The enim inserted after septimum in most editions is not found in the best mss. and is unnecessary. Or. & Rit. omit it.

II. Ipsos marks the transition from the country to the people—the Germans themselves. So A. 13: Ipsi Britanni.

Crediderim. Subj. attice. A modest way of expressing his opinion, like our: I should say, I am inclined to think. H. 486, I. 3; Z. 527.

Adventibus et hospitiis. Immigrants and visitors. Adventibus certae sedes, hospitiis preregrinationes significantur. Gün. Both abstract for concrete. Död. compares [Greek: epoikoi] and [Greek: metoikoi].

Terra—advehebantur. Zeugma for terra adveniebant, classibus advehebantur. H. 704, I. 2; Z. 775.

Nec—et. These correlatives connect the members more closely than et—et; as in Greek oute-te. The sentiment here advanced touching colonization (as by sea, rather than by land), though true of Carthage, Sicily, and most Grecian, colonies, is directly the reverse of the general fact; and Germany itself is now known to have received its population by land emigration, from western Asia. The Germans, as we learn from affinities of languages and occasional references of historians and geographers, belonged to the same great stock of the human family with the Goths and Scythians, and may be traced back to that hive of nations, that primitive residence of mankind, the country east and south of the Caspian Sea and in the vicinity of Mount Ararat: cf. Tur. His. Ang. Sax. B. II. C. 1; also Donaldson's New Cratylus, B. I. Chap. 4. Latham's dogmatic skepticism will hardly shake the now established faith on this subject. The science of ethnography was unknown to the ancients. Tacitus had not the remotest idea, that all mankind were sprung from a common ancestry, and diffused themselves over the world from a common centre, a fact asserted in the Scriptures, and daily receiving fresh confirmation from literature and science. Hence he speaks of the Germans as indigenas, which he explains below by editum terra, sprung from the earth, like the mutum et turpe pecus of Hor. Sat. 1. 3, 100. cf. A. 11.

Mutare quaerebant. Quaerere with inf. is poet. constr., found, however, in later prose writers, and once in Cic. (de Fin. 313: quaeris scire, enclosed in brackets in Tauchnitz's edition), to avoid repetition of cupio. Cupio or volo mutare would be regular classic prose.

Adversus. That the author here uses adversus in some unusual and recondite sense, is intimated by the clause: ut sic dixerim. It is understood by some, of a sea unfriendly to navigation. But its connexion by que with immensus ultra, shows that it refers to position, and means lying opposite, i.e., belonging, as it were, to another hemisphere or world from ours; for so the Romans regarded the Northern Ocean and Britain itself, cf. A 12: ultra nostri orbis mensuram; G. 17: exterior oceanus. So Cic. (Som. Scip. 6.) says: Homines partim obliquos, partim aversos, partim etiam adversos, stare vobis. This interpretation is confirmed by ab orbe nostra in the antithesis. On the use of ut sic dixerim for ut sic dicam, which is peculiar to the silver age, see Z. 528.

Asia, sc. Minor. Africa, sc. the Roman Province of that name, comprising the territory of Carthage.—Peteret. The question implies a negative answer, cf. Z. 530. The subj. implies a protasis understood: if he could, or the like. H. 502.

Sit. Praesens, ut de re vera. Gün. Nisi si is nearly equivalent to nisi forte: unless perchance; unless if we may suppose the case. Cf. Wr. note on Ann. 2, 63, and Hand's Tursellinus, 3, 240.

Memoriae et annalium. Properly opposed to each other as tradition and written history, though we are not to infer that written books existed in Germany in the age of Tacitus.

Carminibus. Songs, ballads (from cano). Songs and rude poetry have been, in all savage countries, the memorials of public transactions, e.g. the runes of the Goths, the bards of the Britons and Celts, the scalds of Scandinavia, &c.

Tuisconem. The god from whom Tuesday takes its name, as Wednesday from Woden, Thursday from Thor, &c., cf. Sharon Turner's His. of Ang. Sax. app. to book 2. chap. 3. Some find in the name of this god the root of the words Teutonic, Dutch (Germ. Deutsche or Teutsche &c.,) Al. Tuistonem, Tristonem, &c. More likely it has the same root as the Latin divus, dius, deus, and the Greek theios, dios, theos, cf. Grimm's Deutsche Mythologie, sub v.

Terra editum==indigena above; and gaegenaes and autochthon in Greek.

Originem==auctores. It is predicate after Mannum.

Ut in licentia vetustatis. As in the license of antiquity, i.e. since such license is allowed in regard to ancient times.

Ingaevones. "According to some German antiquaries, the Ingaevones are die Einwohner, those dwelling inwards towards the sea; the Istaevones are die Westwohner, the inhabitants of the western parts; and the Hermiones are the Herumwohner, midland inhabitants," Ky. cf. Kiessling in loc. Others, e.g. Zeuss and Grimm, with more probability, find in these names the roots of German words significant of honor and bravery, assumed by different tribes or confederacies as epithets or titles of distinction. Grimm identifies these three divisions with the Franks, Saxons, and Thuringians of a later age. See further, note chap. 27.

Vocentur. The subj. expresses the opinion of others, not the direct affirmation of the author. H. 529; Z. 549.

Deo==hoc deo, sc. Mannus—Germ. Mann, Eng. Man.

Marsos, Gambrivios. Under the names of Franci and Salii these tribes afterwards became formidable to the Romans. Cf. Prichard's Researches into the Physical History of Mankind, Vol. III. chap. 6, sec. 2.— Suevos, cf. note, 38.—Vandalios. The Vandals, now so familiar in history.

Additum, sc. esse, depending on affirmant.

Nunc Tungri, sc. vocentur, cf. His. 4, 15, 16. In confirmation of the historical accuracy of this passage, Gr. remarks, that Caes. (B.G. 2, 4) does not mention the Tungri, but names four tribes on the left bank of the Rhine, who, he says, are called by the common name of Germans; while Pliny (Nat. His. 4, 31), a century later, gives not the names of these four tribes, but calls them by the new name Tungri.

Ita—vocarentur. Locus vexatissimus! exclaim all the critics. And so they set themselves to amend the text by conjecture. Some have written in nomen gentis instead of non gentis. Others have proposed a victorum metu, or a victo ob metum, or a victis ob metum. But these emendations are wholly conjectural and unnecessary. Günther and Walch render a victore, from the victorious tribe, i.e. after the name of that tribe. But a se ipsis means by themselves; and the antithesis doubtless requires a to be understood in the same sense in both clauses. Grüber translates and explains thus: "In this way the name of a single tribe, and not of the whole people, has come into use, so that all, at first by the victor (the Tungri), in order to inspire fear, then by themselves (by the mouth of the whole people), when once the name became known, were called by the name of Germans. That is, the Tungri called all the kindred tribes that dwelt beyond the Rhine, Germans, in order to inspire fear by the wide extension of the name, since they gave themselves out to be a part of so vast a people; but at length all the tribes began to call themselves by this name, probably because they were pleased to see the fear which it excited." This is, on the whole, the most satisfactory explanation of the passage, and meets the essential concurrence of Wr., Or. and Död.—Germani. If of German etymology, this word==gehr or wehr (Fr. guerre) and mann, men of war; hence the metus, which the name carried with it. If it is a Latin word corresponding only in sense with the original German, then==brethren. It will be seen, that either etymology would accord with Grüber's explanation of the whole passage—in either case, the name would inspire fear. The latter, however, is the more probable, cf. Ritter in loc. A people often bear quite different names abroad from that by which they call themselves at home. Thus the people, whom we call Germans, call themselves Deutsche (Dutch), and are called by the French Allemands, cf. Latham. Vocarentur is subj. because it stands in a subordinate clause of the oratio obliqua, cf. H. 531; Z. 603.

Metum. Here taken in an active sense; oftener passive, but used in both senses. Quintilian speaks of metum duplicem, quem patimur et quem facimus (6, 2, 21). cf. A. 44: nihil metus in vultu, i.e., nothing to inspire fear in his countenance. In like manner admiratio (§ 7) is used for the admiration which one excites, though it usually denotes the admiration which one feels. For ob, cf. Ann. 1, 79: ob moderandas Tiberis exundationes.

Nationis—gentis. Gens is often used by T. as a synonym with natio. But in antithesis, gens is the whole, of which nationes or populi are the parts, e.g. G. 4: populos—gentem; § 14: nationes—genti. In like manner, in the civil constitution of Rome, a gens included several related families.

III. Herculem. That is, Romana interpretatione, cf. § 34. The Romans found their gods everywhere, and ascribed to Hercules, quidquid ubique magnificum est, cf. note 34: quicquid—consensimus. That this is a Roman account of the matter is evident, from the use of eos, for if the Germans were the subject of memorant, se must have been used. On the use of et here, cf. note 11.

Primum—ut principem, fortissimum. Gün.

Haec quoque. Haec is rendered such by Ritter. But it seems rather, as Or. and Död. explain it, to imply nearness and familiarity to the mind of the author and his readers: these well known songs. So 20: in haec corpora, quae miramur. Quoque, like quidem, follows the emphatic word in a clause, H. 602, III. 1; Z. 355.

Relatu, called cantus trux, H. 2, 22. A Tacitean word. Freund. Cf. H. 1, 30.

Baritum. Al. barditum and barritum. But the latter has no ms. authority, and the former seems to have been suggested by the bards of the Gauls, of whose existence among the Germans however there is no evidence. Död. says the root of the word is common to the Greek, Latin, and German languages, viz. baren, i.e. fremere, a verb still used by the Batavians, and the noun bar, i.e. carmen, of frequent occurrence in Saxon poetry to this day.

Terrent trepidantve. They inspire terror or tremble with fear, according as the line (the troops drawn up in battle array) has sounded, sc. the baritus or battle cry. Thus the Batavians perceived, that the sonitus aciei on the part of the Romans was more feeble than their own, and pressed on, as to certain triumph. H. 4, 18. So the Highlanders augured victory, if their shouts were louder than those of the enemy. See Murphy in loco.

Repercussu. A post-Augustan word. The earlier Latin authors would have said repercussa, or repercutiendo. The later Latin, like the English, uses more abstract terms.—Nec tam—videntur. Nor do those carmina seem to be so much voices (well modulated and harmonized), as acclamations (unanimous, but inarticulate and indistinct) of courage. So Pliny uses concentus of the acclamations of the people. Panegyr. 2. It is often applied by the poets to the concerts of birds, as in Virg. Geor. 1, 422. It is here plural, cf. Or. in loc. The reading vocis is without MS. authority.

Ulixem. "The love of fabulous history, which was the passion of ancient times, produced a new Hercules in every country, and made Ulysses wander on every shore. Tacitus mentions it as a romantic tale; but Strabo seems willing to countenance the fiction, and gravely tells us that Ulysses founded a city, called Odyssey, in Spain. Lipsius observes, that Lisbon, in the name of Strabo, had the appellation of Ulysippo, or Olisipo. At this rate, he pleasantly adds, what should hinder us inhabitants of the Low Countries from asserting that Ulysses built the city of Ulyssinga, and Circe founded that of Circzea or Ziriczee?" Murphy.

Fabuloso errore. Storied, celebrated in song, cf. fabulosus Hydaspes. Hor. Od. 1, 227. Ulysses having wandered westward gave plausibility to alleged traces of him in Gaul, Spain and Germany—Asciburgium. Now Asburg.

Quin etiam, cf. notes, 13: quin etiam, and 14: quin immo.—Ulixi, i.e. ab Ulixe, cf. Ann. 15,41: Aedes statoris Jovis Romulo vota, i.e. by Romulus. This usage is especially frequent in the poets and the later prose writers, cf. H. 388, II. 3; Z. 419; and in T. above all others, cf. Böt. Lex. Tac. sub Dativus. Wr. and Rit. understand however an altar (or monument) consecrated to Ulysses, i.e. erected in honor of him by the citizens.

Adjecto. Inscribed with the name of his father, as well as his own, i.e. [Greek: Laertiadae].

Graecis litteris. Grecian characters, cf. Caes. B.G. 1, 29: In castris Helvetiorum, tabulae repertae sunt litteris Graecis confectae; and (6, 14): Galli in publicis privatisque rationibus Graecis utuntur litteris. T. speaks (Ann. 11, 14) of alphabetic characters, as passing from Phenicia into Greece, and Strabo (4, 1) traces them from the Grecian colony at Marseilles, into Gaul, whence they doubtless passed into Germany, and even into Britain.

IV. Aliis aliarum. The Greek and Latin are both fond of a repetition of different cases of the same word, even where one of them is redundant, e.g. [Greek: oioden oios] (Hom. II. 7, 39), and particularly in the words [Greek: allos] and alius. Aliis is not however wholly redundant; but brings out more fully the idea: no intermarriages, one with one nation, and another with another. Walch and Ritter omit aliis, though it is found in all the MSS.

Infectos. Things are said infici and imbui, which are so penetrated and permeated by something else, that that something becomes a part of its nature or substance, as inficere colore, sanguine, veneno, animum virtutibus. It does not necessarily imply corruption or degeneracy.

Propriam—similem. Three epithets not essentially different used for the sake of emphasis==peculiar, pure, and sui-generis. Similis takes the gen., when it expresses, as here, an internal resemblance in character; otherwise the dat., cf. Z. 411, H. 391, 2. 4.

Habitus. Form and features, external appearance. The physical features of the Germans as described by Tacitus, though still sufficient to distinguish them from the more southern European nations, have proved less permanent than their mental and social characteristics.

Idem omnibus. Cf. Juv. 13, 164:

Caerula quis stupuit Germani lumina? flavam Caesariem, et madido torquentem cornua cirro? Nempe quod haec illis natura est omnibus una.

Magna corpora. "Sidonius Apollinaris says, that, being in Germany and finding the men so very tall, he could not address verses of six feet to patrons who were seven feet high:

Spernit senipedem stilum Thalia, Ex quo septipedes vidit patronos." Mur.

Skeletons, in the ancient graves of Germany, are found to vary from 5 ft. 10 in. to 6 ft. 10 in. and even 7 ft. Cf. Ukert, Geog. III. 1. p. 197. These skeletons indicate a strong and well formed body.

Impetum. Temporary exertion, as opposed to persevering toil and effort, laboris atque operum.

Eadem. Not so much patientia, as ad impetum valida. See a like elliptical use of idem § 23: eadem temperantia; § 10: iisdem nemoribus. Also of totidem § 26.

Minime—assueverunt. "Least of all, are they capable of sustaining thirst and heat; cold and hunger, they are accustomed, by their soil and climate, to endure." Ky. The force of minime is confined to the first clause, and the proper antithetic particle is omitted at the beginning of the second. Tolerare depends on assueverunt, and belongs to both clauses. Ve is distributive, referring coelo to frigora and solo to inediam. So vel in H. 1, 62: strenuis vel ignavis spem metumque addere==strenuis spem, ignavis metum addere.

V. Humidior—ventosior. Humidior refers to paludibus, ventosior to silvis; the mountains (which were exposed to sweeping winds) being for the most part covered with forests, and the low grounds with marshes. Ventosus==Homeric [Greek: aenemoeis], windy, i.e. lofty. H. 3, 305: [Greek: Ilion aenemoessan].

Satis ferax. Satis==segetibus poetice. Ferax is constructed with abl., vid. Virg. Geor. 2, 222: ferax oleo.

Impatiens. Not to be taken in the absolute sense, cf. § 20, 23, 26, where fruit trees and fruits are spoken of.

Improcera agrees with pecora understood.

Armentis. Pecora—flocks in general. Armenta (from aro, to plough), larger cattle in particular. It may include horses.

Suus honor. Their proper, i.e. usual size and beauty.

Gloria frontis. Poetice for cornua. Their horns were small.

Numero. Emphatic: number, rather than quality. Or, with Ritter, gaudent may be taken in the sense of enjoy, possess: they have a good number of them. In the same sense he interprets gaudent in A. 44: opibus nimiis non gaudebat.

Irati, sc. quia opes sunt irritamenta malorum. Ov. Met. 1, 140.— Negaverint. Subj. H. 525; Z. 552—Affirmaverim. cf. note, 2: crediderim.

Nullam venam. "Mines of gold and silver have since been discovered in Germany; the former, indeed, inconsiderable, but the latter valuable." Ky. T. himself in his later work (the Annals), speaks of the discovery of a silver mine in Germany. Ann. 11, 20.

Perinde. Not so much as might be expected, or as the Romans, and other civilized nations. So Gronovius, Död. and most commentators. See Rup. in loc. Others, as Or. and Rit. allow no ellipsis, and render: not much. See Hand's Tursellinus, vol. IV. p. 454. We sometimes use not so much, not so very, not so bad, &c., for not very, not much, and not bad. Still the form of expression strictly implies a comparison. And the same is true of haud perinde, cf. Böt. Lex. Tac.

Est videre. Est for licet. Graece et poetice. Not so used in the earlier Latin prose. See Z. 227.

Non in alia vilitate, i.e. eadem vilitate, aeque vilia, held in the same low estimation.—Humo. Abl. of material.

Proximi, sc. ad ripam. Nearest to the Roman border, opposed to interiores.

Serratos. Not elsewhere mentioned; probably coins with serrated edges, still found. The word is post-Augustan.

Bigatos. Roman coins stamped with a biga or two-horse chariot. Others were stamped with a quadriga and called quadrigati. The bigati seem to have circulated freely in foreign lands, cf. Ukert's Geog. of Greeks and Romans, III. 1: Trade of Germany, and places cited there. "The serrati and bigati were old coins, of purer silver than those of tho Emperors." Ky. Cf. Pliny, H. N. 33, 13.

Sequuntur. Sequi==expetere. So used by Cic., Sal., and the best writers. Compare our word seek.

Nulla affectione animi. Not from any partiality for the silver in itself (but for convenience).

Numerus. Greater number and consequently less relative value of the silver coins. On quia, cf. note, H. 1, 31.

VI. Ne—quidem. Not even, i.e. iron is scarce as well as gold and silver. The weapons found in ancient German graves are of stone, and bear a striking resemblance to those of the American Indians. Cf. Ukert, p. 216. Ad verba, cf. note, His. 1, 16: ne—fueris. The emphatic word always stands between ne and quidem. H. 602, III. 2; Z. 801.— Superest. Is over and above, i.e. abounds. So superest ager, § 26.

Vel. Pro sive, Ciceroni inauditum. Gün. Cf. note, 17.

Frameas. The word is still found in Spain, as well as Germany. Lancea. is also a Spanish word, cf. Freund.

Nudi. Cf. § 17, 20, and 24. Also Caes., B.G. 6, 21: magna corporis parte nuda.

Sagulo. Dim. of sago. A small short cloak.—Leves==Leviter induti. The clause nudi—leves is added here to show, that their dress is favorable to the use of missiles.

Missilia spargunt. Dictio est Virgiliana. K.

Coloribus. Cf. nigra scuta, § 43. "Hence coats of arms and the origin of heraldry." Mur.

Cultus. Military equipments. Cultus complectitur omnia, quae studio et arte eis, quae natura instituit, adduntur. K.

Cassis aut galea. Cassis, properly of metal; galea of leather (Gr.: galen); though the distinction is not always observed.

Equi—conspicui. Cf. Caes. B.G. 4, 2, 7, 65.

Sed nec variare. But (i.e. on the other hand) they are not even (for nec in this sense see Ritter in loc.) taught to vary their curves (i.e. as the antithesis shows, to bend now towards the right and now towards the left in their gyrations), but they drive them straight forward or by a constant bend towards the right in so connected a circle (i.e. a complete ring), that no one is behind (for the obvious reason, that there is neither beginning nor end to such a ring). Such is on the whole the most satisfactory explanation of this difficult passage, which we can give after a careful examination. A different version was given in the first edition. It refers not to battle, but to equestrian exercises, cf. Gerlach, as cited by Or. in loc.

Aestimanti. Greek idiom. Elliptical dative, nearly equivalent to the abl. abs. (nobis aestimantibus), and called by some the dat. abs. In A. II. the ellipsis is supplied by credibile est. Cf. Bötticher's Lex. Tac. sub Dativus.

Eoque mixti. Eo, causal particle==for that reason. Caesar adopted this arrangement in the battle of Pharsalia. B.C. 3, 84. The Greeks also had [Greek: pezoi amippoi]. Xen. Hellen. 7, 5.

Centeni. A hundred is a favorite number with the Germans and their descendants. Witness the hundred pagi of the Suevi (Caes. B.G. 4, 1), and of the Semnones (G. 39), the cantons of Switzerland, and the hundreds of our Saxon ancestors in England. The centeni here are a military division. In like manner, Caesar (B.G. 4, 1) speaks of a thousand men drafted annually from each pagus of the Suevi, for military service abroad.

Idque ipsum. Predicate nominative after a verb of calling, H. 362, 2. 2; Z. 394. The division was called a hundred, and each man in it a hundreder; and such was the estimation in which this service was held, that to be a hundreder, became an honorable distinction, nomen et honor==honorificum nomen.

Cuneos. A body of men arranged in the form of a wedge, i.e. narrow in front and widening towards the rear; hence peculiarly adapted to break the lines of the enemy.

Consilii quam formidinis. Supply magis. The conciseness of T. leads him often to omit one of two correlative particles, cf. note on minime, 4.

Referunt. Carry into the rear, and so secure them for burial.

Etiam in dubiis proeliis. Even while the battle remains undecided. Gün.

Finierunt. In a present or aorist sense, as often in T. So prohibuerunt, § 10; placuit and displicuit, 11. cf. Lex. Tac. Böt.

VII. Reges, civil rulers; duces, military commanders. Ex== secundum. So ex ingenio, § 3. The government was elective, yet not without some regard to hereditary distinctions. They chose (sumunt) their sovereign, but chose him from the royal family, or at least one of noble extraction. They chose also their commander—the king, if he was the bravest and ablest warrior; if not, they were at liberty to choose some one else. And among the Germans, as among their descendants, the Franks, the authority of the commander was quite distinct from, and sometimes (in war) paramount to, that of the king. Here Montesquieu and others find the original of the kings of the first race in the French monarchy, and the mayors of the palace, who once had so much power in France. Cf. Sp. of Laws, B. 31, chap. 4.

Nec is correlative to et. The kings on the one hand do not possess unlimited or unrestrained authority, and the commanders on the other, &c. Infinita==sine modo; libera==sine vinculo. Wr. Potestas==rightful power, authority; potentia==power without regard to right, ability, force, cf. note, 42. Ad rem, cf. Caes. B.G. 5, 27. Ambiorix tells Caesar, that though he governed, yet the people made laws for him, and the supreme power was shared equally between him and them.

Exemplo—imperio. "Dative after sunt==are to set an example, rather than to give command." So Grüber and Död. But Wr. and Rit. with more reason consider them as ablatives of means limiting a verb implied in duces: commanders (command) more by example, than by authority (official power). See the principle well stated and illustrated in Döderlein's Essay on the style of Tacitus, p. 15, in my edition of the Histories.

Admiratione praesunt. Gain influence, or ascendency, by means of the admiration which they inspire, cf. note on metus, § 2.

Agant. Subj., ut ad judicium admirantium, non mentem scriptoris trahatur. Gün.

Animadvertere==interficere. Cf. H. 1, 46. 68. None but the priests are allowed to put to death, to place in irons, nor even (ne quidem) to scourge. Thus punishment was clothed with divine authority.

Effigies et signa. Images and standards, i.e. images, which serve for standards. Images of wild beasts are meant, cf. H. 4, 22: depromptae silvis lucisve ferarum imagines.—Turmam, cavalry. Cuneum, infantry, but sometimes both. Conglobatio is found only in writers after the Augustan age and rarely in them. It occurs in Sen. Qu. Nat. 1, 15, cf. Freund.

Familiae is less comprehensive than propinquitates. Audiri, sc. solent. Cf. A. 34 ruere. Wr. calls it histor. inf., and Rit. pronounces it a gloss.

Pignora. Whatever is most dear, particularly mothers, wives, and children.—Unde, adv. of place, referring to in proximo.

Vulnera ferunt, i.e. on their return from battle.

Exigere. Examine, and compare, to see who has the most and the most honorable, or perhaps to soothe and dress them.—Cibos et hortamina. Observe the singular juxtaposition of things so unlike. So 1: metu aut montibus; A. 25: copiis et laetitia; 37: nox et satietas; 38: gaudio praedaque.

VIII. Constantia precum==importunate entreaties.

Objectu pectorum. By opposing their breasts, not to the enemy but to their retreating husbands, praying for death in preference to captivity.

Monstrata—captivitate. Cominus limits captivitate, pointing to captivity as just before them.—Impatientius. Impatienter and impatientia (the adv. and the subst.) are post-Augustan words. The adj. (impatiens) is found earlier. Cf. Freund.

Feminarum—nomine, i.e. propter feminas suas. Gün. So Cic.: tuo nomine et reipublicae==on your account and for the sake of the republic. But it means perhaps more than that here, viz. in the person of. They dreaded captivity more for their women than for themselves. Adeo==insomuch that.

Inesse, sc. feminis. They think, there is in their women something sacred and prophetic. Cf. Caes. B.G. 1, 50, where Caesar is informed by the prisoners, that Ariovistus had declined an engagement because the women had declared against coming to action before the new moon.— Consilia, advice in general; responsa, inspired answers, when consulted.

Vidimus, i.e. she lived in our day—under the reign of Vespasian.— Veledam. Cf. H. 4, 61. 65.

Auriniam. Aurinia seems to have been a common name in Germany for prophetess or wise woman. Perhaps==Al-runas, women knowing all things. So Veleda==wise woman. Cf. Wr. in loc.

Non adulatione, etc. "Not through adulation, nor as if they were raising mortals to the rank of goddesses." Ky. This is one of those oblique censures on Roman customs in which the treatise abounds. The Romans in the excess of their adulation to the imperial family made ordinary women goddesses, as Drusilla, sister of Caligula, the infant daughter of Poppaea (Ann. 15, 23), and Poppaea herself (Dio 63, 29). The Germans, on the other hand, really thought some of their wise women to be divine. Cf. His. 4, 62, and my note ibid. Reverence and affection for woman was characteristic of the German Tribes, and from them has diffused itself throughout European society.

IX. Deorum. T. here, as elsewhere, applies Roman names, and puts a Roman construction (Romana interpretatione, § 43), upon the gods of other nations, cf. § 3.

Mercurium. So Caes. B.G. 6, 17: Deum maxime Mercurium colunt. Probably the German Woden, whose name is preserved in our Wednesday, as that of Mercury is in the French name of the same day, and who with a name slightly modified (Woden, Wuotan, Odin), was a prominent object of worship among all the nations of Northern Europe. Mars is perhaps the German god of war (Tiw, Tiu, Tuisco) whence Tuesday, French Mardi, cf. Tur. His. Ang. Sax. App. to B. 2. chap. 3. Herculem is omitted by Ritter on evidence (partly external and partly internal) which is entitled to not a little consideration. Hercules is the god of strength, perhaps Thor.

Certis diebus. Statis diebus. Gün.

Humanis—hostiis. Even facere in the sense of sacrifice is construed with abl. Virg. Ec. 3, 77. Quoque==even. For its position in the sentence, cf. note, 3.

Concessis animalibus. Such as the Romans and other civilized nations offer, in contradistinction to human sacrifices, which the author regards as in-concessa. The attempt has been made to remove from the Germans the stain of human sacrifices. But it rests on incontrovertible evidence (cf. Tur. His. Ang. Sax., App. to B. 2. cap. 3), and indeed attaches to them only in common with nearly all uncivilized nations. The Gauls and Britons, and the Celtic nations generally, carried the practice to great lengths, cf. Caes. B.G. 6, 15. The neighbors of the Hebrews offered human victims in great numbers to their gods, as we learn from the Scriptures. Nay, the reproach rests also upon the Greeks and Romans in their early history. Pliny informs us, that men were sacrificed as late as the year of Rome 657.

Isidi. The Egyptian Isis in Germany! This shows, how far the Romans went in comparing the gods of different nations. Gr. Ritter identifies this goddess with the Nertha of chap. 40, the Egyptian Isis and Nertha being both equivalent to Mother Earth, the Terra or Tellus of the Romans.

Liburnae. A light galley, so called from the Liburnians, a people of Illyricum, who built and navigated them. The signum, here likened to a galley, was more probably a rude crescent, connected with the worship of the moon, cf. Caes. B.G. 6, 21: Germani deorum numero ducunt Solem et Lunam.

Cohibere parietibus==aedificiis includere, K. T. elsewhere speaks of temples of German divinities (e.g. 40: templum Nerthi; Ann. 1, 51: templum Tanfanae); but a consecrated grove or any other sacred place was called templum by the Romans (templum from [Greek: temno], cut off, set apart).

Ex magnitudine. Ex==secundum, cf. ex nobilitate, ex virtute § 7. Ex magnitudine is predicate after arbitrantur: they deem it unbecoming the greatness, etc.

Humani—speciem. Images of the gods existed at a later day in Germany (S. Tur. His. of Ang. Sax., App. to B. 2. cap. 3). But this does not prove their existence in the days of T. Even as late as A.D. 240 Gregory Thaumaturgus expressly declares, there were no images among the Goths. No traces of temple-walls or images have been discovered in connection with the numerous sites of ancient altars or places of offering which have been exhumed in Germany, though both these are found on the borders, both south and west, cf. Ukert, p. 236.

Lucos et nemora. "Lucus (a [Greek: lukae], crepusculum) sylva densior, obumbrans; nemus ([Greek: nemos]) sylva rarior, in quo jumenta et pecora pascuntur." Bredow.

Deorumque—vident. They invoke under the name of gods that mysterious existence, which they see (not under any human or other visible form, but) with the eye of spiritual reverence alone. So Gr. and K. Others get another idea thus loosely expressed: They give to that sacred recess the name of the divinity that fills the place, which is never profaned by the steps of man.

Sola reverentia, cf. sola mente applied by T. to the spiritual religion of the Jews, H. 5, 5. The religion of the Germans and other northern tribes was more spiritual than that of southern nations, when both were Pagan. And after the introduction of Christianity, the Germans were disinclined to the image-worship of the Papists.

X. Auspicia sortesque. Auspicia (avis-spicia) properly divination by observing the flight and cry of birds; sortes, by drawing lots: but both often used in the general sense of omens, oracles.

Ut qui maxime, sc. observant. Ellipsis supplied by repeating observant==to the greatest extent, none more.

Simplex. Sine Romana arte, cf. Cic. de Div. 2, 41, K. The Scythians had a similar method of divining, Herod. 4, 67. Indeed, the practice of divining by rods has hardly ceased to this day, among the descendants of the German Tribes.

Temere, without plan on the part of the diviner.—Fortuito, under the direction of chance. Gr.

Si publice consuletur. If the question to be decided is of a public nature. Consuletur, fut., because at the time of drawing lots the deliberation and decision are future. Or it may refer to the consultation of the gods (cf. Ann. 14, 30: consulere deos): if it is by the state that the gods are to be consulted. So Ritter in his last edition.

Ter singulos tollit. A three-fold drawing for the sake of certainty. Thus Ariovistus drew lots three times touching the death of Valerius (Caes. B.G. 1, 53). So also the Romans drew lots three times, Tibul. 1, 3, 10: sortes ter sustulit. Such is the interpretation of these disputed words by Grüber, Ritter and many others, and such is certainly their natural and obvious meaning: he takes up three times one after another all the slips he has scattered (spargere is hardly applicable to three only): if the signs are twice or thrice favorable, the thing is permitted; if twice or thrice unfavorable it is prohibited. The language of Caesar (in loc. cit.) is still more explicit: ter sortibus consultum. But Or., Wr. and Död. understand simply the taking up of three lots one each time.

Si prohibuerunt sc. sortes==dii. The reading prohibuerunt (aL prohibuerint) is favored by the analogy of si displicuit, 11, and other passages. Sin (==si—ne) is particularly frequent in antithesis with si, and takes the same construction after it.

Auspiciorum—exigitur. Auspiciorum, here some other omens, than lots; such as the author proceeds to specify. Adhuc==ad hoc, praeterea, i.e. in addition to the lots. The sense is: besides drawing lots, the persuasion produced by auspices is required.

Etiam hic. In Germany also (as well as at Rome and other well known countries). Hic is referred to Rome by some. But it was hardly needful for T. to inform the Romans of that custom at Rome.

Proprium gentis. It is a peculiarity of the German race. It is not, however, exclusively German. Something similar prevailed among the Persians, Herod. 1, 189. 7, 55. Darius Hystaspes was indebted to the neighing of his horse for his elevation to the throne.

Iisdem memoribus, § 9.—Mortali opere==hominum opere.—Contacti. Notio contaminandi inest, K.—Pressi curru. Harnessed to the sacred chariot. More common, pressi jugo. Poetice.

Conscios sc. deorum. The priests consider themselves the servants of the gods, the horses the confidants of the same. So Tibullus speaks of the conscia fibra deorum. Tibul. 1, 8, 3.

Committunt. Con and mitto, send together==engage in fight. A technical expression used of gladiators and champions.

Praejudicio. Sure prognostic. Montesquieu finds in this custom the origin of the duel and of knight-errantry.

XI. Apud—pertractentur. Are handled, i.e. discussed, among, i.e. by the chiefs, sc. before being referred to the people.

Nisi refers not to coeunt, but to certis diebus.

Fortuitum, casual, unforeseen; subitum, requiring immediate action.

Inchoatur—impletur. Ariovistus would not fight before the new moon, Caes. B.G. 1, 50.

Numerum—noctium. Of which custom, we have a relic and a proof in our seven-night and fort-night. So also the Gauls. Caes. B.G. 6, 18.

Constituunt==decree, determine; condicunt==proclaim, appoint. The con in both implies concerted or public action. They are forensic terms.

Nox—videtur. So with the Athenians, Macrob. Saturn. 1, 3.; and the Hebrews, Gen. 1, 5.

Ex libertate, sc. ortum, arising from. Gün.

Nec ut jussi. Not precisely at the appointed time, but a day or two later, if they choose.

Ut turbae placuit. Ut==simul ac, as soon as, when. It is the time of commencing their session, that depends on the will of the multitude; not their sitting armed, for that they always did, cf. frameas concutiunt at the close of the section; also § 13: nihil neque publicae neque privatae rei nisi armati agunt. To express this latter idea, the order of the words would have been reversed thus: armati considunt.

Tum et coercendi. When the session is commenced, then (tum) the priests have the right not merely to command silence, but also (et) to enforce it. This use of et for etiam is very rare in Cic., but frequent in Livy, T. and later writers. See note, His. 1, 23.

Imperatur. Imperare plus est, quam jubere. See the climax in Ter. Eun. 2, 3, 98; jubeo, cogo atque impero. Impero is properly military command. K.

Prout refers, not to the order of speaking, but to the degree of influence they have over the people. Gr.—Aetas. Our word alderman (elderman) is a proof, that office and honor were conferred on age by our German ancestors. So senator (senex) among the Romans.

Armis laudare, i.e. armis concussis. "Montesquieu is of opinion that in this Treatise on the manners of the Germans, an attentive reader may trace the origin of the British constitution. That beautiful system, he says, was formed in the forests of Germany, Sp. of Laws 11, 6. The Saxon Witena-gemot (Parliament) was, beyond all doubt, an improved political institution, grafted on the rights exercised by the people in their own country." Murphy, cf. S. Tur. His. of Ang. Sax. B. 8. cap. 4

XII. Accusare—intendere. To accuse and impeach for capital crimes. Minor offences were tried before the courts described at the end of the section.—Quoque. In addition to the legislative power spoken of in the previous section, the council exercised also certain judicial functions. Discrimen capitis intendere, lit. to endeavor to bring one in danger of losing his life.

Ignavos—infames. The sluggish, the cowardly, and the impure; for so corpore infames usually means, and there is no sufficient reason for adopting another sense here. Infames foeda Veneris aversae nota. K. Gr. understands those, whose persons were disfigured by dishonorable wounds, or who had mutilated themselves to avoid military duty. Gün. includes both ideas: quocunque, non tantum venereo, corporis abusu contempti.

Insuper==superne. So 16: multo insuper fimo onerant.

Diversitas is a post-Augustan word, cf. Freund, sub v.

Illuc respicit. Has respect to this principle. Scelera==crimes; flagitia==vices, low and base actions. Scelus poena, flagitium contemptu dignum. Gün.

Levioribus delictis. Abl. abs.==when lighter offences are committed; or abl. of circum.==in case of lighter offences.

Pro modo poenarum. Such is the reading of all the MSS. Pro modo, poena is an ingenious conjecture of Acidalius. But it is unnecessary. Render thus: in case of lighter offences, the convicted persons are mulcted in a number of horses or cattle, in proportion to the severity of the sentence adjudged to be due.

Qui vindicatur. The injured party, or plaintiff. This principle of pecuniary satisfaction was carried to great lengths among the Anglo-Saxons. See Turner, as cited, 21.

Qui reddunt. Whose business or custom it is to administer justice, etc. E. proposes reddant. But it is without authority and would give a less appropriate sense.

Centeni. Cf. note, § 6: centeni ex singulis pagis. "Sunt in quibusdam locis Germaniae, velut Palatinatu, Franconia, etc. Zentgericht (hundred-courts)," cf. Bernegger.

Consilia et auctoritas. Abstract for concrete==his advisers and the supporters of his dignity.

XIII. Nihil nisi armati. The Romans wore arms only in time of war or on a journey.

Moris, sc. est. A favorite expression of T. So 21: concedere moris (est). And in A. 39.

Suffecturum probaverit. On examination has pronounced him competent (sc. to bear arms). Subj. after antequam. H. 523, II.; Z. 576.

Ornant. Ornat would have been more common Latin, and would have made better English. But this construction is not unfrequent in T., cf. 11: rex vel princeps audiuntur. Nor is it without precedent in other authors. Cf. Z. 374. Ritter reads propinqui. The attentive reader will discover here traces of many subsequent usages of chivalry.

Haec toga. This is the badge of manhood among the Germans, as the toga virilis was among the Romans. The Romans assumed the toga at the age of seventeen. The Athenians were reckoned as [Greek: Ephaeboi] at the same age, Xen. Cyr, 1, 2, 8. The Germans (in their colder climate) not till the 20th year. Caes. B.G. 6, 21.

Dignationem. Rank, title. It differs from dignitas in being more external. Cf. H. 1, 19: dignatio Caesaris; 8, 80: dignatio viri. Ritter reads dignitatem.

Assignant. High birth or great merits of their fathers assign (i.e. mark out, not consign, or fully confer) the title of chief even to young men.

Gradus—habet. Observe the emphatic position of gradus, and the force of quin etiam ipse: Gradations of rank, moreover the retinue itself has, i.e. the retainers are not only distinguished as a body in following such a leader, but there are also distinctions among themselves. Quin etiam seldom occupies the second place. T. is fond of anastrophe. Cf. Böt. Lex. Tac.

Si—emineat. If he (cuique) stands pre-eminent for the number and valor of his followers. Comitatus is gen. Emineat, subj. pres. H. 504 et 509; Z. 524.

Ceteris—aspici. These noble youth, thus designated to the rank of chieftains, attach themselves (for a time, with some followers perhaps) to the other chiefs, who are older and already distinguished, nor are they ashamed to be seen among their attendants.

Quibus—cui, sc. sit==who shall have, etc.

Ipsa fama. Mere reputation or rumor without coming to arms.

Profligant==ad finem perducunt. So Kiessling, Bötticher and Freund. Ritter makes it==propellunt, frighten away. Profligare bella, proelia, &c., is Tacitean. Profligare hostes, etc., is the common expression.

XIV. Jam vero==porro. Cf. Böt. Lex. Tac. It marks a transition to a topic of special importance. Cf. H. 1, 2. See Död, in loc.

Recessisse. All the best Latin writers are accustomed to use the preterite after pudet, taedet, and other words of the like signification. Gün. The cause of shame is prior to the shame.

Infame. "When Chonodomarus, king of the Alemanni, was taken prisoner by the Romans, his military companions, to the number of two hundred, and three of the king's most intimate friends, thinking it a most flagitious crime to live in safety after such an event, surrendered themselves to be loaded with fetters. Ammian. Marcell, 16, 12, 60. There are instances of the same kind in Tacitus." Mur. Cf. also Caes. B.G. 3, 22. 7, 40.

Defendere, to defend him, when attacked; tueri, to protect him at all times.

Praecipuum sacramentum. Their most sacred duty, Gün. and K.; or the chief part of their oath, Gr.—Clarescunt—tuentur. So Ritter after the best MSS. Al. clarescant—tueantur, or tueare.

Non nisi. In Cic. usually separated by a word or a clause. In T. generally brought together.

Exigunt. They expect.—Illum—illam. Angl. this—that, cf. hinc—hinc, A. 25.—Bellatorem equum. Cf. Virg. G. 2, 145.

Incompti—apparatus. Entertainments, though inelegant yet liberal. Apparatus is used in the same way, Suet. Vitel. 10 and 13.—Cedunt== iis dantur. Gün.

Nec arare, etc. The whole language of this sentence is poetical, e.g. the use of the inf. after persuaseris, of annum for annuam mensem, the sense of vocare and mereri, &c. Vocare, i.e. provocare, cf. H. 4, 80, and Virg. Geor. 4, 76. Mereri, earn, deserve, i.e. by bravery.

Pigrum et iners. Piger est natura ad laborem tardus; iners, in quo nihil artis et virtutis. K. Render: a mark of stupidity and incapacity.

Quin immo. Nay but, nay more. These words connect the clause, though not placed at the beginning, as they are by other writers. They seem to be placed after pigrum in order to throw it into an emphatic position. So gradus quin etiam, 13, where see note.—Possis. You, i.e., any one can. Z. 524. Cf. note II. 1, 10: laudares. So persuaseris in the preceding sentence. The subj. gives a contingent or potential turn==can procure, sc. if you will would persuade, sc. if you should try. An indefinite person is always addressed in the subj. in Latin, even when the ind. would be used if a definite person were addressed. Z. 524.

In the chieftains and their retainers, as described in the last two sections, the reader cannot fail to discover the germ of the feudal system. Cf. Montesq. Sp. of Laws, 30, 3, 4; also Robertson's Chas. V.

XV. Non multum. The common reading (multum without the negative) is a mere conjecture, and that suggested by a misapprehension of the meaning of T. Non multum is to be taken comparatively. Though in time of peace they hunt often, yet they spend so much more time in eating, drinking, and sleeping, that the former is comparatively small. Thus understood, this passage of T. is not inconsistent with the declarations of Caesar, B.G. 6, 21: Vita Germanorum omnis in venationibus atque in studiis rei militaris consistit. Caesar leaves out of account their periods of inaction, and speaks only of their active employments, which were war and the chase. It was the special object of Tacitus, on the contrary, to give prominence to that striking feature of the German character which Caesar overlooks; and therein, as Wr. well observes, the later historian shows his more exact acquaintance with the Germans. Non multum, as opposed to plus, is nearly equivalent to minus.

Venatibus, per otium. Enallage for venatibus, otio, H. 704, III. This figure is very frequent in T., e.g. § 40: per obsequium, proeliis; A. 9: virtute aut per artem; A. 41: temeritate aut per ignaviam, &c. Seneca, and indeed most Latin authors, prefer a similar construction in antithetic clauses; T. seems rather to avoid it. In all such cases however, as the examples just cited show, per with the acc. is not precisely equivalent to the abl. The abl. is more active and implies means, agency; the acc. with per is more passive and denotes manner or occasion.

Delegata, transferred.

Familiae. Household, properly of servants (from famel, Oscan for servant), as in chapp. 25 and 32: but sometimes the whole family, as here and in chap. 7: familiae et propinquitates.

Ipsi. The men of middle life, the heads of the familiae.

Diversitate. Contrariety.—Ament. Subj. H. 518, I.; Z. 577.— Oderint. Perf. in the sense of the pres. H. 297, I. 2; Z. 221.

Inertiam. Inertiam==idleness, freedom from business and care (from in and ars); quietem==tranquillity, a life of undisturbed repose without action or excitement. Cf. 14: ingrata genti quies. In this account of the habits of the Germans, one might easily fancy, he was reading a description of the manner of life among our American Indians. It may be remarked here, once for all, that this resemblance may be traced in very many particulars, e.g. in their personal independence, in the military chieftains and their followers, in their extreme fondness for the hardships and dangers of war, in their strange inactivity, gluttony and drunkenness in peace, in their deliberative assemblies and the power of eloquence to sway their counsels, in their half elective, half hereditary form of government, in the spirituality of their conceptions of God, and some other features of their religion (Robertson has drawn out this comparison in his history of Charles V). All tribes in a rude and savage state must have many similar usages and traits of character. And this resemblance between the well-known habits of our wandering savages and those which T. ascribes to the rude tribes of Germany, may impress us with confidence in the truthfulness of his narrative.

Vel armentorum vel frugum. Partitive gen. Supply aliquid.— Vel—vel==whether—or, merely distinctive; aut—aut==either—or, adversative and exclusive. Vel—vel (from volo) implies, that one may choose between the alternatives or particulars named; aut—aut (from [Greek: au, autis]), that if one is affirmed, the other is denied, since both cannot be true at the same time. Cf. note, A. 17: aut—aut. —Pecuniam. An oblique censure of the Romans for purchasing peace and alliance with the Germans, cf. H. 4, 76. Herodian 6, 7: [Greek: touto gar (sc. chrusio) malista Germanoi peithontai, philargyroi te ontes kai taen eiraenaen aei pros tous Romaious chrusiou kapaeleuontes]. On et, cf. note 11.

XVI. Populis. Dative of the agent instead of the abl. with a or ab. Cf. note 3: Ulixi.

Ne—quidem. These words are always separated, the word on which the emphasis rests being placed between them. H. 602, III. 2; Z. 801. Here however the emphasis seems to belong to the whole clause—Inter se, sc. sedes junctas inter se.

Colunt==in-colunt. Both often used intransitively, or rather with an ellipsis of the object,==dwell.

Discreti ac diversi. Separate and scattered in different directions, i.e. without regular streets or highways. See Or. in loc.

Ut fons—placuit. Hence to this day, the names of German towns often end in bach (brook), feld (field), holz (grove), wald (wood), born (spring). On the permanence of names of places, see note H. 1, 53.

Connexis, with some intervening link, such as fences, hedges, and outhouses; cohaerentibus, in immediate contact.

Remedium—inscitia. It may be as a remedy, etc.—or it may be through ignorance, etc. Sive—sive expresses an alternative conditionally, or contingently==it may be thus, or it may be thus. Compare it with vel—vel, chap. 15, and with aut—aut, A 17. See also Ramshorn's Synonyms, 138. Remedium is acc. in app. with the foregoing clause. Inscitia is abl. of cause==per inscitiam.

Caementorum. Properly hewn stone (from caedo), but in usage any building stone.—Tegularum. Tiles, any materials for the roof (tego), whether of brick, stone, or wood.

Citra. Properly this side of, hence short of, or without, as used by the later Latin authors. This word is kindred to cis, i.e. is with the demonstrative prefix ce. Cf. Freund sub v.

Speciem refers more to the eye, delectationem to the mind. Taken with citra, they are equivalent to adjectives, connected to informi and limiting materia (citra speciem==non speciosa, Gün.). Render: rude materials, neither beautiful to the eye nor attractive to the taste. Materia is distinctively wood for building. Fire-wood is lignum.

Quaedam loca. Some parts of their houses, e.g. the walls.

Terra ita pura. Probably red earth, such as chalk or gypsum.

Imitetur. Resembles painting and colored outlines or figures.

Aperire. Poetice==excavate. Cellars under ground were unknown to the Romans. See Beck. Gal., and Smith's Dict. Ant.

Ignorantur—fallunt. They are not known to exist, or else (though known to exist) they escape discovery from the very fact that they must be sought (in order to be found). Gün. calls attention to the multiform enallage in this sentence: 1. in number (populatur, ignorantur, fallunt); 2. of the active, passive, and deponent verbs; 3. in the change of cases (aperta, acc.; abdita and defossa, nom.).

XVII. Sagum. A short, thick cloak, worn by Roman soldiers and countrymen.

Fibula==figibula, any artificial fastening; spina==natural.

Si desit. Observe the difference between this clause, and si quando advenit in the preceding chapter. This is a mere supposition without regard to fact; that implies an expectation, that the case will sometimes happen.

Cetera intecti. Uncovered as to the rest of the body, cf. 6: nudi aut sagulo leves.

Totos dies. Acc. of duration of time.—Agunt==vivunt. K.

Fluitante. The flowing robe of the southern and eastern nations; stricta, the close dress and short clothes of the northern nations.

Artus exprimente. Quae tam arte artus includit, ut emineant, earumque lineamenta et forma appareant, K. K. and Gr. understand this of coat and vest, as well as breeches; Gün. of breeches only.

Proximi ripae. Near the banks of the Rhine and the Danube, so as to have commercial intercourse with the Romans. These having introduced the cloth and dress of the Romans, attached little importance to the manner of wearing their skins. But those in the interior, having no other apparel, valued themselves on the nice adjustment of them.

Cultus, artificial refinement. Cf. note, 6.

Maculis pellibusque, for maculatis pellibus or maculis pellium, perhaps to avoid the concurrence of genitives.

Belluarum—gignit. Oceanus==terrae, quas Oceanus alluit; and belluae==lutrae, mustelae, erminiae, etc., so K. But Gr. says belluae cannot mean such small creatures, and agrees with Lipsius, in understanding by it marine animals, seadogs, seals, &c. Freund connects it in derivation with [Greek: thaer], fera (bel==ber==ther==fer), but defines it as properly an animal remarkable for size or wildness. Exterior Oceanus==Oceanus extra orbem Romanum, further explained by ignotum mare. Cf. note, 2: adversus Oceanus.

Habitus, here==vestitus; in § 4.==forma corporis.

Saepius, oftener than the men, who also wore linen more or less. Gün.

Purpura. Facta e succo plantis et floribus expresso. Gün.

Nudae—lacertos. Graece et poetice. Brachia a manu ad cubitum; lacerti a cubito ad humeros.

XVIII. Quanquam==sed tamen, i.e. notwithstanding the great freedom in the dress of German women, yet the marriage relation is sacred. This use of quanquam is not unfrequent in T., and sometimes occurs in Cic., often in Pliny. See Z. 341, N.

Qui ambiuntur. This passage is construed in two ways: who are surrounded (ambiuntur==circumdantur, cf. II. 5, 12.) by many wives not to gratify lust, but to increase their rank and influence (ob in the sense for the sake of, cf. ob metum, 2). Or thus: who (take many wives) not to gratify lust, but on account of their rank they are solicited to form many matrimonial alliances. For ambio in this sense and with the same somewhat peculiar construction after it, see H. 4, 51: tantis sociorum auxiliis ambiri; also Virg. Aen. 7, 333: connubiis ambire Latinum. The latter is preferable, and is adopted by Wr., K., Gr., &c. The former by Gün. and others. Ariovistus had two wives. Caes. B.G. 1, 53.

Probant, cf. probaverit, 13, note.—Comatur. Subj. denoting the intention of the presents with which she is to be adorned. H 500, 1; Z. 567.

Frenatum, bridled, caparisoned==paratus below.

In haec munera==[Greek: epi toutois tois dorois]. In==upon the basis of, on condition of. So Liv.: in has leges, in easdem leges.

Hoc—vinculum, So, § 13: haec apud illos toga. In both passages the allusion is to Roman customs (for which see Becker's Gallus, Exc. 1. Scene 1). In Germany, these presents take the place of the confarreatio (see Fiske's Manual, p. 286. 4. ed.), and the various other methods of ratifying the marriage contract at Rome; these, of the religious rites in which the parties mutually engaged on the wedding day (see Man., p. 287).—Conjugales deos. Certain gods at Rome presided over marriage, e.g. Jupiter, Juno, Venus, Jugatinus, Hymenaeus, Diana, &c.

Extra. Cic. would have said expertem or positum extra. But T. is fond of the adv. used elliptically.

Auspiciis==initiatory rites.

Denuntiant, proclaim, denote.—Accipere depends on denuntiant or admonetur.

Rursus, quae—referantur. Rhenanus conjectured; rursusque—referant, which has since become the common reading. But referantur is the reading of all the MSS., and needs no emendation; and quae, with as good authority as que, makes the construction more natural and the sense more apposite. The passage, as Gr. well suggests, consists of two parts (accipere—reddat, and quae—accipiant—referantur), each of which includes the two ideas of receiving and handing down to the next generation. Render thus: she is reminded that she receives gifts, which she is to hand over pure and unsullied to her children; which her daughters-in-law are to receive again (sc. from her sons, as she did from her husband), which are to be transmitted by them to her grand-children.

Referantur. In another writer, we might expect referant to correspond in construction and subject with accipiant. But Tacitus is fond of varying the construction. Cf. Bötticher's Lex Tac., and note, 16: ignorantur.

XIX. Septa. So the MSS. for the most part. Al. septae. Meaning: with chastity guarded, sc. by the sacredness of marriage and the excellent institutions of the Germans.

Nullis—corruptae. Here, as every where else in this treatise, T. appears as the censor of Roman manners. He has in mind those fruitful sources of corruption at Rome, public shows, (cf. Sen. Epist. 7: nihil vero est tam damnosum bonis moribus, quam in aliquo spectaculo desidere), convivial entertainments (cf. Hor. Od. 3, 6, 27), and epistolary correspondence between the two sexes.

Litterarum secreta==litteras secretas, secret correspondence between the sexes, for this limitation is obvious from the connexion.— Praesens. Immediate.

Maritis permissa, sc. as a domestic crime, cf. Caes. B.G. 6, 19: Viri in uxores, sicut in liberos, vitae necisque habent potestatem. Cf. Beck. Gall., Exc. 1. Sc. 1.

Accisis crinibus, as a special mark of disgrace, cf. 1 Cor. 11, 6. So in the laws of the Lombards, the punishment of adulteresses was decalvari et fustigari.—Omnem vicum, the whole village, cf. Germania omnis, § 1.—Aetate==juventa.

Non—invenerit. She would not find, could not expect to find. This use of the perf. subj., for a softened fut., occurs in negative sentences oftener than in positive ones. Cf. Arnold's Prose Comp. 417, Note.

Saeculum==indoles et mores saeculi, the spirit of the age, the fashion.

Adhuc (==ad-hoc) is generally used by Cicero, and often by Tacitus, in the sense either of still (to this day), or moreover (in addition to this). From these, it passed naturally, in Quintilian and the writers after him, into the sense of even more, still more, even, especially in connection with the comparative degree; where the authors of the Augustan age would have used etiam. See Z. 486; Bötticher's Lex. Tac. sub. voce; and Hand's Tursellinus, vol. 1. I. 165. Melius quidem adhuc==still better even. For a verb, supply sunt or agunt. Cf. note A. 19: nihil.

Eae civitates. Such as the Heruli, among whom the wife was expected to hang herself at once at the grave of her husband, if she would not live in perpetual infamy. At Rome, on the contrary, divorces and marriages might be multiplied to any extent, cf. Mart. 6, 7: nubit decimo viro; also Beck, as above cited.

Semel, like [Greek: apax], once for all.

Transigitur. Properly a business phrase. The business is done up, brought to an end. So A. 34: transigite cum expeditionibus.

Ultra, sc. primum maritum. So the ellipsis might be supplied. Ultra here is equivalent to longior in the next clause, as T. often puts the adverb in place of the adjective, whether qualifying or predicate.

Ne tanquam—ament, sc. maritum: that they may not love a husband merely as a husband but as they love the married state. See this and similar examples of brachylogy well illustrated in Döderlein's Essay on the style of Tacitus, H. p. 14. Since but one marriage was allowed, all their love for the married state must be concentrated in one husband.

Numerum—finire. In any way contrary to nature and by design. Gün. Quod fiebat etiam abortus procuratione. K.

Ex agnatis. Agnati hoc loco dicuntur, qui post familiam constitutam, ubi haeres jam est, deinde nascuntur. Hess. To put such to death was a barbarous custom among the Romans. Cf. Ann. 3, 25; see Beck. Gall. Exc. 2. scene 1.

Alibi, e.g. at Rome.—Boni mores vs. bonae leges. These words involve a sentiment of great importance, and of universal application. Good habits wherever they exist, and especially in a republic, are of far greater value and efficacy than good laws.

XX. Nudi. Cf. 6: nudi aut sagulo leves. Not literally naked, but slightly clad, cf. Sen. de benef. 5, 13: qui male vestitum et pannosum vidit, nudum se vidisse dicit.

Sordidi. Gün. understands this of personal filth. But this is inconsistent with the daily practice of bathing mentioned, § 22. It doubtless refers to the dress, as Gr. and K. understand it: nudi ac sordidi==poorly and meanly clad. So also Or.

Quae miramur. Cf. 4: magna corpora. See also Caes. B.G. 1, 39, 4, 1. On haec, see note, 3: haec quoque.

Ancillis ac nutricibus. So in the Dial. de Clar. Orat., T. animadverts upon the custom here obliquely censured: nunc natus infans delegatur Graeculae alicui ancillae. In the early ages of Roman History it was not so, see Becker's Gall. Exc. 2. scene 1.—Delegantur. Delegamus, quum, quod ipsi facere debebamus, id per alterum fieri curamus. E.

Separet. For the use of the subj. pres. after donec, see note, 1. erumpat.—Agnoscat==faciat ut agnoscatur. So Död., Gün. and K. But it is better with Gr., to regard the expression as poetical, and virtus, as personified: and valor acknowledge them, sc. as brave men and therefore by implication free born.

Venus==concubitus.—Pubertas==facultas generandi. Gr. Cf. Caes, B.G. 6, 21: qui diutissime impuberes permanserunt maximam inter suos ferunt laudem.

Virgines festinantur==nuptiae virginum festinantur, poetice. The words properare, festinare, accelerare are used in both a trans. and intrans. sense, cf. Hist. 2, 82: festinabantur; 3, 37: festinarentur. Among the Romans, boys of fourteen contracted marriage with girls of twelve. Cf. Smith's Dic. Ant.

Eadem, similis, pares. The comparison is between the youth of the two sexes at the time of marriage; they marry at the same age, equal in stature and equal in strength. Marriages unequal in these respects, were frequent at Rome.—Pares—miscentur. Plene: pares paribus, validae validis miscentur. On this kind of brachylogy, see further in Död. Essay on style of T., H. p. 15. Miscentur has a middle sense, as the passive often has, particularly in Tacitus. Cf. note 21: obligantur.

Referunt. Cf. Virg. Aen. 4, 329: parvulus Aeneas, qui te tamen ore referret. See note, 39: auguriis.

Ad patrem. Ad is often equivalent to apud in the best Latin authors; e.g. Cic. ad Att. 10, 16: ad me fuit==apud me fuit. Rhenanus by conjecture wrote apud patrem to correspond with apud avunculum. But Passow restored ad with the best reason. For T. prefers different words and constructions in antithetic clauses. Perhaps also a different sense is here intended from that which would have been expressed by apud. Wr. takes ad in the sense, in respect to: as in respect to a father, i.e. as they would have, if he were their father.

Exigunt, sc. hunc nexum==sororum filios.

Tanquam. Like Greek os to denote the views of others, not of the writer. Hence followed by the subj. H. 531; Z. 571.

Et in animum. In==quod attinet ad, in respect to. The commonly received text has ii et animum, which is a mere conjecture of Rhen. According to K., teneant has for its subject not sororum filii, but the same subject as exigunt. Render: Since, as they suppose, both in respect to the mind (the affections), they hold it more strongly, and in respect to the family, more extensively.

Heredes properly refers to property, successores to rank, though the distinction is not always observed.—Liberi includes both sons and daughters.

Patrui, paternal uncles; avunculi, maternal.

Propinqui, blood relations; affines, by marriage.

Orbitatis pretia. Pretia==proemia. Orbitatis==childlessness. Those who had no children, were courted at Rome for the sake of their property. Vid. Sen. Consol. ad Marc. 19: in civitate nostra, plus gratiae orbitas confert, quam eripit. So Plutarch de Amore Prolis says: the childless are entertained by the rich, courted by the powerful, defended gratuitously by the eloquent: many, who had friends and honors in abundance, have been stripped of both by the birth of a single child.

XXI. Necesse est. It is their duty and the law of custom. Gün.— Nec==non tamen.—Homicidium. A post-Augustan word.

Armentorum ac pecorum. For the distinction between these words, see note, § 5. The high value which they attached to their herds and flocks, as their solae et gratissimae opes, may help to explain the law or usage here specified. Moreover, where the individual was so much more prominent than the state, homicide even might be looked upon as a private wrong, and hence to be atoned for by a pecuniary satisfaction, cf. Tur. Hist. Ang. Sax., App. No. 3, chap. 1.

Juxta libertatem, i.e. simul cum libertate, or inter liberos homines. The form of expression is characteristic of the later Latin. Cf. Hand's Tursellinus, vol. III. p. 538. Tacitus is particularly partial to this preposition.

Convictibus, refers to the entertainment of countrymen and friends, hospitiis to that of strangers.

Pro fortuna. According to his means. So Ann. 4, 23: fortunae inops.

Defecere, sc. epulae. Quam exhausta sint, quae apparata erant, cf. 24: omnia defecerunt.

Hospes. Properly stranger; and hence either guest or host. Here the latter.—Comes. Guest. So Gün. and the common editions. But most recent editors place a colon after comes, thus making it predicate, and referring it to the host becoming the guide and companion of his guest to another place of entertainment.

Non invitati, i.e. etiam si non invitati essent. Gün.

Nec interest, i.e. whether invited or not.

Jus hospitis. The right of the guest to a hospitable reception, So Cic. Tus. Quaes., 1, 26: jus hominum.

Quantum ad belongs to the silver age. In the golden age they said: quod attinet ad, or simply ad. Gr. Cicero however has quantum in, N. D. 3, 7; and Ovid, quantum ad, A. A. 1, 744. Cf. Freund sub voce.

Imputant. Make charge or account of. Nearly confined to the later Latin. Frequent in T. in the reckoning both of debt and credit, of praise and blame. Cic. said: assignare alicui aliquid.

Obligantur, i.e. obligatos esse putant. Forma passiva ad modum medii verbi Graeci. Gün. Cf. note, 20: miscentur.

Victus—comis. The mode of life between host and guest is courteous. For victus==manner of life, cf. Cic. Inv. 1, 25, 35.

XXII. E is not exactly equivalent here to a, nor does it mean simply after, but immediately on awaking out of sleep.—Lavantur, wash themselves, i.e. bathe; like Gr. louomai. So aggregantur, 13; obligantur, 21, et passim.

Calida, sc. aqua, cf. in Greek, thermo louesthai, Aristoph. Nub. 1040. In like manner Pliny uses frigida, Ep. 6, 16: semel iterumque frigidam poposcit transitque. Other writers speak of the Germans as bathing in their rivers, doubtless in the summer; but in the winter they use the warm bath, as more agreeable in that cold climate. So in Russia and other cold countries, cf. Mur. in loco.

Separatae—mensa. Contra Romanorum luxuriam, ex more fere Homerici aevi. Gün.

Sedes, opposed to the triclinia, on which the Romans used to recline, a practice as unknown to the rude Germans, as to the early Greeks and Hebrews. See Coler. Stud. of Gr. Poets, p. 71 (Boston, 1842).

Negotia. Plural==their various pursuits. So Cic. de Or. 2, 6: forensia negotia. Negotium==nec-otium, C. and G. being originally identical, as they still are almost in form.—Armati. Cf. note, 11: ut turbae placuit.

Continuare, etc. est diem noctemque jungere potando, sive die nocteque perpotationem continuare. K.

Ut, sc. solet fieri, cf. ut in licentia, § 2. The clause limits crebrae; it is the frequent occurrence of brawls, that is customary among those given to wine.

Transiguntur. See note on transigitur, § 19.

Asciscendis. i.e. assumendis.

Simplices manifestly refers to the expression of thought; explained afterwards by fingere nesciunt==frank, ingenuous. Cf. His. 1, 15: simplicissime loquimur; Ann. 1, 69: simplices curas.

Astuta—callida. Astutus est natura, callidus multarum rerum peritia. Rit. Astutus, cunning; callidus, worldly wise. Död.

Adhuc. To this day, despite the degeneracy and dishonesty of the age. So Död. and Or. Rit. says: quae adhuc pectore clausa erant. Others still make it==etiam, even. Cf. note, 19.

Retractatur. Reviewed, reconsidered.

Salva—ratio est. The proper relation of both times is preserved, or the advantage of both is secured, as more fully explained in the next member, viz. by discussing when they are incapable of disguise, and deciding, when they are not liable to mistake. Cf. Or. in loc., and Bötticher, sub v.

Passow well remarks, that almost every German usage, mentioned in this chapter, is in marked contrast with Roman manners and customs.

XXIII. Potui==pro potu, or in potum, dat. of the end. So 46: Victui herba, vestitui pelles. T. and Sallust are particularly fond of this construction. Cf. Böt. Lex. Tac., sub Dativus.

Hordeo aut frumento. Hordeo==barley; frumento, properly fruit (frugimentum, fruit [Greek: kat exochaen], i.e. grain), grain of any kind, here wheat, cf. Veget. R.M. 1, 13: et milites pro frumento hordeum cogerentur accipere.

Similitudinem vini. Beer, for which the Greeks and Romans had no name. Hence Herod. (2, 77) speaks of [Greek: oinos ek kritheon pepoiaemenos], among the Egyptians.

Corruptus. Cum Tacitea indignatione dictum, cf. 4: infectos, so Gün. But the word is often used to denote mere change, without the idea of being made worse, cf. Virg. Geor. 2, 466: Nec casia liquidi corrumpitur usus olivi. Here render fermented.

Ripae, sc. of the Rhine and Danube, i.e. the Roman border, as in 22: proximi ripae.

Poma. Fruits of any sort, cf. Pliny, N.H. 17, 26: arborem vidimus omni genere pomorum onustum, alio ramo nucibus, alio baccis, aliunde vite, ficis, piris, etc.

Recens fera. Venison, or other game fresh, i.e. recently taken, in distinction from the tainted, which better suited the luxurious taste of the Romans.

Lac concretum. Called caseus by Caes. B.G. 6, 22. But the Germans, though they lived so much on milk, did not understand the art of making cheese, see Pliny, N.H. 11, 96. "De caseo non cogitandum, potius quod nostrates dicunt dickemilch" (i.e. curdled milk). Gün.

Apparatu. Luxurious preparation.—Blandimentis. Dainties.

Haud minus facile. Litotes for multo facilius.

Ebrietati. Like the American Aborigines, see note, § 15.

XXIV. Nudi. See note, § 20.

Quibus id ludicrum. For whom it is a sport; not whose business it is to furnish the amusement: that would be quorum est K. and Gr.

Infestas==porrectas contra saltantes. K.—Decorem. Poetic.

Quaestum==quod quaeritur, gain.—Mercedem, stipulated pay, wages.

Quamvis limits audacis==daring as it is (as you please).

Sobrii inter seria. At Rome gaming was forbidden, except at the Saturnalia, cf. Hor. Od. 3, 24, 68: vetita legibus alea. The remarkable circumstance (quod mirere) in Germany was, that they practised it not merely as an amusement at their feasts, but when sober among (inter) their ordinary every-day pursuits.

Novissimo. The last in a series. Very frequently in this sense in T., so also in Caes. Properly newest, then latest, last. Cf. note, His. 1, 47. Extremo, involving the greatest hazard, like our extreme: last and final (decisive) throw. This excessive love of play, extending even to the sacrifice of personal liberty, is seen also among the American Indians, see Robertson, Hist. of America, vol. 2, pp. 202-3. It is characteristic of barbarous and savage life, cf. Mur. in loco.

De libertate ac de corpore. Hendiadys==personal liberty.

Voluntariam. An earlier Latin author would have used ipse, ultro, or the like, limiting the subject of the verb, instead of the object. The Latin of the golden age prefers concrete words. The later Latin approached nearer to the English, in using more abstract terms. Cf. note on repercussu, 3.

Juvenior. More youthful, and therefore more vigorous; not merely younger (junior). See Död. and Rit. in loc. Forcellini and Freund cite only two other examples of this full form of the comparative (Plin. Ep. 4, 8, and Apul. Met. 8, 21), in which it does not differ in meaning from the common contracted form.

Ea==talis or tanta. Such or so great. Gr.

Pervicacia. Pervicaces sunt, qui in aliquo certamine ad vincendum perseverant, Schol. Hor. Epod. 17, 14.

Pudore. Shame, disgrace. So also His. 3, 61; contrary to usage of earlier writers, who use it for sense of shame, modesty.

XXV. Ceteris. All but those who have gambled away their own liberty, as in § 24.—In nostrum morem, &c., with specific duties distributed through the household (the slave-household, cf. note, 15), as explained by the following clause. On the extreme subdivision of office among slaves at Rome, see Beck. Gall. Exc. 2. Sc. 2; and Smith's Dic. Antiq. under Servus.

Descripta==dimensa, distributa. Gün.

Familiam. Here the entire body of servants, cf. note, § 15.

Quisque. Each servant has his own house and home.

Ut colono. Like the tenant or farmer among the Romans; also the vassal in the middle ages, and the serf in Modern Europe.

Hactenus. Thus far, and no farther, i.e. if he pays his rent or tax, no more is required of him.

Cetera. The rest of the duties (usually performed by a Roman servant), viz. those of the house, the wife and children (sc. of the master) perform. Gr. strangely refers uxor et liberi to the wife and children of the servant. Passow also refers domus to the house of the servant, thus making it identical with the penates above, with which it seems rather to be contrasted. With the use of cetera here, compare His. 4, 56: ceterum vulgus==the rest, viz. the common soldiers, and see the principle well illustrated in Döderlein's Essay, His. p. 17.

Opere. Hard labor, which would serve as a punishment. The Romans punished their indolent and refractory domestics, by sending them to labor in the country, as well as by heavy chains (vinculis) and cruel flagellations (verberare). They had also the power of life and death (occidere). Beck. Gall. Exc. 2. Sc. 2; Smith's Dic. Ant. as above.

Non disciplina—ira. Hendiadys==non disciplinae severitate, sed irae impetu. Cf. His. 1, 51: severitate disciplinae.

Nisi—impune, i.e. without the pecuniary penalty or satisfaction, which was demanded when one put to death an enemy (inimicum). Cf. 21.

Liberti—libertini. These words denote the same persons, but with this difference in the idea: libertus==the freedman of some particular master, libertinus==one in the condition of a freedman without reference to any master. At the time of the Decemvirate, and for some time after, liberti==emancipated slaves, libertini==the descendants of such, cf. Suet. Claud. 24.

Quae regnantur. Governed by kings. Ex poetarum more dictum, cf. Virg. Aen. 6, 794: regnata per arva. So 43: Gothones regnantur, and 44: Suiones. Gün.

Ingenuos==free born; nobiles==high born.

Ascendunt, i.e. ascendere possunt.

Ceteros. By synesis (see Gr.) for ceteras, sc. gentes.

Impares, sc. ingenuis et nobilibus.

Libertatis argumentum, inasmuch as they value liberty and citizenship too much to confer it on freedmen and slaves. This whole topic of freedmen is an oblique censure of Roman custom in the age of the Emperors, whose freedmen were not unfrequently their favorites and prime ministers.

XXVI. Fenus agitare. To loan money at interest.

Et in usuras extendere. And to put out that interest again on interest. The other explanation, viz. that it means simply to put money at interest, makes the last clause wholly superfluous.

Servatur. Is secured, sc. abstinence from usury, or the non-existence of usury, which is the essential idea of the preceding clause.

Ideo—vetitum esset, sc. ignoti nulla cupido! Cf. 19: boni mores, vs. bonae leges. Gün. The reader cannot fail to recognize here, as usual, the reference to Rome, where usury was practised to an exorbitant extent. See Fiske's Manual, § 270, 4. and Arnold's His. of Rome, vol. 1, passim.

Universis. Whole clans, in distinction from individual owners.

In vices. By turns. Al vices, vice, vicis. Död. prefers in vicis; Rit. in vicos==for i.e. by villages. But whether we translate by turns or by villages, it comes to the same thing. Cf. Caes. B.G. 6, 22.

Camporum, arva, ager, soli, terrae, &c. These words differ from each other appropriately as follows: Terra is opposed to mare et coelum, viz. earth. Solum is the substratum of any thing, viz. solid ground or soil. Campus is an extensive plain or level surface, whether of land or water, here fields. Ager is distinctively the territory that surrounds a city, viz. the public lands. Arvum is ager aratus, viz. plough lands. Bredow.

Superest. There is enough, and more, cf. § 6, note.

Labore contendunt. They do not strive emulously to equal the fertility of the soil by their own industry. Passow.

Imperatur. Just as frumentum, commeatus, obsides, etc., imperantur, are demanded or expected. Gün.

Totidem, sc. quot Romani, cf. idem, 4, note. Tacitus often omits one member of a comparison, as he does also one of two comparative particles.

Species. Parts. Sometimes the logical divisions of a genus; so used by Cic. and Quin. (§ 6, 58): cum genus dividitur in species.

Intellectum. A word of the silver age, cf. note on voluntariam, 24. Intellectum—habent==are understood and named. "Quam distortum dicendi genus!" Gün.

Autumni—ignorantur. Accordingly in English, spring, summer and winter are Saxon words, while autumn is of Latin origin (Auctumnus). See Dübner in loc. Still such words as Härfest, Herpist, Harfst, Herbst, in other Teutonic dialects, apply to the autumnal season, and not, like our word harvest, merely to the fruits of it.

XXVII. Funera, proprie de toto apparatu sepulturae. E. Funeral rites were performed with great pomp and extravagance at Rome; cf. Fiske's Man., § 340; see also Mur. in loco, and Beck. Gall. Exc. Sc. 12.

Ambitio. Primarily the solicitation of office by the candidate; then the parade and display that attended it; then parade in general, especially in a bad sense.

Certis, i.e. rite statutis. Gün.

Cumulant. Structura est poetica, cf. Virg. Aen. 11, 50: cumulatque altaria donis. K.

Equus adjicitur. Herodotus relates the same of the Scythians (4, 71); Caesar, of the Gauls (B.G. 6, 19). Indeed all rude nations bury with the dead those objects which are most dear to them when living, under the notion that they will use and enjoy them in a future state. See Robertson's Amer. B. 4, &c., &c.

Sepulcrum—erigit. Still poetical; literally: a turf rears the comb. Cf. His. 5, 6: Libanum erigit.

Ponunt==deponunt. So Cic. Tusc. Qu.: ad ponendum dolorem Cf. A. 20: posuere iram.

Feminis—meminisse. Cf. Sen. Ep.: Vir prudens meminisse perseveret, lugere desinat.

Accepimus. Ut ab aliis tradita audivimus, non ipsi cognovimus. K. See Preliminary Remarks, p. 79.

In commune. Cic. would have said, universe, or de universa origine. Gr. Cic. uses in commune, but in a different sense, viz. for the common weal. See Freund, sub voc.

Instituta, political; ritus, religious.

Quae nationes. And what tribes, etc.; quae for quaeque by asyndeton, or perhaps, as Rit. suggests, by mistake of the copyist.— Commigraverint. Subj. of the indirect question. Gr. 265, Z. 552.

German critics have expended much labor and research, in defining the locality of the several German tribes with which the remainder of the Treatise is occupied. In so doing, they rely not only on historical data, but also on the traces of ancient names still attached to cities, forests, mountains, and other localities (cf. note, § 16). These we shall sometimes advert to in the notes. But on the whole, these speculations of German antiquarians are not only less interesting to scholars in other countries, but are so unsatisfactory and contradictory among themselves, that, for the most part, we shall pass them over with very little attention. There is manifestly an intrinsic difficulty in defining the ever changing limits of uncivilized and unsettled tribes. Hence the irreconcilable contradictions between ancient authorities, as well as modern critiques, on this subject. Tacitus, and the Roman writers generally, betray their want of definite knowledge of Germany by the frequency with which they specify the names of mountains and rivers. The following geographical outline is from Ukert, and must suffice for the geography of the remainder of the Treatise: "In the corner between the Rhine and the Danube, are the Decumates Agri, perhaps as far as the Mayne, 29. Northward on the Rhine dwell the Mattiaci, whose neighbors on the east are the Chatti, 30. On the same river farther north are the Usipii and the Tencteri; then the Frisii, 32-34. Eastward of the Tencteri dwell the Chamavi and the Angrivarii (earlier the Bructeri), and east or southeast of them the Dulgibini and Chasuarii, 34. and other small tribes. Eastward of the Frisii Germany juts out far towards the north, 35. On the coast of the bay thus formed, dwell the Chauci, east of the Frisii and the above mentioned tribes; on the south, they reach to the Chatti. East of the Chauci and the Chatti are the Cherusci, 36. whose neighbors are the Fosi. The Cherusci perhaps, according to Tacitus, do not reach to the ocean; and in the angle of the above bay, he places the Cimbri, 37. Thus Tacitus represents the western half of Germany. The eastern is of greater dimensions. There are the Suevi, 38. He calls the country Suevia, 41. and enumerates many tribes, which belong there. Eastward of the Cherusci he places the Semnones and Langobardi; north of them are the Reudigni, Aviones, Anglii, Varini, Eudoses, Suardones and Nuithones; and all these he may have regarded as lying in the interior, and as the most unknown tribes, 41. He then mentions the tribes that dwell on the Danube, eastward from the Decumates Agri: the Hermunduri, in whose country the Elbe has its source; the Narisci, Marcomanni and Quadi, 41-42. The Marcomanni hold the country which the Boii formerly possessed; and northward of them and the Quadi, chiefly on the mountains which run through Suevia, are the Marsigni, Gothini, Osi and Burii, 43. Farther north are the Lygii, consisting of many tribes, among which the most distinguished are the Arii, Helvecones, Manimi, Elysii and Naharvali, 43. Still farther north dwell the Gothones, and, at the Ocean, the Rugii and Lemovii. Upon islands in the ocean live the Suiones, 44. Upon the mainland, on the coast, are the tribes of the Aestyi, and near them, perhaps on islands, the Sitones, 45. Perhaps he assigned to them the immense islands to which he refers in his first chapter. Here ends Suevia. Whether the Peucini, Venedi and Fenni are to be reckoned as Germans or Sarmatians, is uncertain, 46. The Hellusii and Oxonae are fabulous."