NOTES (continued 2)

The following paragraph from Prichard's Researches embodies some of the more general conclusions of ethnographers, especially of Zeuss, on whom Prichard, in common with Orelli and many other scholars, places great reliance. "Along the coast of the German Ocean and across the isthmus of the Cimbric peninsula to the shore of the Baltic, were spread the tribes of the Chauci and Frisii, the Anglii, Saxones and the Teutones or Jutes, who spoke the Low-German languages, and formed one of the four divisions of the German race, corresponding as it seems with the Ingaevones of Tacitus and Pliny. In the higher and more central parts, the second great division of the race, that of the Hermiones, was spread, the tribes of which spoke Upper or High-German dialects. Beginning in the West with the country of the Sigambri on the Rhine, and from that of the Cherusci and Angrivarii near the Weser and the Hartz, this division comprehended, besides those tribes, the Chatti, the Langobardi, the Hermunduri, the Marcomanni and Quadi, the Lugii, and beyond the Vistula the Bastarnae, in the neighborhood of the Carpathian hills. To the eastward and northward of the last mentioned, near the lower course of the Vistula and thence at least as far as the Pregel, were the primitive abodes of the Goths and their cognate tribes, who are perhaps the Istaevones." The fourth division of Prichard embraced the Scandinavians, who spoke a language kindred to the Germans and were usually classed with them. Those who would examine this subject more thoroughly, will consult Adelung, Zeuss, Grimm, Ritter, Ukert, Prichard, Latham, &c., who have written expressly on the geography or the ethnography of Germany.

XXVIII. Summus auctorum, i.e. omnium scriptorum is, qui plurimum auctoritatis fideique habet. K. Cf. Sueton. Caes. 56. Though T. commends so highly the authority of Caesar as a writer, yet he differs from him in not a few matters of fact, as well as opinion; owing chiefly, doubtless, to the increased means of information which he possessed in the age of Trajan.

Divus Julius. Divus==deified, divine; an epithet applied to the Roman Emperors after their decease.—Tradit. Cf. Caes. B.G. 6, 24: fuit antea tempus, cum Germanos Galli virtute superarent, ultro bella inferrent, propter hominum multitudinem agrique inopiam trans Rhenum colonias mitterent. Livy probably refers to the same events, when he says (Lib. 5, 34), that in the reign of Priscus Tarquinius, two immense bodies of Gauls migrated and took possession, the one of the Hercynian Forest, the other of Upper Italy.

Amnis. The Rhine.—Promiscuas. Unsettled, ill defined.

Quo minus after a verb of hindering is followed by the subj. H. 499; Z. 543.

Nulla—divisas, i.e. not distributed among different and powerful kings.

Hercyniam silvam. A series of forests and mountains, stretching from Helvetia to Hungary in a line parallel to the Danube, and described by Caesar (B.G. 6, 25), as nine day's journey in breadth and more than sixty in length. The name seems to be preserved in the modern Hartz Forest, which is however far less extensive.

Igitur—Helvetii==igitur regionem, inter, etc. See note on colunt, 16. Igitur seldom stands as the first word in a sentence in Cicero. Cf. Z. 357; and Kühner's Cic. Tusc. Qu. 1, 6, 11. Here it introduces a more particular explanation of the general subject mentioned at the close of the previous chapter. So in A. 13. When so used, it sometimes stands first in Cic., always in T. Cf. Freund sub v. Touching the Helvetii, see Caes. B.G. 1, 1; T. His. 1, 67.

Boihemi nomen. Compounded of Boii and heim (home of the Boii), now Bohemia. Heim==ham in the termination of so many names of towns, e.g. Framing_ham_, Notting_ham_. The Boii were driven from their country by the Marcomanni, 42. The fugitives are supposed to have carried their name into Boioaria, now Bavaria. Cf. Prichard's Physical Researches, Vol. III. Chap. 1, Sec. 6; and Latham's Germany of Tacitus in loco.

Germanorum natione, i.e. German in situation, not in origin, for this he expressly denies or disproves in 43, from the fact that they spoke the Pannonian language, and paid tribute. The doubt expressed here has reference only to their original location, not to their original stock, and is therefore in no way inconsistent with the affirmation in chapter 43.

Cum==since. Hence followed by subj. H. 518, I.; Z. 577.

Utriusque ripae. Here of the Danube, the right or Pannonian bank of which was occupied by the Aravisci, and the left or German bank by the Osi. So elsewhere of the Rhine, 37, and of both, 17, and 23.

Treveri. Hence modern Treves.

Circa. In respect to. A use foreign to the golden age of Latin composition, but not unfrequent in the silver age. See Ann. 11, 2. 15. His. 1, 43. Cf. Z. 298, and note, H. 1, 13.

Affectationem. Eager desire to pass for native Germans. Ad verbum, cf. note, II. 1, 80.

Ultro. Radically the same with ultra==beyond. Properly beyond expectation, beyond necessity, beyond measure, beyond any thing mentioned in the foregoing context. Hence unexpectedly, freely, cheerfully, very much, even more. Here very, quite. Gr.

Inertia Gallorum. T., says Gün., is an everlasting persecutor of the Gauls, cf. A. 11.

Haud dubie==haud dubii. It limits Germanorum populi. Undoubtedly German tribes.

Meruerint. Not merely deserved, but earned, attained. For the subj. after quanquam, cf. note, 35.

Agrippinenses. From Agrippina, daughter of Germanicus and wife of Claudius. Ann. 12, 27. Now Cologne.

Conditoris. Conditor with the earlier Latins is an epicene, conditrix being of later date. Here used of Agrippina. Of course sui cannot agree with conditoris. It is a reflexive pronoun, the objective gen. after conditoris==the founder of themselves, i.e. of their state, cf. odium sui, 33.

Experimento. Abl. on trial, not for; i.e. in consequence of being found faithful. In reference to the Ubii, cf. His. 4, 28.

XXIX. Virtute sc. bellica.

Non multum ex ripa. A small tract on the bank, but chiefly an island in the river. Cf. His. 4, 12: extrema Gallicae orae, simulque insulam, occupavere.

Chattorum quondam. The very name Batavi is thought by some to be a corrupted or modified form of Chatti. See Rit. in loc.

Transgressus. When is not known, but Julius Caesar found them already in possession of their new territory. B.G. 4, 10.

Fierent. Subj. after eas—quibus==such that. H. 500, 2; Z. 556.

Nec—contemnuntur. Are neither dishonored. So in His. 4, 17. the Batavians are called tributorum expertes.

Oneribus. The burdens of regular taxation.—Collationibus. Extraordinary contributions.

Tela, offensive; arma, defensive armor.

In sua ripa. On the right or eastern bank of the Rhine. Agunt is to be taken with in sua ripa, as well as with nobiscum, which are antithetic to each other. Meaning: in situation Germans, in feeling Romans.

Mente animoque. In mind and spirit. Mens is properly the understanding, animus the feeling part, and both together comprehend the whole soul.

Acrius animantur. Made more courageous by the influence of their very soil and climate even (adhuc, cf. note, 19).

Numeraverim. Subj. cf. note, 2: crediderim.

Decumates—exercent. Exercent==colunt, So Virg. tellurem, terram, humum, solum, &c., exercere.

Decumates==decumanos. Occurs only here. Tithe-paying lands. For their location, see note, 27.

Dubiae possessionis, i.e. insecure, till confirmed by limite acto promotisque praesidiis, i.e. extending the boundary and advancing the garrisons or outposts.

Sinus. Extreme bend or border. Cf. note, 1. So Virg. (Geor. 2 123) calls India extremi sinus orbis.

Provinciae. A province, not any particular one.

XXX. Initium inchoant. Pleonastic. So initio orto, His. 1, 76; initium coeptum, His. 2, 79; perferre toleraverit, Ann. 3, 3. Ultra is farther back from the Rhine. Chattorum sedes ubi nunc magnus ducatus et principatus Hassorum, quorum nomen a Chattis deductum. Ritter. Cha_tt_i==He_ss_ians, as Germ. wa_ss_er==Eng. wa_t_er, and [Greek: prasso==pratto].

Effusis. Loca effusa sunt, quae latis campis patent. K. This use belongs to the later Latin, though Horace applies the word with late to the sea: effusi late maria. Gr.

Durant siquidem, etc. On the whole, I am constrained to yield to the authority and the arguments of Wr., Or., Död., and Rit., and place the pause before durant, instead of after it as in the first edition. Durant precedes siquidem for the sake of emphasis, just as quin immo (chap. 14) and quin etiam (13) yield their usual place to the emphatic word. These are all departures from established usage. See notes in loc. cit. Que must be understood, after paulatim: it is inserted in the text by Ritter.

Rarescunt. Become fewer and farther apart. So Virg. Aen. 3, 411: Angusti rarescent claustra Pelori.

Chattos suos. As if the Chatti were the children of the Forest, and the Forest emphatically their country. Passow.

Prosequitur, deponit. Begins, continues, and ends with the Chatti. Poetical==is coextensive with.

Duriora, sc. solito, or his, cf. Gr. 256, 9.—Stricti, sinewy, strong, which has the same root as stringo.

Ut inter Germanos, i.e. pro ingenio Germanorum, Gün. So we say elliptically: for Germans.

Praeponere, etc. A series of infinitives without connectives, denoting a hasty enumeration of particulars; elsewhere, sometimes, a rapid succession of events. Cf. notes, A. 36, and H. 1, 36. The particulars here enumerated, all refer to military proceedings.

Disponere—noctem. They distribute the day, sc. as the period of various labors; they fortify the night, sc. as the scene of danger. Still highly poetical.

Ratione. Way, manner. Al. Romanae.

Ferramentis. Iron tools, axes, mattocks, &c.—Copiis. Provisions.

Rari. Predicate of pugna, as well as excursus.—Velocitas applies to cavalry, cunctatio to infantry; juxta==connected with, allied to, cf. juxta libertatem, 21.

XXXI. Aliis—populis. Dat. after usurpatum, which with its adjuncts is the subject of vertit. See same construction, His. 1, 18: observatum id antiquitus comitiis dirimendis non terruit Galbam, etc., cf. also A. 1.—Audentia occurs only thrice in T. (G. 31. 34. Ann. 15, 53), and once in Pliny (Ep. 8, 4). It differs from audacia in being a virtue.

Vertit. Intrans. Not so found in Cic., but in Liv., Caes., and Sall., not unfrequent. Gr. Cic. however uses anno vertente.

In consensum vertit. Has become the common custom.

Ut primum. Just as soon as. A causal relation is also implied; hence followed by the subj.

Crinem—submittere. We find this custom (of letting the hair and beard grow long) later among the Lombards and the Saxons, cf. Turn. His. Ang. Sax., App. to B. 2.

Super—spolia, i.e. over the bloody spoils of a slain enemy.

Revelant, i.e. they remove the hair and beard, which have so long veiled the face.

Retulisse==repaid, discharged their obligations to those who gave them birth.

Squalor. This word primarily denotes roughness; secondarily and usually filth: here the deformity of unshorn hair and beard.

Insuper, i.e. besides the long hair and beard. The proper position of insuper is, as here, between the adj. and subs., cf. 34: immensos insuper lacus; see also insuper, 12.

Absolvat. Subj. after donec. So faciat below. See note, 1.

Hic—habitus, sc. ferreum annulum, cf. 17. Plurimis==permultis, Rit.

Placet. Antithetic to ignominiosum genti. Very many of the Chatti are pleased with that which is esteemed a disgrace by most Germans, and so pleased with it as to retain it to old age, and wear it as a badge of distinction (canent insignes).

Nova. Al. torva. Strange, unusual. Placed in the van (prima acies), because as the author says, § 43: primi in omnibus proeliis oculi vincuntur.

Mansuescunt. Primarily said of wild beasts, accustomed to the hand of man or tamed. So immanis, not handled, wild, savage. The clause introduced by nam illustrates or enforces visu nova, and may be rendered thus: for not even in time of peace do they grow gentle and put on a milder aspect.

Exsanguis. Usually lifeless or pale. Here languid, feeble.

XXXII. Alveo==quoad alveum. Abl. of respect, H. 429; Z. 429.

Certum. Fixed, well defined, i.e. not divided and diffused, (so as to form of itself no sufficient border or boundary to the Roman Empire) as it was nearer its source among the Chatti. So this disputed word seems to be explained by the author himself in the following clause; quique terminus esse sufficiat==and such that it suffices to be a boundary. Qui==talis ut; hence followed by the subj. H. 500, I.; Z. 558. So Mela (3, 2) contrasts solidus et certo alveo lapsus with huc et illuc dispergitur.

Tencteris==apud Tencteros, by enallage, cf. note on ad patrem, 20, and other references there. The Tencteri and Usipii seem to have been at length absorbed into the mass of people, who appear under the later name of Alemanni. Cf. Prichard.

Familiam. Servants, cf. note on same word, 15. See also Beck Gall., Exc. 1. Sc. 1.—Penates==our homestead.

Jura succesionum==heir looms, all that goes down by hereditary descent.

Excipit. Here in the unusual sense of inherits.—Cetera, sc. jura successionum.

Bello. Abl. and limits both ferox and melior. Meaning: The horses are inherited, not, like the rest of the estate, by the eldest son, but by the bravest.

XXXIII. Occurrebant. Met the view, presented themselves. Almost the sense of the corresponding English word. The structure of narratur (as impers.) is very rare in the earlier authors, who would say: Chamavi narrantur. Cf. His. 1, 50. 90. The Chamavi, &c., were joined afterwards to the Franks. Cf. Prichard. The present town of Ham in Westphalia probably preserves the name and gives the original locality of the Chamavi, the present Engern that of the Angrivarii. The termination varii or uarii probably==inhabitants of. Thus angrivarii==inhabitants of Engern. Chasuarii==Inhabitants of the river Hase. The same element is perhaps contained in the termination of Bruct_eri_ and Tenct_eri_. See Latham in loco.

Nos, se. Romanos. Erga==inclined to (cf. vergo), towards.

Spectaculo. Ablative. Invidere is constructed by the Latins in the following ways: invidere alicui aliquid, alicui alicujus rei, alicui aliqua re, alicui in aliqua re. Hess. The construction here (with the abl. of the thing, which was the object of envy) belongs to the silver age. Cf. Quint. (Inst. 9, 3, 1) who contrasts it with the usage of Cicero, and considers it as illustrating the fondness of the age for figurative language.

Oblectationi oculisque. Hendiadys for ad oblectationem oculorum. The author here exults in the promiscuous slaughter of the German Tribes by each other's arms, as a brilliant spectacle to Roman eyes—a feeling little congenial to the spirit of Christianity, but necessarily nurtured by the gladiatorial shows and bloody amusements of the Romans, to say nothing of the habitual hostility which they waged against all other nations, that did not submit to their dominion.

Quaeso, sc. deos. Though fortune is spoken of below, as controlling the destiny of nations. This passage shows clearly that Tacitus, with all his partiality for German manners and morals, still retains the heart of a Roman patriot. He loves his country with all her faults, and bears no good-will to her enemies, however many and great their virtues. The passage is important, as illustrating the spirit and design of the whole Treatise. The work was not written as a blind panegyric on the Germans, or a spleeny satire on the Romans. Neither was it composed for the purpose of stirring up Trajan to war against Germany; to such a purpose, such a clause, as urgentibus imperii fatis, were quite adverse. Least of all was it written for the mere pastime and amusement of Roman readers. It breathes the spirit at once of the earnest patriot, and the high-toned moralist.

Odium sui. Cf. note, 28: conditor. Hatred of themselves; i.e. of one another. So in Greek, the reflexive pronoun is often used for the reciprocal.

Quando==since; a subjective reason. Cf. note, His. I, 31; and Z. 346. —Urgentibus—fatis, sc. to discord and dissolution, for such were the forebodings of patriotic and sagacious minds ever after the overthrow of the Republic, even under the prosperous reign of Trajan.

XXXIV. A tergo, i.e. further back from the Rhine, or towards the East— A fronte, nearer the Rhine or towards the West. Both are to be referred to the Angrivarii and Chamavi, who had the Dulgibini and the Chasuarii in their rear (on the east), and the Frisii on their front (towards the west or northwest).—Frisii, the Frieslanders.

Majoribus—virium. They have the name of Greater or Less Frisii, according to the measure of their strength. For this sense of ex see note 7. For the case of majoribus minoribusque see Z. 421, and H. 387, 1.

Praetexuntur. Are bordered by the Rhine (hemmed, as the toga praetexta by the purple); or, as Freund explains, are covered by it, i.e. lie behind it—Immensos lacus. The bays, or arms of the sea, at the mouth of the Rhine (Zuyder Zee, etc.), taken for lakes by T. and Pliny (Ann. 1, 60. 2, 8. N.H. 4, 29). They have been greatly changed by inundations. See Mur. in loco.

Oceanum, sc. Septentrionalem.—Sua, sc. parte.—Tentavimus, explored.

Herculis columnas. "Wherever the land terminated, and it appeared impossible to proceed further, ancient maritime nations feigned pillars of Hercules. Those mentioned in this passage some authors have placed at the extremity of Friesland, and others at the entrance of the Baltic." Ky. cf. note, 3.

Adiit, i.e. vere adiit, actually visited that part of the world.

Quicquid—consensimus. This passage is a standard illustration of the Romana interpretatione (§ 43), the Roman construction, which the Romans put upon the mythology and theology of other nations. It shows that they were accustomed to apply the names of their gods to the gods of other nations on the ground of some resemblance in character, history, worship, &c. Sometimes perhaps a resemblance in the names constituted the ground of identification.

Druso Germanico. Some read Druso et Germanico; others Druso, Germanico, as a case of asyndeton (Gr. 323, 1 (1.)); for both Drusus and Germanicus sailed into the Northern Ocean, and it is not known that Germanicus (the son of Drusus and stepson of Tiberius, who is by some supposed to be meant here) is ever called Drusus Germanicus. But Drusus, the father of Germanicus, is called Drusus Germanicus in the Histories (5, 19), where he is spoken of as having thrown a mole or dam across the Rhine; and it is not improbable that he is the person here intended. So K., Or. and Wr.

Se, i.e. the Ocean. See H. 449, II.; Z. 604.

Inquiri. Impersonal==investigation to be made. E. suggests inquirenti, agreeing with Germanico. But T., unlike the earlier Latin authors, not unfrequently places an infin. after a verb of hindering.

Credere quam scire. T. perhaps alluded to the precept of the Philosopher, who said: Deum cole, atque crede, sed noli quaerere. Murphy.

XXXV. In Septentrionem, etc. On the North, it falls back, sc. into the Ocean, with an immense bend or peninsula. The flexus here spoken of is called sinus in chap. 37, and describes the Cimbric Chersonesus, or Danish Peninsula. See Död., Or. and Rit. in loc.—Ac primo statim. And first immediately, sc. as we begin to trace the northern coast.—Lateribus, sc. the eastern.

Quanquam followed by the subj., seldom in Cic., but usually in T., Z. 574, Note. Cf. note, His. 5, 21.—Sinuetur, sc. southwards. Donec—sinuetur. Cf. note, 1: erumpat.

Inter Germanos. Considered among the Germans, in the estimation of the Germans.

Quique—tueri. A clause connected to an adj. (nobilissimus), cf. certum, quique, 32. Qui in both passages==talis, ut. Hence followed by subj. H. 501, I.; Z. 558.

Impotentia, ungoverned passion, [Greek: akrateia]. Impotentia seldom denotes want of power, but usually that unrestrained passion, which results from the want of ability to control one's self.

Ut—agant depends on assequuntur. Subj. H. 490; Z. 531, a.

Si res poscat. Some copies read: si res poscat exercitus. But posco and postulo seldom have the object expressed in such clauses, cf. 44: ut res poscit; 6: prout ratio poscit. So also Cic. and Sall., pass. Exercitus is subject nom., promptus being understood, as pred.; and plurimum virorum equorumque explains or rather enforces exercitus: and, if the case demand, an army, the greatest abundance of men and horses.

Quiescentibus, i.e. bellum non gerentibus; eadem, i.e. the same, as if engaged in war.

XXXVI. Cherusci. It was their chief, Arminius (Germ. Hermann), who, making head against the Romans, was honored as the Deliverer of Germany, and celebrated in ballad songs, which are preserved to this day. See his achievements in Ann. B. 1, and 2. This tribe became afterwards the head of the Saxon confederacy.

Marcentem. Enervating. So marcentia pocula, Stat. Silv. 4, 6, 56. It is usually intransitive, and is taken here by some in the sense of languid, enervate (literally withered).—Illacessiti is a post-Augustan word. Cf. Freund.

Impotentes. Cf. impotentia, 35.

Falso quiescas. Falleris, dum quiescis. Dilthey. Cf. note, 14: possis.

Ubi manu agitur. Where matters are decided by might rather than right. Cf. manu agens, A. 9.

Nomina superioris. Virtues (only) of the stronger party, the conqueror. They are deemed vices in the weaker.

Chattis—cessit: while to the Chatti, who were victorious, success was imputed for wisdom. The antithetic particle at the beginning of the clause is omitted. Cf. note, 4: minime.

Fuissent. Subj. after cum signifying although. H. 516, II.

XXXVII. Sinum. Peninsula, sc. the Cimbric. Cf. note, 35: flexu; 81: sinus.

Cimbri. The same with the Cimmerii, a once powerful race, who, migrating from western Asia, that hive of nations, overran a large part of Europe, but their power being broken by the Romans, and themselves being overrun and conquered by the Gothic or German Tribes, they were pushed to the extreme western points of the continent and the British Isles, where, and where alone, distinct traces of their language and literature remain to this day. They have left their name indelibly impressed on different localities in their route, e.g. the Cimmerian Bosphorus, the Cimbric Chersonesus (now Jutland, occupied by the Cimbri in the days of T.), Cumberland (Cumbria, from Cimbri) &c. The ancient name of the Welsh was also Cymri, cf. Tur. His. Ang. Sax. 1. 2.

Gloria is abl. limiting ingens.

Castra ac spatia. In apposition with lata vestigia==spatiosa castra or castrorum spatia, H. 704, II. 2; Z. 741.

Utraque ripa, sc. of the Rhine, the river and river bank by eminence.

Molem manusque. The mass of their population, and the number of their armies. Observe the alliteration, as if he had said: measure the mass and might.

Exitus, i.e. migrationis. Often used in this sense, cf. Caes. B.C. 3, 69: Salutem et exitum sibi pariebant.—Fidem, proof.

Sexcentesimum—annum. T. follows the Catonian Era. According to the Varronian Era, received by the moderns, the date would be A.U.C. 641 = A.C. 113.

Alterum—consulatum. The second consulship of Trajan (when he was also Emperor) was, after the reckoning of Tacitus, A.U.C. 850, according to modern computation, 851 = A.D. 98. This year doubtless marks the time when this treatise was written, else why selected?

Vincitur. So long is Germany in being conquered. (The work was never completed.) Cf. Liv. 9, 3: quem per annos jam prope triginta vincimus.

Medio—spatio. In the intervening period, sc. of 210 years.

Samnis—Galliaeve. The Romans had fought bloody, and some times disastrous battles with the Samnites (at the Caudine Forks, Liv. 9, 2.), with the Carthaginians (in the several Punic Wars), with the Spaniards under Viriathus and Sertorius (Florus, Lib. 2.), with the Gauls (Caes. B.G. pass.). But none of these were so sanguinary as their wars with the Germans.

Admonuere, sc. vulneribus, cladibus==castigavere.

Regno—libertas. Liberty and monarchy in studied antithesis. T. means to imply that the former is the stronger principle of the two.

Arsacis. The family name of the Parthian kings, as Pharaoh and Ptolemy of the Egyptian, Antiochus of the Syrian, &c.

Amisso et ipse, sc. oriens; the East itself also lost its prince (Pacorus), in the engagement, as well as the Romans their leader (Crassus).—Objecerit, reproach us with. Subj. Cf. n. G. 2: peteret.

Ventidium. Commander under Anthony, and conqueror of the Parthians in three battles, A.U.C. 715. He was raised from the lowest rank and the meanest employment, hence perhaps the expression, dejectus infra, humbled beneath Ventidius.

Carbone—Manlio, Cneius Papirius Carbo defeated at Noreja, A.U. 641 (Liv. Epit. 63.), L. Cassius Longinus defeated and slain, 647 (Caes. B.G. 1, 7. 12.), M. Aurelius Scaurus defeated and taken captive, 648 (Liv. Epit. 67.), Servilius Caepio and M. Manlius defeated with great slaughter at Tolosa, 649 (Liv. Epit. 67.), Quintilius Varus defeated and slain, 762 (Suet. Oct. 23.)—all these victories over the Romans in their highest strength and glory—either in the time of the Republic (Populo Romano), or of the Empire under Augustus (Caesari)—all these attested the courage and military prowess of the Germans; and they were still, for the most part, as free and as powerful as ever.

Caius Marius almost annihilated the Cimbri at Aquae Sextiae, A.U.C. 652.

Drusus. Claudius Drusus invaded Germany four times, 742-3, and finally lost his life by falling from his horse on his return, cf. Dio. Libb. 54. 55.

Nero, commonly known as Tiberius (brother of Drusus and stepson of Augustus), had the command in Germany at three different times, 746-7, 756-9, 764-5, cf. Suet. Tib. 9. seq.

Germanicus, son of Drusus, made four campaigns in Germany, A.D. 14-16, cf. Ann. B. 1. and 2.

C. Caesaris. Caligula, cf. Suet. Calig.; T. His. 4, 15.

Discordiae—armorum. The civil wars after the death of Nero under Galba, Otho, and Vitellius.

Expugnatis—hibernis. By the Batavians under Civilis. His. 4, 12 seq.; A. 41.

Affectavere. Aspired to the government of, cf. note on affectationem, 28. After donec, T. always expresses a single definite past action by the perf. ind., cf. A. 36: donec—cohortatus est; a repeated, or continued past action by the imp. subj. cf. note, A. 19: donec—fieret; and a present action, which is in the nature of the case also a continued action, by the pres. subj. cf. note, 1: separet.

Triumphati. Poetice, cf. Virg. Aen. 6, 837: Triumphata Corintho; Hor. Od. 3, 3, 43: Triumphati Medi. The reference here is to the ridiculous triumph of Domitian, A. 39, in which slaves, purchased and dressed out for the purpose, were borne as captives through the streets.

XXXVIII. Suevis. In the time of T. a powerful confederacy, embracing all the tribes enumerated in 39-45, and covering all the eastern and larger half of Germany. But the confederacy was soon dissolved and seldom appears in subsequent history. We still have a trace of their name in the Modern Suabia. The name is supposed by some philologists (e.g. Zeuss) to denote unsettled wanderers (Germ. Schweben, to wave, to hover, cf. Caes. B.G. 4, 1: Suevis non longius anno remanere uno in loco, etc.); as that of the Saxons does settlers, or fixed residents (Germ. Sassen), and that of the Franks, freemen. See Rup. in loc. An ingenious Article in the North American Review (July, 1847), makes the distinction of Suevi and non-Suevi radical and permanent in the religion and the language of the Germans; the Suevi becoming Orthodox Catholics, and the non-Suevi Arians in Ecclesiastical History, and the one High-Dutch and the other Low-Dutch in the development of their language.

Adhuc. Cf. note on it, 19. As to position, cf. insuper 31, and 34. The Suevi are still (adhuc) divided into distinct tribes bearing distinct names, though united in a confederacy. Cf. Hand's Tursellinus, 1, 163. Död. renders besides, sc. the general designation of Suevi.

In commune. In common. Not used in this sense by Cic., Caes. and Liv., though frequent in T. Gr. Cf. note on the same, 27.

Obliquare. To turn the hair back, or comb it up contrary to its natural direction—and then fasten it in a knot on the top of the head (substringere nodo); so it seems to be explained by the author himself below: horrentem capillum retro sequuntur ac in ipso solo vertice religant. Others translate obliquare by twist. Many ancient writers speak of this manner of tying the hair among the Germans, cf. Sen. de Ira. 3, 26.; Juv. 13, 164.

A servis separantur. Separantur==distinguuntur. Servants among the Suevi seem to have had their hair shorn. So also it was among the Franks at a later date. Vid. Greg. Tur. 3, 8.

Rarum et intra, etc. Enallage, cf. note certum quique, 32.

Retro sequuntur, i.e. follow it back, as it were, in its growth, and tie it up on the very crown of the head only, instead of letting it hang down, as it grows (submittere crinem). So K., Or. and many others. Passow and Död. take sequuntur in the sense of desire, delight in (our word seek). The word bears that sense, e.g. 5: argentum magis quam aurum sequuntur. But then what is retro sequuntur? for retro must be an adjunct of sequuntur both from position, and because there is no other word which it can limit. Saepe implies, that sometimes they made a knot elsewhere, but often they fasten it there, and there only. See Or. in loc. This whole passage illustrates our author's disposition to avoid technical language. Cf. note, II. 2, 21.

Innoxiae. Harmless, unlike the beauty cultivated among the Romans to dazzle and seduce.

In altitudinem, etc. For the sake of (increased) height and terror, i.e. to appear tall and inspire terror. Cf. note, A, 5: in jactationem; A. 7: in suam famam. The antithetic particle is omitted before this clause as it often is by our author.

Ut hostium oculis, to strike with terror the eyes of the enemy, for primi in omnibus proeliis oculi vincuntur, 43.

XXXIX. Vetustissimos. Oldest. Vetus is old, of long duration ([Greek; etos], aetas). antiquus, ancient, belonging to a preceding age (ante). Recens (fresh, young) is opposed to the former: novus (new, modern), to the latter. See Ramshorn and Freund.

Fides antiquitatis. Antiquitatis is objective gen.==the belief, or persuasion of their antiquity.

Auguriis—sacram. The commentators all note the hexameter structure of these words, and many regard them as a quotation from some Latin poet. The words themselves are also poetical, e.g. patrum for majorum, and formidine for religione. The coloring is Virgilian. Cf. Aen. 7, 172; 8, 598. See Or. in loc. and Preliminary Remarks to the Histories, p. 234.

Legationibus coeunt. Just as we say: convene by their delegates, or representatives.

Publice==publica auctoritate, cf. same word, 10.

Primordia. Initiatory rites.

Minor, sc. numine. Inferior to the god.

Prae se ferens. Expressing in his external appearance, or bearing in his own person an acknowledgment of the power of the divinity.

Evolvuntur==se evolvunt, cf. Ann. 1, 13: cum Tiberii genua advolveretur; also lavantur, 22.

Eo—tanquam. Has reference to this point, as if, i.e. to this opinion, viz. that thence, etc. Cf. illuc respicit tanquam, 12.—Inde From the grove, or the god of the grove. Cf. 3: Tuisconem … originem gentis.

Adjicit auctoritatem, sc. isti superstitioni.

Magno corpore==reipublicae magnitudine. Corpore, the body politic. So His. 4, 64: redisse vos in corpus nomenque Germanorum.—Habitantur. Al. habitant and habitantium, by conjecture. The subject is the Semnonian country implied in Semnonum: the Semnonians inhabit a hundred villages, is the idea.

XL. Langobardos. The Lombards of Mediaeval history; so called probably from their long beards (Germ, lang and bart). First mentioned by Velleius, 2, 106: gens etiam Germana feritate ferocior. See also Ann. 2, 45, 46, 62-64.—Paucitas here stands opposed to the magno corpore of the Semnones in 39.

Per—periclitando. Three different constructions, cf. notes 16, 18.

Reudigni. Perhaps the Jutes, so intimately associated with the Angles in subsequent history. See Or. in loc. In like manner, Zeuss identifies the Suardones with the Heruli, and the Nuithones with the Teutones. Suardones perhaps==sword-men.

Anglii. The English reader will here recognize the tribe of Germans that subsequently invaded, peopled, and gave name to England (==Angl-land), commonly designated as the Anglo-Saxons. T. does not mention the Saxons. They are mentioned by Ptolemy and others, as originally occupying a territory in this same part of Germany. They became at length so powerful, as to give their name to the entire confederacy (including the Angles), which ruled northern Germany, as the Franks (the founders of the French monarchy) did southern. The Angles seem to have dwelt on the right bank of the Elbe, near its mouth, in the time of T.

Nerthum. This is the reading of the MSS. and the old editions. It cannot be doubted that T. speaks of Hertha (see Turn. His. Ang. Sax., App. to B. 2. chap. 3). "But we must take care not to correct our author himself." Passow. Grimm identifies this deity with Niördhr of the Edda, and derives the name from Nord (North).—Terram matrem. The Earth is worshipped by almost all heathen nations, as the mother of men and the inferior gods. See Mur. in loco. Cf. 2: Tuisconem Deum, terra editum; also note, 9. Isidi.

Insula. Scholars differ as to the Island. Probabilities perhaps are in favor of Rugen, where the secretus lacus mentioned below is still shown, still associated with superstitious legends.

Castum. Polluted by nothing profane. So Hor: castis lucis.

Penetrali, viz. the sacred vehicle.

Dignatur. Deems worthy of her visits.

Templo, sc. the sacred grove. Templum, like [Greek: temenos], denotes any place set apart (from [Greek: temno]) for sacred purposes, cf. 9.

Numen ipsum. The goddess herself, not an image of her; for the Germans have no images of their gods, 9. Abluitur, as if contaminated by intercourse with mortals.

Perituri, etc. Which can be seen only on penalty of death.

XLI. Propior, sc. to the Romans.—Hermundurorum. Ritter identifies the name (Hermun being omitted, and dur being==thur) and the people with the _Thur_ingians. Cf. note 2: Ingaevones.

Non in ripa. Not only (or not so much) on the border (the riverbank), but also within the bounds of the Roman Empire.

Splendidissima—colonia. This flourishing colony had no distinctive name in the age of T.; called afterwards Augusta Vindelicorum, now Augsburg.

Passim. Wherever they chose—Sine custode. Not so others. Cf. His. 4, 64: ut inermes ac prope nudi, sub custode et pretio coiremus.

Cum—ostendamus. Cum==while, although. Hence the subj.

Non concupiscentibus. Since they were not covetous, Gün. Gr renders: though they were not equally desirous of it.

Notum—auditur. The Elbe had been seen and crossed by Drusus Domitius, and Tiberius. But now it was known only by hearsay. See a like patriotic complaint at the close of 37.

XLII. Marcomanni==men of the marches. See Latham in loc—Sedes, sc. Bohemia.—Pulsis olim Boiis, cf. 28.

Degenerant, sc. a reliquorum virtute, i.e. the Narisci and Quadi are not unworthy, do not fall short of the bravery of their neighbors. the Marcomanni.

Peragitur. Al. protegitur, porrigitur, &c. Different words are supplied as the subject of peragitur, e.g. Passow iter.; Rit. cursus; K. frons. The last is preferable. The meaning is: This country (sc. of these tribes) is the front, so to speak (i.e. the part facing the Romans) of Germany, so far as it is formed by the Danube, i.e. so far as the Danube forms the boundary between Germany and the Roman Empire.

Marobodui. Cf. Ann. 2, 62; Suet. Tib. 37.

Externos, sc. reges, viz. the kings of the Hermunduri. Ann. 2, 62.— Potentia. Power irrespective of right. Potestas is lawful authority. See note, 7

Nec minus valent, sc. being aided by our money, than they would be if they were reinforced by our arms. This clause in some copies stands at the beginning of 43.

XLIII. Retro. Back from the Danube and the Roman border.—Referunt. Resemble. Poetical, cf. 20.

Et quod patiuntur, sc. proves that they are not of German origin. They paid tribute as foreigners. The Gothini were probably a remnant of the expelled Boii. Cf. note, 28, and Prichard, as there cited. Hence their Gallic language.

Quo magis pudeat. They have iron beyond even most of the Germans (cf. 6), but (shame to tell) do not know how to use it in asserting their independence. Subj. H. 497; Z. 536.

Pauca campestrium. Poetical, but not uncommon in the later Latin. So 41: secretiora Germaniae; His. 4, 28: extrema Galliarum. H. 396, III. 2. 3; Z. 435.

Jugum. A mountain chain.—Vertices. Distinct summits.

Insederunt. This word usually takes a dat., or an abl., with in. But the poets and later prose writers use it as a transitive verb with the acc.==have settled, inhabited. Cf. H. 371, 4; Z. 386; and Freund sub voce. Observe the comparatively unusual form of the perf. 3d plur. in -erunt instead of -ere. Cf. note, His. 2, 20.

Nomen==gens. So nomen Latinum==Latins. Liv. pass.

Interpretatione Romana. So we are every where to understand Roman accounts of the gods of other nations. They transferred to them the names of their own divinities according to some slight, perhaps fancied resemblance. Cf. note, 34: quicquid consensimus.

Ea vis numini, i.e. these gods render the same service to the Germans, as Castor and Pollux to the Romans.

Alcis, dat. pl. Perhaps from the Slavonic word holcy==kouros, Greek for Castor and Pollux. Referable to no German root.

Peregrinae, sc. Greek or Roman.—Tamen. Though these gods bear no visible trace of Greek or Roman origin, yet they are worshipped as brothers, as youth, like the Greek and Roman Twins.— Superstitionis==religionis. Cf. notes, His. 3, 58; 5, 13.

Lenocinantur. Cherish, increase. Used rhetorically; properly, to pander.—Arte, sc. nigra scuta, &c.—Tempore, sc. atras noctes, &c. —Tincta==tattooed.

Ipsaque formidine, etc. And by the very frightfulness and shadow of the deathlike army. Umbra may be taken of the literal shadows of the men in the night, with Rit., or with Död. and Or., of the general image or aspect of the army. Feralis, as an adj., is found only in poetry and post-Augustan prose. See Freund.

Gothones. Probably the Getae of earlier, and the Goths of later history. See Or. in loc. and Grimm and other authorities as there cited. The Rugii have perpetuated their name in an island of the Baltic (Rugen).

Adductius. Lit. with tighter rein, with more absolute power cf. His. 3, 7: adductius, quam civili bello, imperitabat. The adv. is used only in the comp.; and the part. adductus is post-Augustan. Jam and nondum both have reference to the writer's progress in going over the tribes of Germany, those tribes growing less and less free as he advances eastward: already under more subjection than the foregoing tribes, but not yet in such abject slavery, as some we shall soon reach, sc. in the next chapter, where see note on jam.

Supra. So as to trample down liberty and destroy it.

Protinus deinde ab, etc. Next in order, from the ocean, i.e. with territory beginning from or at the ocean.

XLIV. Suionum. Swedes. Not mentioned under this name, however, by any other ancient author.

Ipso. The Rugii, &c., mentioned at the close of the previous section, dwelt by the ocean (ab Oceano); but the Suiones in the ocean (in Oceano). Ipso marks this antithesis.

In Oceano. An island in the Baltic. Sweden was so regarded by the ancients, cf. 1, note.

Utrimque prora. Naves biprorae. Such also had the Veneti, Caes. B.G. 3, 13. Such Germanicus constructed, His. 3, 47. So also the canoes of the N. Am. Indians.

Ministrantur, sc. naves==the ships are not furnished with sails, cf. His. 4, 12: viros armaque ministrant. Or it may be taken in the more literal sense: are served, i.e. worked, mannged. Cf. Virg. Aen. 6, 302: velisque ministrat.—In ordinem. For a row, i.e. so as to form a row, cf. Z. 314: also Rit. and Död. in loc. The northmen (Danes and Swedes) became afterwards still more famous for navigation and piratical excursions, till at length they settled down in great numbers in France and England.

In quibusdam fluminum. Rivers with steep banks require the oars to be removed in order to approach the bank.

Est—honos. Contrary to the usual fact in Germany, cf. 5.

Exceptionibus. Limitations.—Jam. Now, i.e. here, opposed to the foregoing accounts of free states and limited monarchies.

Precario. Properly: obtained by entreaty. Hence: dependent on the will of another, cf. A. 16.—Parendi. A gerund with passive sense, lit. with no precarious right of being obeyed. So Pass., K., Wr. and Gün.

In promiscuo. The privilege of wearing arms is not conceded to the mass of the people.—Et quidem==et eo, and that too.

Otiosa—manus. Al. otiosae by conjecture. But manus, a collective noun sing. takes a pl. verb, cf. H. 461, 1; Z. 366.

Regia utilitas est==regibus utile est.

XLV. Pigrum. Cf. A. 10: pigrum et grave. The Northern or Frozen Ocean, of which T. seems to have heard, though some refer it to the northern part of the Baltic. See Ky. in loc.

Hinc. For this reason, viz. quod extremus, etc.

In ortus. Till the risings (pl.) of the sun, i.e. from day to day successively. It was known in the age of T. that the longest day grew longer towards the north, till at length it became six months (cf. Plin. N.H. 2, 77), though T. supposed it to be thus long at a lower latitude than it really was, cf. A. 12.

Sonum—aspici. The aurora borealis, some suppose.

Persuasio adjicit. The common belief adds, i.e. it is further believed, cf. His. 5, 5. 13: persuasio inerat.

Illuc—natura. Tantum is to be connected with illuc usque. Thus far only nature extends. So thought the ancients. Cf. A. 33: in ipso terrarum ac naturae fine. Et vera fama is parenthetic. The author endorses this part of the story.

Ergo marks a return from the above digression.

Suevici maris. The Baltic.

Aestyorum==eastern men, modern Esthonians. Their language was probably neither German nor Briton, but Slavonic.

Matrem Deum. Cybele, as the Romans interpreted it, cf. 43.

Insigne—gestant. Worn, as amulets.

Frumenta laborant, i.e. labor for, or to produce, corn. Cf. Hor. Epod. 5, 60. Laborare is transitive only in poetry and post-Augustan prose. Elaborare would imply too much art for the author's purpose. See Rit. in loc.

Succinum. Amber, an important article of commerce in early ages, combining some vegetable juice (hence the Latin name, from succus) with some mineral ingredients.—Glesum. This name was transferred to glass, when it came into use. The root is German. Compare [Greek: chalaza.] Död.

Nec==non tamen. Yet it is not, etc.

Ut barbaris. Cf. ut inter barbaros, A. 11. Barbaris is dative in apposition with iis, which is understood after compertum.

Quae—ratio. What power or process of nature.

Donec—dedit. Cf. note, 87: affectavere.

Plerumque. Often; a limited sense of the word peculiar to post-Augustan Latin. Cf. G. 13: ipsa plerumque fama bella profligant; and Freund ad v.

Quae—expressa==quorum succus expressus, etc.

In tantum. To such a degree. Frequent only in late Latin.

A servitute. They fall short of liberty in not being free, like most of the Germans; and they fall below slavery itself, in that they are slaves to a woman.

XLVI. Venedorum et Fennorum. Modern Vends and Finns, or Fen-men. Cf. Latham in loc.—Ac torpor procerum. The chief men are lazy and stupid, besides being filthy, like all the rest.

Foedantur. Cf. infectos, 4.—Habitum, here personal appearance, cf. note, 17.—Ex moribus, sc. Sarmatarum.

Erigitur. Middle sense. Raise themselves, or rise, cf. evolvuntur, 39.

Figunt. Have fixed habitations, in contrast with the Sarmatians, who lived in carts. Cf. Ann. 13, 54: fixerant domos Frisii. Al. fingunt.

Sarmatis. The stock of the modern Russians, cf. 1. note.

Cubile. We should expect cubili to correspond with victui and vestituti. But cf. note 18: referantur; 20: ad patrem, &c.

Comitantur, i.e. feminae comitantur viris.

Ingemere—illaborare. Toil and groan upon houses and lands, i.e. in building and tilling them; though some understand domibus and agris as the places in which they toil.

Versare. To be constantly employed in increasing the fortune of themselves and others, agitated meanwhile by hope and fear.

Securi. Because they have nothing to lose.

Illis. Emphatic. They, unlike others, have no need, &c. Cf. apud illos, 44.

In medium relinquam. Leave for the public, i.e. undecided.

Relinquere in medio is the more common expression. Bötticher in his Lex. Tac. explains it, as equivalent by Zeugma to in medium vocatum relinquam in medio. So in Greek, en and eis often interchange.

AGRICOLA.

The Biography of Agricola was written early in the reign of Trajan (which commenced A.U.C. 851. A.D. 98), consequently about the same time with the Germania, though perhaps somewhat later (cf. notes on Germania). This date is established by inference from the author's own language in the 3d and the 44th sections (see notes). In the former, he speaks of the dawn of a better day, which opened indeed with the reign of Nerva, but which is now brightening constantly under the auspices of Trajan. The use of the past tense (miscuerit) here in respect to Nerva, and of the present (augeat) in respect to Trajan, is quite conclusive evidence, that at the time of writing, the reign of Nerva was past, and that of Trajan had already begun.

The other passage is, if possible, still more clearly demonstrative of the same date. Here in drawing the same contrast between past tyranny and present freedom, the author, without mentioning Nerva, records the desire and hope, which his father-in-law expressed in his hearing, that he might live to see Trajan elevated to the imperial throne—language very proper and courtly, if Trajan were already Emperor, but a very awkward compliment to Nerva, if, as many critics suppose, he were still the reigning prince.

It is objected to this date, that if Nerva were not still living, Tacitus could not have failed to attach to his name (in § 3.) the epithet Divus, with which deceased Emperors were usually honored. And from the omission of this epithet in connection with the name of Nerva, together with the terms of honor in which Trajan is mentioned, it is inferred that the piece was written in that brief period of three months, which intervened between the adoption of Trajan by Nerva, and Nerva's death (see Brotier and many others). But the application of the epithet in question, was not a matter of necessity or of universal practice. Its omission in this case might have been accidental, or might have proceeded from unknown reasons. And the bare absence of a single word surely cannot be entitled to much weight, in comparison with the obvious and almost necessary import of the passages just cited.

The primary object of the work is sufficiently obvious. It was to honor the memory of the writer's excellent father-in-law, Agricola (cf. § 3: honori Agricolae, mei soceri, destinatus). So far from apologizing for writing the life of so near a friend, he feels assured that his motives will be appreciated and his design approved, however imperfect may be its execution; and he deems an apology necessary for having so long delayed the performance of that filial duty. After an introduction of singular beauty and appropriateness (cf. notes), he sketches a brief outline of the parentage, education, and early life of Agricola, but draws out more at length the history of his consulship and command in Britain, of which the following summary, from Hume's History of England, may not be unprofitable to the student in anticipation: "Agricola was the general, who finally established the dominion of the Romans in this island. He governed it in the reigns of Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian. He carried his victorious arms northward; defeated the Britons in every encounter, pierced into the forests and the mountains of Caledonia, reduced every state to subjection in the southern parts of the island, and chased before him all the men of fiercer and more intractable spirits, who deemed war and death itself less intolerable than servitude under the victors. He defeated them in a decisive action which they fought under Galgacus; and having fixed a chain of garrisons between the friths of Clyde and Forth, he cut off the ruder and more barren parts of the island and secured the Roman province from the incursions of the more barbarous inhabitants. During these military enterprises, he neglected not the arts of peace. He introduced laws and civility among the Britons; taught them to desire and raise all the conveniences of life; reconciled them to the Roman language and manners; instructed them in letters and science; and employed every expedient to render those chains which he had forged both easy and agreeable to them." (His. of Eng. vol. 1.)

The history of Agricola during this period is of course the history of Britain. Accordingly the author prefaces it with an outline of the geographical features, the situation, soil, climate, productions and, so far as known to the Romans, the past history of the island. Tacitus possessed peculiar advantages for being the historian of the early Britons. His father-in-law was the first to subject the whole island to the sway of Rome. He traversed the country from south to north at the head of his armies, explored it with his own eyes, and reported what he saw to our author with his own lips. He saw the Britons too, in their native nobleness, in their primitive love of liberty and virtue; before they had become the slaves of Roman arms, the dupes of Roman arts, or the victims of Roman vices. A few paragraphs in the concise and nervous style of Tacitus, have made us quite acquainted with the Britons, as Agricola found them; and on the whole, we have no reason to be ashamed of the primaeval inhabitants of the land of our ancestry. They knew their rights, they prized them, they fought for them bravely and died for them nobly. More harmony among themselves might have delayed, but could not have prevented the final catastrophe. Rome in the age of Trajan was irresistible; and Britain became a Roman province. This portion of the Agricola of Tacitus, and the Germania of the same author, entitle him to the peculiar affection and lasting gratitude of those, whose veins flow with Briton and Anglo-Saxon blood, as the historian, and the contemporary historian too, of their early fathers. It is a notable providence for us, nay it is a kind providence for mankind, that has thus preserved from the pen of the most sagacious and reflecting of all historians an account, too brief though it be, of the origin and antiquities of the people that of all others now exert the widest dominion whether in the political or the moral world, and that have made those countries which were in his day shrouded in darkness, the radiant points for the moral and spiritual illumination of our race. "The child is father to the man," and if we would at this day investigate the elements of English law, we have it on the authority of Sir William Blackstone, that we must trace them back to their founders in the customs of the Britons and Germans, as recorded by Caesar and Tacitus.

With the retirement of Agricola from the command in Britain, the author falls back more into the province of biography. The few occasional strokes, however, in which the pencil of Tacitus has sketched the character of Domitian in the background of the picture of Agricola are the more to be prized, because his history of that reign is lost.

In narrating the closing scenes of Agricola's life, Tacitus breathes the very spirit of an affectionate son, without sacrificing the impartiality and gravity of the historian, and combines all a mourner's simplicity and sincerity with all the orator's dignity and eloquence.

How tenderly he dwells on the wisdom and goodness of his departed father; how artlessly he intersperses his own sympathies and regrets, even as if he were breathing out his sorrows amid a circle of sympathizing friends! At the same time, how instructive are his reflections, how noble his sentiments, and how weighty his words, as if he were pronouncing an eulogium in the hearing of the world and of posterity! The sad experience of the writer in the very troubles through which he follows Agricola, conspires with the affectionate remembrance of his own loss in the death of such a father, to give a tinge of melancholy to the whole biography; and we should not know where to look for the composition, in which so perfect a work of art is animated by so warm a heart. In both these respects, it is decidedly superior to the Germania. It is marked by the same depth of thought and conciseness in diction, but it is a higher effort of the writer, while, at the same time, it gives us more insight into the character of the man. It has less of satire and more of sentiment. Or if it is not richer in refined sentiments and beautiful reflections, they are interwoven with the narrative in a manner more easy and natural. The sentiments seem to be only the language of Agricola's virtuous heart, and the reflections, we feel, could not fail to occur to such a mind in the contemplation of such a character. There is also more ease and flow in the language; for concise as it still is and studied as it may appear, it seems to be the very style which is best suited to the subject and most natural to the author. In another writer we might call it labored and ambitious. But we cannot feel that it cost Tacitus very much effort. Still less can we charge him with an attempt at display. In short, an air of confidence in the dignity of the subject, and in the powers of the author, pervades the entire structure of this fine specimen of biography. And the reader will not deem that confidence ill-grounded. He cannot fail to regard this, as among the noblest, if not the very noblest monument ever reared to the memory of any individual.

"We find in it the flower of all the beauties, which T. has scattered through his other works. It is a chef-d'oeuvre, which satisfies at once the judgment and the fancy, the imagination and the heart. It is justly proposed as a model of historical eulogy. The praises bestowed have in them nothing vague or far-fetched, they rise from the simple facts of the narrative. Every thing produces attachment, every thing conveys instruction. The reader loves Agricola, admires him, conceives a passion for him, accompanies him in his campaigns, shares in his disgrace and profits by his example. The interest goes on growing to the last. And when it seems incapable of further increase, passages pathetic and sublime transport the soul out of itself, and leave it the power of feeling only to detest the tyrant, and to melt into tenderness without weakness over the destiny of the hero." (La Bletterie.)

* * * * *

I. Usitatum. A participle in the acc. agreeing with the preceding clause, and forming with that clause the object of the verb omisit.— Nequidem. Cf. G. 6, note.

Incuriosa suorum. So Ann. 2, 88: dum vetera extollimus, recentium incuriosi. Incuriosus is post-Augustan.

Virtus vicit—vitium. Alliteration, which is not unfrequent in T. as also homoeoteleuta, words ending with like sounds. Dr.

Ignorantiam—invidiam. The gen. recti limits both subs., which properly denote different faults, but since they are usually associated, they are here spoken of as one (vitium).

In aperto. Literally, in the open field or way; hence, free from obstructions. Sal. (Jug. 5) uses it for in open day, or clear light. But that sense would be inappropriate here. Easy. Not essentially different from pronum, which properly means inclined, and hence easy. These two words are brought together in like manner in other passages of our author, cf. 33: vota virtusque in aperto, omniaque prona victoribus. An inelegant imitation may be thus expressed in English: down-hill and open-ground work.

Sine gratia aut ambitione. Without courting favor or seeking preferment. Gratia properly refers more to the present, ambitio to the future. Cf. Ann. 6, 46: Tiberio non perinde gratia praesentium, quam in posteros ambitio. Ambitio is here used in a bad sense (as it is sometimes in Cic.) For still another bad sense of the word, cf. G. 27.

Celeberrimus quisque. Such men as Pliny the elder, Claudius Pollio, and Julius Secundus, wrote biographies. Also Rusticus and Senecio. See chap. 2.

Plerique. Not most persons, but many, or very many. Cf. His. 1, 86, and 4, 84, where it denotes a less number than plures and plurimi, to which it is allied in its root (ple, ple-us, plus, plerus. See Freund ad v.)

Suam ipsi vitam. Autobiography. Cic. in his Epist. to Lucceius says: If I cannot obtain this favor from you, I shall perhaps be compelled to write my own biography, multorum exemplo et clarorum virorum. When ipse is joined to a possessive pronoun in a reflexive clause, it takes the case of the subject of the clause. Cf. Z. 696, Note; H. 452, 1.

Fiduciam morum. A mark of conscious integrity; literally confidence of, i.e. in their morals. Morum is objective gen. For the two accusatives (one of which however is the clause suam—narrare) after arbitrati sunt, see Z. 394; H. 373. A gen. may take the place of the latter acc., esse being understood, Z. 448.

Rutilio. Rutilius Rufus, consul A.U.C. 649, whom Cic. (Brut. 30, 114.) names as a profound scholar in Greek literature and philosophy, and Velleius (2, 13, 2.) calls the best man, not merely of his own, but of any age. He wrote a Roman history in Greek. Plut. Mar. 28. His autobiography is mentioned only by Tacitus.

Scauro. M. Aemilius Scaurus, consul A.U.C. 639, who wrote an autobiography, which Cic. (Brut. 29, 112.) compares favorably with the Cyropaedia of Xenophon.

Citra fidem. Cf. note G. 16.—Aut obtrectationi. Enallage, cf. note, G. 15. Render: This in the case of Rutilius and Scaurus did not impair (public) confidence or incur (public) censure.

Adeo. To such a degree, or so true it is. Adeo conclusiva, et in initio sententiae collocata, ad mediam latinitatem pertinet. Dr. Livy uses adeo in this way often; Cic. uses tantum.

At nunc, etc. But now (in our age so different from those better days) in undertaking to write (i.e. if I had undertaken to write) the life of a man at the time of his death, I should have needed permission; which I would not have asked, since in that case I should have fallen on times so cruel and hostile to virtue. The reference is particularly to the time of Domitian, whose jealousy perhaps occasioned the death of Agricola, and would have been offended by the very asking of permission to write his biography. Accordingly the historian proceeds in the next chapter to illustrate the treatment, which the biographers of eminent men met with from that cruel tyrant. Opus fuit stands instead of opus fuisset. Cf. His. 1, 16: dignus eram; 3, 22: ratio fuit; and Z. 518, 519. The concise mode of using the future participles narraturo and incursaturus (in place of the verb in the proper mood and with the proper conjunctions, if, when, since) belongs to the silver age, and is foreign to the language of Cicero. Such is the interpretation, which after a thorough reinvestigation, I am now inclined to apply to this much disputed passage. It is that of Ritter. It will be seen that the text also differs slightly from that of the first edition (in-cursaturus instead of ni cursaturus). Besides the authority of Rit., Död., Freund and others, I have been influenced by a regard to the usage of Tacitus, which lends no sanction to a transitive sense of cursare. Cf. Ann. 15, 50; His. 5, 20. In many editions, mihi stands before nunc narraturo. But nunc is the emphatic word, and should stand first, as it does in the best MSS.

II. Legimus. Quis? Tacitus ejusdemque aetatis homines alii. Ubi? In actis diurnis. Wr. These journals (Fiske's Man. p. 626., 4. ed.) published such events (cf. Dio. 67, 11), and were read through the empire (Ann. 16, 22). T. was absent from Rome when the events here referred to took place (cf. 45: longae absentiae). Hence the propriety of his saying legimus, rather than vidimus or meminimus, which have been proposed as corrections.

Aruleno Rustico. Put to death by Domitian for writing a memoir or penegyric on Paetus Thrasea, cf. Suet. Dom. 10.

Paetus Thrasea. Cf. Ann. 16, 21: Trucidatis tot insignibus viris, ad postremum Nero virtutem ipsam exscindere concupivit, interfecto Thrasea Paeto.

Herennio Senecioni. Cf. Plin. (Epist. 7, 19), where Senecio is said to have written the life of Helvidius at the request of Fannia, wife of Helvidius, who was also banished, as accessory to the crime, but who bore into exile the very books which had been the cause of her exile. For the dat. cf. note, G. 3: Ulixi.

Priscus Helvidius, son-in-law of Thrasea and friend of the younger Pliny, was put to death by Vespasian. Suet. Vesp. 15; His. 4, 5; Juv. Sat. 5, 36.

Laudati essent. The imp. and plup. subj. are used in narration after cum, even when it denotes time merely. Here however a causal connection is also intended. H. 518, II.; Z. 577, 578.

Triumviris. The Triumviri at Rome, like the Undecimviri (oi endeka) at Athens, had charge of the prisons and executions, for which purpose they had eight lictors at their command.

Comitio ac foro. The comitium was a part of the forum. Yet the words are often used together (cf. Suet. Caes. 10). The comitium was the proper place for the punishment of criminals, and the word forum suggests the further idea of the publicity of the book-burning in the presence of the assembled people.

Conscientiam, etc. The consciousness, i.e. common knowledge of mankind; for conscientia denotes what one knows in common with others, as well as what he is conscious of in himself. Cf. His. 1, 25: conscientiam facinoris; Cic. Cat. 1. 1: omnium horum conscientia. In his Annals (4, 35), T. ridicules the stupidity of those who expect by any present power, to extinguish the memory also of the next generation. The sentiment of both passages is just and fine.

Sapientiae professoribus. Philosophers, who were banished by Domitian, A.D. 94, on the occasion of Rusticus's panegyric on Thrasea. T. not unfrequently introduces an additional circumstance by the abl. abs., as here.

Ne occurreret. Ne with the subj. expresses a negative intention; ut non a negative result. H. 490; Z. 532.

Inquisitiones. A system of espionage, sc. by the Emperor's tools and informers.—Et==etiam, even. Cf. note, 11. Al. etiam.

Memoriam—perdidissemus, i.e. we should not have dared to remember, if we could have helped it.

III. Et quanquam. Et pro sed. So Dr. But nunc demum animus redit implies, that confidence is hardly restored yet; and the reason for so slow a recovery is given in the following clause. Hence et is used in its proper copulative or explicative sense. So Wr. Demum is a lengthened form of the demonstrative dem. Cf. i-dem, tan-dem, dae. Nunc demum==nun dae. Freund.

Primo statim. Statim gives emphasis: at the very commencement, etc.; cf. note, 20.—Dissociabiles, incompatible.

Augeatque—Trajanus. This marks the date of the composition early in the reign of Trajan, cf. G. 37; also p. 139 supra.

Securitas publica. "And public security has assumed not only hopes and wishes, but has seen those wishes arise to confidence and, stability. Securitas publica was a current expression and wish, and was frequently inscribed on medals." Ky.

Assumpserit. This word properly belongs only to fiduciam ac robur. Spem ac votum would require rather conceperit. Zeugma.

Subit. Steals in, lit. creeps under. Cf. note, H. 1, 13.

Invisa primo—amatur. The original perhaps of Pope's lines Vice is a monster, &c.

Quindecim annos. The reign of Domitian from A.D. 81, to A.D. 96.

Fortuitis casibus. Natural and ordinary death, as opposed to death by violence, saevitia principis.—Promptissimus quisque. The ablest, or all the ablest. Quisque with a superlative, whether singular or plural, is in general equivalent to omnes with the positive, with the additional idea however of a reciprocal comparison among the persons denoted by quisque, Z. 710, 6.

Ut ita dixerim. An apology for the strong expression nostri superstites: survivors not of others only, but so to speak, of ourselves also; for we can hardly be said to have lived under the tyranny of Dom., and our present happy life is, as it were, a renewed existence, after being buried for fifteen years. A beautiful conception! The use of dixerim in preference to dicam in this formula is characteristic of the later Latin. Cf. Z. 528. The et before this clause is omitted by some editors. But it is susceptible of an explanation, which adds spirit to the passage: A few of us survive, and that not merely ourselves, but so to speak, others also. In the Augustan age superstes was, for the most part, followed by the dative.

Tamen. Notwithstanding the unfavorable circumstances in which I write, after so long a period of deathlike silence, in winch we have almost lost the gift of speech, yet I shall not regret to have composed even in rude and inelegant language, etc. For the construction of pigebit, cf. Z. 441, and H. 410, 6.

Memoriam—composuisse. Supposed to refer to his forthcoming history, written, or planned and announced, but not yet published. Some understand it of the present treatise. But then interim would have no meaning; nor indeed is the language applicable to his Agricola.

Interim, sc. editus or vulgatus, published meanwhile, i.e. while preparing the history.

The reader cannot but be struck with the beauty of this introduction. It is modest, and at the same time replete with the dignity of conscious worth. It is drawn out to considerable length, yet it is all so pertinent and tasteful, that we would not spare a sentence or a word. With all the thoughtful and sententious brevity of the exordiums of Sallust, it has far more of natural ease and the beauty of appropriateness.

IV. Cnaeus Julius Agricola. Every Roman had at least three names: the nomen or name of the gens, which always ended in ius (Julius); the praenomen or individual name ending in us (Cnaeus); and the cognomen or family name (Agricola). See a brief account of A. in Dion Cassius 66, 20. Mentioned only by Dion and T. Al. Gnaeus, C. and G. being originally identical.

Forojuliensium colonia. Now Frejus. A walled town of Gallia Narbonensis, built by Julius Caesar, and used as a naval station by Augustus (cf. His. 3, 43: claustra maris). Augustus sent thither the beaked ships captured in the battle of Actium, Ann. 4, 5. Hence perhaps called illustris.

Procuratorem Caesarum. Collector of imperial revenues in the Roman Provinces.

Quae equestris—est, i.e. the procurator was, as we say, ex officio, a Roman knight. The office was not conferred on senators.

Julius Graecinus. Cf. Sen. de Benef. 2, 21: Si exemplo magni animi opus est, utemur Graecini Julii, viri egregii, quem C. Caesar occidit ob hoc unum, quod melior vir esset, quam esse quemquam tyranno expediret.

Senatorii ordinis. Pred. after fuit understood, with ellipsis of vir. H. 402, III.; Z. 426.

Sapientiae. Philosophy, cf. 1.—Caii Caesaris. Known in English histories by the name of Caligula.

Marcum Silanum. Father-in-law of Caligula, cf. Suet. Calig. 23: Silanum item socerum ad necem, secandasque novacula fauces compulit.

Jussus. Supply est. T. often omits est in the first of two passive verbs, cf. 9: detentus ac statim … revocatus est. In Hand's Tursellinus (2, 474) however, jussus is explained as a participle, and quia abnuerat as equivalent to another participle==having been commanded and having refused.

Abnuerat, lit. had refused, because the refusal was prior to the slaying. We, with less accuracy, say refused. Z. 505.

Rarae castitatis. Ellipsis of mulier. H. 402, III.; Z. 426.

In—indulgentiaque. Brought up in her bosom and tender love. Indulgentia is more frequently used to denote excessive tenderness.

Arcebat has for its subject the clause, quod statim, etc. He was guarded against the allurements of vice by the wholesome influences thrown around him in the place of his early education.

Massiliam. Now Marseilles. It was settled by a colony of Phocaeans. Hence Graeca comitate. Cf also Cicero's account of the high culture and refinement of Massilia (Cic. pro Flacco, 26).—Provinciali parsimonia. Parsimonia in a good sense; economy, as opposed to the luxury and extravagance of Italy and the City.

Locum—mixtum. Enallage for locus, in quo mixta erant, etc. H. 704, III., cf. 25: mixti copiis et laetitia.—Bene compositum denotes a happy combination of the elements, of which mixtum expresses only the co-existence.

Acrius, sc. aequo==too eagerly. H. 444, 1, and Z. 104, 1. note.

Concessum—senatori. Military and civil studies were deemed more appropriate to noble Roman youth, than literature and philosophy. Senatori must of course refer, not to the office of A., but to his rank by birth, cf. senatorii ordinis above.

Hausisse, ni—coercuisset. An analysis of this sentence shows, that there is an ellipsis of hausurum fuisse: he imbibed, and would have continued to imbibe, had not, &c. In such sentences, which abound in T. but are rarely found in Cic., ni is more readily translated by but. Cf. Z. 519. b; and note, His. 3, 28. For the application of haurire to the eager study of philosophy, cf. Hor. Sat. 2, 4, 95: haurire vitae praecepta beatae, and note, His. 1, 51: hauserunt animo.

Prudentia matris. So Nero's mother deterred him from the study of philosophy. Suet. Ner. 52.

Pulchritudinem ac speciem. The beautiful image, or beau ideal, by hendiadys. Cf. Cic. Or. 2: species pulchritudinis. See Rit. in loc.

Vehementius quam caute. For vehementius quam cautius, which is the regular Latin construction. T. uses both. Cf. Z. 690, and note, His. 1, 83.

Mox. In T. subsequently, not presently. R.

Retinuitque—modum. And, what is most difficult, he retained from philosophy moderation—moderation in all things, but especially in devotion to philosophy itself, where moderation is difficult in proportion to the excellence of the pursuit, as was shown by the extravagance of the Stoics and some other Grecian sects. As to the sense of modum, cf. Hor. Sat. 1, 1, 106: est modus in rebus; and for the sentiment, Hor. Ep. 1, 6, 15: Insani sapiens nomen ferat, aequus iniqui, ultra quam satis est virtutem si petat ipsam.

V. Castrorum. This word is used to express whatever pertains to military life, education, &c., as the context may require. Every Roman youth who aspired to civil office, must have a military education.

Diligenti ac moderato. Careful and prudent, cf. our author's character of the same commander, His. 2, 25: cunctator natura, etc.

Approbavit==fecit, ut ei probarentur. Dr. It is a constructio praegnans. He obtained the first rudiments of a military education under Paullinus, and he gained his approbation.

Electus—aestimaret. Having been chosen as one whom he would estimate (i.e. test his merit) by tenting together, i.e. by making him his companion and aid. Young men of rank and promise were thus associated with Roman commanders. Cf. Suet., Caes. 2. T., as usual, avoids the technical way of expressing the relation. Ad verbum, contubernium, cf. note, His. 1, 43. Others make aestimaret==dignum aestimaret, and contubernio abl. of price. Cf. Död. and Dr.

Licenter—segniter, sc. agens. Licenter refers to voluptates, segniter to commeatus.—Commeatus==furloughs, absence from duty.— Inscitiam, sc. tribunatus==ignorance of his official duty or inexperience in war.—Retulit. Referre ad is used very much like the corresponding English, viz. to refer to an object, or devote to an end. Sense: He did not take advantage of his official standing and his military inexperience, to give up his time to ease and pleasure. Wr. takes retulit in the more ordinary sense of brought back, thus: A. did not bring back (to Rome) the empty name of Tribune and no military experience, there to give himself up to leisure and pleasure. The former version accords better with the language of the whole passage. Wr. questions the authority for such a use of referre. But it may be found, e.g. Plin. Epist. 1, 22: nihil ad ostentationem, omnia ad conscientiam refert.

Noscere—nosci, etc. T. is fond of such a series of inf. depending on some one finite verb understood, and hence closely connected with each other, cf. G. 30: praeponere, etc. note. Here supply from retulit in the preceding number the idea: he made it his business or aim to know, etc. The author's fondness for antithesis is very observable in the several successive pairs here: noscere—nosci; discere—sequi; appetere—recusare; anxius—intentus.

In jactationem. Al. jactatione. In denoting the object or purpose, Z. 314: he coveted no appointment for the sake of display; he declined none through fear.

Anxius and intentus qualify agere like adverbs cf. R. Exc. 23, 1. He conducted himself both with prudence and with energy.

Exercitatior==agitatior. So Cic. Som. Scip. 4: agitatus et exercitatus animus; and Hor. Epod. 9, 31: Syrtes Noto exercitatas.

Incensae coloniae. Camalodunum, Londinium and Verulamium. Cf. Ann. 14, 33, where however the historian does not expressly say, the last two were burned.

In ambiguo==ambigua, in a critical state. R.

Alterius, sc. ducis.—Artem et usum. Military science and experience.

Summa … cessit. The general management (cf. notes, H. 1, 87. 2, 16. 33) and the glory of recovering the province went to the general (to his credit). The primary meaning of cedere is to go. See Freund sub v.—Juveni, sc. A.

Tum, sc. while veterani trucidarentur, etc.—Mox, sc. when Paullinus and A. came to the rescue.

Nec minus, etc. A remark worthy of notice and too often true.

VI. Magistratus. The regular course of offices and honors at Rome.

Per—anteponendo. Enallage, cf. G. 15, note. Per here denotes manner, rather than means (cf. per lamenta, 28); and anteponendo likewise==anteponentes. R. Render: mutually loving and preferring one another.—Nisi quod==but. Cf. ni, 4. There is an ellipsis before nisi quod, which R. would supply thus: greatly to the credit of both parties —but more praise belongs to the good wife, etc. Major sc. quam in bono viro. So, after plus supply quam in malo viro: But more praise belongs to a good wife, than to a good husband, by as much as more blame attaches to a bad wife, than to a bad husband.

Sors quaesturae. The Quaestors drew lots for their respective provinces. Their number increased with the increase of the empire, till from two they became twenty or more. As at first a Quaestor accompanied each Consul at the head of an army, so afterwards each Proconsul, or Governor of a province, had his Quaestor to collect and disburse the revenues of the province. The Quaestorship was the first in the course of Roman honors. It might be entered upon at the age of twenty-four.

Salvium Titianum. Brother of the Emperor Otho. See His. B. 1 and 2. pass. For the office of Proconsul, &c., see note, His. 1, 49.

Parata peccantibus. Ready for wicked rulers, i.e. affording great facilities for extortion in its corrupt and servile population. Paratus With a dat. of the thing, for which there is a preparation, is peculiar to poetry and post-Augustan prose. Cf. Freund ad v. Ad rem. cf. Cic. Epist. ad Quint. 1, 1, 6: tam corruptrice provincia, sc. Asia; and pro Mur. 9.

Quantalibet facilitate. Any indulgence (license) however great.

Redempturus esset. Subj. in the apodosis answering to a protasis understood, sc. if A. would have entered into the plot. Cf. H. 502. Observe the use of esset rather than fuisset to denote what the proconsul would have been ready to do at any time during their continuance in office. Cf. Wr. in loc.

Dissimulationem. Concealment (of what is true); simulatio, on the other hand, is an allegation of what is false.

Auctus est filia. So Cic. ad Att. 1, 2: filiolo me auctum scito.

Ante sublatum. Previously born. For this use of sublatum, see Lexicon.—Brevi amisit, he lost shortly after_; though R. takes amisit as perf. for plup. and renders lost a short time before.

Mox inter, etc., sc. annum inter, supplied from etiam ipsum … annum below.

Tenor et silentium. Hendiadys for continuum silentium, or tenorem silentem. R.

Jurisdictio. For the administration of justice in private cases had not fallen to his lot. Only two of the twelve or fifteen Praetors, viz. the Praetor Urbanus (see note H. 1, 47) and the Praetor Peregrinus (who judged between foreigners and citizens) were said to exercise jurisdictio. The adjudication of criminal causes was called quaestio, which was now for the most part in the hands of the senate (Ann. 4, 6), from whom it might be transferred by appeal to the Praefect of the City or the Emperor himself. The Praetors received the jurisdictio or the quaestio by lot; and in case the former did not fall to them, the office was almost a sinecure; except that they continued to preside over the public games. See further, on the name and office of Praetor, His. 1, 47, note. For the plup. in obvenerat, see note, 4: abnuerat.

Et==et omnino. The games and in general the pageantry of office (inania honoris) expected of the Praetor. Observe the use of the neuter plural of the adj. for the subst., of which, especially before a gen., T. is peculiarly fond.

Medio rationis. The text is doubtful. The MSS. vacillate between medio ratinois and modo rationis; and the recent editions, for the most part, follow a third but wholly conjectural reading, viz. moderationis. The sense is the same with either reading: He conducted the games and the empty pageantry of office in a happy mean (partaking at once) of prudence and plenty. See Freund ad duco.

Uti—propior. As far from luxury, so (in the same proportion) nearer to glory, i.e. the farther from luxury, the nearer to glory. Cf. Freund ad uti.

Longe—propior. Enallage of the adv. and adj. ef. G. 18: extra.

Ne sensisset. Would not have felt, etc., i.e. he recovered all the plundered offerings of the temple, but those which had been sacrilegiously taken away by Nero for the supply of his vicious pleasures. This explanation supposes a protasis understood, or rather implied in quam Neronis. (Cf H. 503, 2. 2). The plup. subj. admits perhaps of another explanation, the subj. denoting the end with a view to which Agricola labored (H. 531; Z. 549), and the plup. covering all the past down to the time of his labors: he labored that the republic might not have experienced, and he virtually effected that it had not experienced, since he restored everything to its former state, the plunder of Nero alone excepted. See Wr. and Or. in loc. Perhaps this would not be an unexampled praegnantia for Tacitus. For sentire in the sense of experiencing especially evil, see Hor. Od. 2, 7, 10, and other examples in Freund sub v.

VII. Classis Othoniana. Ad rem. cf. His. 2, 12, seqq.—Licenter vaga. Roaming in quest of plunder.—Intemelios, Cf. note, 2, 13.—In praediis suis. On her own estates. Praedia includes both lands and buildings.

Ad solemnia pietatis. To perform the last offices of filial affection.

Nuntio deprehensus. Supply est, cf. 4: jussus. Was overtaken unexpectedly by the news of Vespasian's claim (nomination) to the throne.—Affectati. Cf. note, G. 28.—In partes, to his (Vesp.) party.

Principatus, sc. Vespasiani.—Mucianus regebat. Vesp. was detained in Egypt for some time after his troops had entered Rome under Mucianus; meanwhile Mucianus exercised all the imperial power, cf. His. 4, 11. 39: vis penes Mucianum erat.

Juvene—usurpante. Dom. was now eighteen years old, cf. His. 4, 2: nondum ad curas intentus, sed stupris et adulteriis filium principis agebat.

Is, sc. Mucianus.—Vicesimae legioni. One of three legions, at that time stationed in Britain, which submitted to the government of Vesp. tarde and non sine motu (His. 3, 44).

Decessor. Predecessor. It was Roscius Coelius. His. 1, 60.

Legatis—consularibus. Governors or Proconsuls. The provinces were governed by men who had been consuls (consulares), and as legatus meant any commissioned officer, these were distinguished as legati consulares. With reference to this consular authority, the same were called proconsules. Cf. note, H. 1, 49. Trebellius Maximus and Vettius Bolanus are here intended. Cf. 16. and His. 1, 60. 2, 65. Nimia==justo potentior. Dr.

Legatus praetorius==legatus legionis, commander of the legion. Cf. note, His. 1, 7. Here the same person as decessor.

Invenisse quam fecisse, etc., involves a maxim of policy worth noting.

VIII. Placidius. With less energy. See more of Bolanus at close of 16.

Dignum est. A general remark, applicable to any such province. Hence the present, for which some would substitute erat or esset.

Ne incresceret, sc. ipse: lest he should become too great, i.e. rise above his superior and so excite his jealousy. Referred by W. to ardorem for its subject. But then ne incresceret would be superfluous.

Consularem, sc. Legatum==Governor, cf. 7, note.

Petilius Cerialis. Cf. 17. Ann. 14, 32. His. 4, 68.

Habuerunt—exemplorum. Had room for exertion and so for setting a good example, cf. Ann. 13, 8: videbaturque locus virtutibus patefactus. The position of habuerunt is emphatic, as if he had said: then had virtues, etc. See Rit. in loc.

Communicabat, sc. cum A.—Ex eventu, from the event, i.e. in consequence of his success.

In suam famam. Cf. in jactationem, 5, note.

Extra gloriam is sometimes put for sine gloria, especially by the late writers. His. 1, 49: extra vitia. Hand's Turs. 2, 679.

IX. Revertentem, etc. Returning from his command in Britain.—Divus. Cf. notes, G. 28; His. 2, 33.

Vesp.—ascivit. By virtue of his office as Censor, the Emperor claimed the right of elevating and degrading the rank of the citizens. Inasmuch as the families of the aristocracy always incline to run out and become extinct, there was a necessity for an occasional re-supply of the patrician from the plebeian ranks, e.g. by Julius Caesar, Augustus and Claudius (Ann. 11, 25), as well as by Vespasian (Aur. Vic. Caes. 9. Suet. 9.)—Provinciae—praeposuit. Aquitania was one of seven provinces, into which Augustus distributed Gaul, and which with the exception of Narbonne Gaul, were all subject to the immediate disposal and control of the Emperor himself. It was the south-western part of Gaul, being enclosed by the Rhone, the Loire, the Pyrenees and the Atlantic.

Splendidae—destinarat. A province of the first importance both in its government (in itself considered), and the prospect of the consulship, to which he (Vesp.) had destined him (A.), sc. as soon as his office should have expired.

Subtilitatem==calliditatem, nice discernment, discrimination.— Exerceat, Observe the subj. to express the views of others, not of the author. H. 531; Z. 511.

_Secura—agens. Requiring less anxious thought and mental acumen, and proceeding more by physical force. Secura==minus anxia. Dr. Cf. note, His. 1, 1. Obtusior==minus acuta.

Togatos. Civilians in distinction from military men, like A. The toga was the dress of civil life to some extent in the provinces (cf. 21, His. 2, 20), though originally worn only in Rome. (Beck. Gall., Exc. Sc. 8.)

Remissionumque. The Greeks and Romans both used the pl. of many abstracts, of which we use only the sing. For examples see R. Exc. 4. For the principle cf. Z. 92.

Curarum—divisi. This clause means not merely, that his time was divided between business and relaxation; but that there was a broad line of demarcation between them, as he proceeds to explain. Divisa==diversa inter se. Dr. So Virg. Georg. 2, 116: divisae arboribus patriae==countries are distinguished from each other by their trees. Jam vero. Cf. note, G. 14.

Conventus, sc. juridici==courts. The word designates also the districts in which the courts were held, and into which each province was divided. Cf. Smith's Dict. of Ant.: Conventus. So Pliny (N.H. 3; 3.) speaks of juridici conventus. Tacitus, as usual, avoids the technical designation.

Ultra. Adv. for adj., cf. longe, 6.—Persona. 1. A mask (per and sono). 2. Outward show, as here.

Tristitiam—exuerat. Some connect this clause by zeugma with the foregoing. But with a misapprehension of the meaning of exuerat, which==was entirely free from; lit. had divested himself of. Thus understood, the clause is a general remark touching the character of A., in implied contrast with other men or magistrates with whom those vices were so common. So in Ann. 6, 25, Agrippina is said to have divested herself of vices (vitia exuerat) which were common among women, but which never attached to her. Facilitas. Opposed to severitas==kindness, indulgence.

Abstinentiam. This word, though sometimes denoting temperance in food and drink, more properly refers to the desire and use of money. Abstinentia is opposed to avarice; continentia to sensual pleasure. Cf. Plin. Epis. 6, 8: alieni abstinentissimus. Here render honesty, integrity.

Cui—indulgent. See the same sentiment, His. 4, 6: quando etiam sapientibus cupido gloriae novissima exuitur.

Ostentanda—artem, cf. 6: per—anteponendo; also G. 15, note.

Collegas. The governors of other provinces. The word means chosen together; hence either those chosen at the same election or those chosen to the same office. Cf. H. 1, 10.

Procuratores. There was but one at a time in each province. There may have been several however in succession, while A. was Proconsul. Or we may understand both this clause and the preceding, not of his government in Aquitania in particular, but as a general fact in the life of A. So E. For the office, see note, 4; and for an instance of a quarrel between the Proconsul and the Procurator, Ann. 14, 38.

Atteri==vinci as the antithesis shows, though with more of the implication of dignity impaired (worn off) by conflict with inferiors.

Minus triennium. Quam omitted. See H. 417, 3; Z. 485.

Comitante opinione. A general expectation attending him, as it were, on his return.

Nullis sermonibus. Ablative of cause.

Elegit. Perf. to denote what has in fact taken place.

X. In comparationem. Cf. in suam famam, 8, note.

Perdomita est. Completely subdued.

Rerum fide==faithfully and truly; lit. with fidelity to facts.

Britannia. It has generally been supposed (though Gesenius denies it in his Phenician Paloeography) that Britain was known to the Phenicians, those bold navigators and enterprising merchants of antiquity, under the name of the Cassiterides, or Tin Islands. Greek authors make early mention of Albion (plural of Alp?) and Ierne (Erin) as British Islands. Bochart derives the name (Britain) from the Phenician or Hebrew Baratanae, "the Land of Tin;" others from the Gallic Britti, Painted, in allusion to the custom among the inhabitants of painting their bodies. But according to the Welsh Triads, Britain derived its name from Prydain, a king, who early reigned in the island. Cf. Turner's His. Ang. Sax. 1, 2, seqq. The geographical description, which follows, cannot be exonerated from the charge of verbiage and grandiloquence. T. wanted the art of saying a plain thing plainly.

Spatio ac coelo. Brit. not only stretches out or lies over against these several countries in situation, but it approaches them also in climate: a circumstance which illustrates the great size of the island (cf. maxima, above) and prepares the way for the description of both below.

Germaniae and Hispaniae are dat. after obtenditur. The mistaken notion of the relative position of Spain and Britain is shared with T. by Caesar (B.G. 13), Dion (39, 50), and indeed by the ancients in general. It is so represented in maps as late as Richard of Cirencester. Cf. Prichard, III. 3, 9.

Etiam inspicitur. It is even seen by the Gauls, implying nearer approach to Gaul, than to Germany or Spain.

Nullis terris. Abl. abs., contra taking the place of the part., or rather limiting a part. understood.

Livius. In his 105th Book; now lost, except in the Epitome.

Fabius Rusticus. A friend of Seneca, and writer of history in the age of Claudius and Nero.

Oblongae scutulae. Geometrically a trapezium.

Et est ea facies. And such is the form, exclusive of Caledonia, whence the account has been extended also to the whole Island.

Sed—tenuatur. But a vast and irregular extent of lands jutting out here (jam, cf. note, G. 44) on this remotest shore (i.e. widening out again where they seemed already to have come to an end), is narrowed down as it were into a wedge. The author likens Caledonia to a wedge with its apex at the Friths of Clyde and Forth, and its base widening out on either side into the ocean beyond. Enormis is a post-Augustan word. Novissimi==extreme, remotest. G. 24, note.

Affirmavit. Established the fact, hitherto supposed, but not fully ascertained. This was done in Agricola's last campaign in Britain, cf. 38.

Orcadas. The Orkneys. Their name occurs earlier than this, but they were little known.

Dispecta est. Was seen through the mist, as it were; discovered in the distance and obscurity. Cf. note, H. 4, 55: dispecturas Gallias, etc.

Thule. Al. Thyle. What island T. meant, is uncertain. It has been referred by different critics, to the Shetland, the Hebrides, and even to Iceland. The account of the island, like that of the surrounding ocean, is obviously drawn from the imagination.

Nam hactenus, etc. For their orders were to proceed thus far only, and (besides) winter was approaching. Cf. hactenus, G. 25, and appetere, Ann. 4, 51: appetente jam luce. The editions generally have nix instead of jussum. But Rit. and Or. with reason follow the oldest and best MSS. in the reading jussum, which with the slight and obvious amendment of nam for quam by Rit. renders this obscure and vexed passage at length easy and clear.

Pigrum et grave. See a similar description of the Northern Ocean, G. 25: pigrum ac prope immotum. The modern reader need not be informed, that this is an entire mistake, as to the matter of fact; those seas about Britain are never frozen; though the navigators in this voyage might easily have magnified the perils and hardships of their enterprise, by transferring to these waters what they had heard of those further north.

Perinde. Al. proinde. These two forms are written indiscriminately in the old MSS. The meaning of ne perinde here is not so much, sc. as other seas. Cf. note, G. 5.

Ne ventis—attolli. Directly the reverse of the truth. Those seas, are in fact, remarkably tempestuous.

Quod—impellitur. False philosophy to explain a fictitious phenomenon, as is too often the case with the philosophy of the ancients, who little understood natural science, cf. the astronomy of T. in 12.

Neque—ac. Correlatives. The author assigns two reasons why he does not discuss the subject of the tides: 1. It does not suit the design of his work; 2. The subject has been treated by many others, e.g. Strab. 3, 5, 11; Plin. N.H. 2, 99, &c.

Multum fluminum. Multum is the object of ferre, of which mare is the subject, as it is also of all the infinitives in the sentence. Fluminum is not rivers but currents among the islands along the shore.

Nec littore tenus, etc. "The ebbings and flowings of the tide are not confined to the shore, but the sea penetrates into the heart of the country, and works its way among the hills and mountains, as in its native bed." Ky. A description very appropriate to a coast so cut up by aestuaries, and highly poetical, but wanting in simplicity.

Jugis etiam ac montibus. Jugis, cf. G. 43. Ac. Atque in the common editions. But ac, besides being more frequent before a consonant, is found in the best MSS.

XI. Indigenae an advecti. Cf. note, G. 2: indigenas.

Ut inter barbaros, sc. fieri solet. Cf. ut in licentia, G. 2; and ut inter Germanos, G. 30.

Rutilae—asseverant. Cf. the description of the Germans, G. 4. The inhabitants of Caledonia are of the same stock as the other Britons. The conclusion, to which our author inclines below, viz. that the Britons proceeded from Gaul, is sustained by the authority of modern ethnologists. The original inhabitants of Britain are found, both by philological and historical evidence, to have belonged to the Celtic or Cimmerian stock, which once overspread nearly the whole of central Europe, but were overrun and pushed off the stage by the Gothic or German Tribes, and now have their distinct representatives only in the Welsh, the Irish, the Highland Scotch, and a few similar remnants of a once powerful race in the extreme west of the continent and the islands of the sea. Cf. note on the Cimbri, G. 37.

Silurum. The people of Wales.

Colorati vultus. Dark complexion. So with the poets, colorati Indi, Seres, Etrusci, &c.

Hispania. Nom. subject of faciunt, with crines, &c.

Iberos. Properly a people on the Iberus (Ebro), who gave their name to the whole Spanish Peninsula. They belonged to a different race from the Celtic, or the Teutonic, which seems once to have inhabited Italy and Sicily, as well as parts of Gaul and Spain. A dialect is still spoken in the mountainous regions about the Bay of Biscay, and called the Basque or Biscayan, which differs from any other dialect in Europe. Cf. Prichard's Physical Researches, vol. III. chap. 2.

Proximi Gallis. Cf. Caes. B.G. 5, 14: Ex his omnibus longe sunt humanissimi, qui Cantium (Kent) incolunt, quae regio est maritima omnis, neque multum a Gallica differunt consuetudine. Et—also: those nearest the Gauls are also like them.

Durante vi. Either because the influence of a common origin still continues, etc.

Procurrentibus—terris. Or because their territories running out towards one another, literally, in opposite directions, Britain towards the south and Gaul towards the north, so as to approach each other. See Rit., Död. in loc., and Freund ad diversus.

Positio—dedit. The idea of similarity being already expressed in similes, is understood here: their situation in the same climate (coelo) has given them the same personal appearance.

Aestimanti. Indef. dat. after credibile est, cf. note, G. 6.

Eorum refers to the Gauls. You (indef. subject, cf. quiescas, G. 36) may discover the religion of the Gauls (among the Britons) in their full belief of the same superstitions. So Caes. B.G. 6, 13: disciplina in Britannia reperta atque inde in Galliam translata esse existimatur; and he adds, that those who wished to gain a more perfect knowledge of the Druidical system still went from Gaul to Britain to learn. Sharon Turner thinks, the system must have been introduced into Britain from the East (perhaps India) by the Phenicians, and thence propagated in Gaul. His. Ang. Sax., B. 1, chap. 5.

Persuasione. See the same use of the word, His. 5, 5: eademque de infernis persuasio.

In—periculis. The same sentiment is expressed by Caesar (B.G. 3, 19).

Ferociae. In a good sense, courage, cf. 31: virtus ac ferocia.

Praeferunt==prae se ferunt, i.e. exhibit.

Ut quos. Ut qui, like qui alone, is followed by the subj. to express a reason for what precedes. It may be rendered by because or since with the demonstrative. So quippe cui placuisset, 18. Cf. Z. 565 and H. 519, 3.

Gallos floruisse. Cf. G. 28.

Otio. Opposed to bellis, peace.—Amissa virtute. Abl. abs. denoting an additional circumstance. Cf. 2: expulsis—professoribus, note.— Olim limits victis.

XII. Honestior. The more honorable (i.e. the man of rank) is the charioteer, his dependents fight (on the chariot). The reverse was true in the Trojan War.

Factionibus trahuntur==distrahuntur in factiones. Dr., and Or. T. is fond of using simple for compound verbs. See note 22; also numerous examples in the Index to Notes on the Histories.

Civitatibus. Dat. for Gen.—Pro nobis. Abl. with prep. for dat. Enallage. R.—Conventus. Convention, meeting.

Coelum—foedum. The fog and rain of the British Isles are still proverbial.—Dierum spatia, etc. Cf. Caes. 513.

Quod si==and if. From the tendency to connect sentences by relatives arose the use of quod before certain conjunctions, particularly si, merely as a copulative. Cf. Z. 807. also Freund sub v. The fact alleged in this sentence is as false as the philosophy by which it is explained in the next, cf. G. 45: in ortus, note.

Scilicet—cadit. This explanation proceeds on the assumption that night is caused by the shadow of mountains, behind which the sun sets; and since these do not exist in that level extremity of the earth, the sun has nothing to set behind, and so there is no night. The astronomy of T. is about of a piece with his natural philosophy, cf. 10.—Extrema— terrarum. Cf. note, 6: inania honoris.