Introductory material

QUALITY IN HORSES

There is no subject upon which there seems to be more diversity of opinion amongst horsemen than as to what constitutes “quality” in a horse.

It is a term in very common use, but if you ask a number of horsemen what they mean by it you are sure to get a variety of answers. One will say it means breeding; another, conformation; another, finish; another, “class”; another, symmetry; another, individuality; another, an accentuation of all fine points; another, magnetism; another, refinement of lines or perhaps a combination of some or all of these attributes. Some say that quality is recognizable, but indefinable and unexplainable.

The term “quality” is an abstract one, indicating a special attribute in an individual, just as being well bred, well conformed and possessing finish are attributes of some individuals. When one says that a horse has “quality,” one means that he has a special attribute which may or may not be combined with any or all of the others mentioned. Of course there are varying degrees of “quality,” so that the term can only be used in a comparative sense. In the light classes of horses it is very often used synonymously with breeding. Certainly the more warm-blooded a horse is the higher the degree of quality he is apt to possess, but one may take two equally well bred thoroughbreds and find one showing evidence of the possession of a higher degree of quality than the other. So that breeding and quality do not mean the same thing. Neither does quality signify the possession of symmetry, good conformation, finish or “class.” A horse may be defective in any or all of these respects and still possess a high degree of “quality.” He may be fiddle-headed, lop-eared, ewe-necked, sway-backed, flat-sided, slack-loined, cow-hocked and calf-kneed, and yet show much “quality.”

Much confusion is caused by using the term “quality” synonymously with “class.” Horses are spoken of as high-class, medium-class and so on, indicating the degree of excellence which they possess for the purpose for which they are best suited. Two individuals can be taken as an example, showing equal “quality,” but one of them, on account of better conformation, more style and action, may be worth twice as much as the other. Consequently he is a higher-class individual, although the two are equal in “quality.” So that “quality” and “class” do not mean the same.

If, then, “quality” does not mean breeding or conformation or symmetry or finish or “class,” or a combination of any or all of these, what does it mean? It is an easier matter to explain what constitutes “quality” than it is to give a concise and at the same time comprehensive definition of what it is. It may not inaptly be defined as fineness in contradistinction to coarseness, or as fineness of texture. How frequently one hears a prospective purchaser say to a dealer: “He is a very nice horse, but very light in bone.” The dealer almost invariably replies: “Yes, but his bone is of good ‘quality,’” and still further endeavors to make the statement more emphatic by saying that the bone is so dense, so compact, so ivory-like, that a cubic inch of it will weigh more than a cubic inch of some other horse that has indisputably more bone. It is a fact that the bone of some horses is much more dense or compact, and is, as the dealer expresses it, of better “quality” than that of some others.

What causes this greater density in the bones of some individuals than in those of others? We have to look to the elements of which bone is composed for the determining cause. The animal tissues are made up of fluids and solids. The solids are composed of three simple elements, viz.: granules, fibres and cells that are only determinable by means of a microscope. This difference of quality is most easily determinable with regard to the element fibres. The fibres that form part of the tissues of an individual of high “quality” are more slender, more compact and tougher than those of one of less “quality.” One can appreciate this even with the naked eye, in examining the walls of horses’ hoofs. In a horse possessing a fairly high degree of “quality,” the fibres which run from the coronet down, in forming the basis of the wall, are most palpably finer than in those of the wall of a coarser individual. So with the bone; the elements that combine to form it in a horse of high “quality” are finer and more highly organized than in those of a coarser individual.

What you find in regard to quality in the bones of an individual, you find pervading all the tissues of his organism. You do not find a horse with coarse bone and fine skin, or coarse skin and fine bone. If the bone is fine or has “quality,” the muscles, tendons, ligaments, skin, hoofs, hair and all the other tissues which enter into his composition are equally fine or are of equal “quality.” The “quality” of a horse’s bone may be perfect, but undue or disproportionate length or other defective form, or faulty relationship of one bone to another, may make his conformation very imperfect indeed, so that it is difficult to understand why some horsemen think there is any relationship between “quality” and conformation.

A high degree of “quality” is apt to be associated with defects, so that one might almost state that a horse can have too much quality. Size, or more correctly, substance, is strength, other things being equal. A horse with a high degree of quality may be so lacking in substance as to impair his power for the performance of work or for severe tests of endurance or speed. He may be so light-limbed that he cannot stand the “wear and tear” of hard work and remain practically sound. We often find horses that are superfine with disproportionately small feet, and every experienced horseman knows that it is seldom that such horses do much work and remain sound. A horse, however, cannot have too much “quality,” providing it is combined with sufficient substance for the purpose for which he is required. A high degree of “quality” and sufficient substance are most important attributes in contributing to perfection in horseflesh.

There are many every-day evidences of the ill consequences of deficient quality in horseflesh. You hear a horseman say that a horse has soft legs, and he points out an individual inclined to fill about the skin of the fetlocks, to show windgalls which extend up the sheaths of his back tendons, and whose hocks are inclined to be puffy throughout. If he gets a bruise or injury of any kind to the skin of his legs, the consequent swelling is apt to extend and is inclined to remain. Abrasions, cuts, cracks and scratches heal rather tardily. Concussion and direct injury to bone are very much inclined to result in bony enlargement, such as splints, that spread out and have not well-defined limits. Standing in the stable too much readily produces stocking of the legs; there is a predisposition to greasy legs. The feet are inclined to be flat, large and easily bruised.

These tendencies show coarseness of tissue and low organization, a meagre blood supply and inactive nutrition. Horses with “quality” also develop windgalls and splints if subjected to sufficient cause, but their character differs from those of coarse horses in being clean-cut and well-defined and not having the tendency to spread out. A horse with “quality” may have a bog spavin, but it will show as a well-defined prominence and not as a round puffiness of the hock throughout.

Draft horsemen talk “quality” just as much or more than those who have to do with the light breeds. The difference in the “quality” of individuals of the draft breeds is just as well marked as in the light breeds. Take for instance a Clydesdale or Shire, both of which breeds have a considerable quantity of long hair on the back of the legs, which is often referred to as “feather.” If this hair is found to be fine and silky, not coarse and wiry, you will find that it is possessed by an individual that shows “quality” throughout. His skin will not be coarse and beefy, his legs will be fluted, his bone will have a tendency to flatness, showing density of structure. The hair of his mane and tail will be fine, like that at the back of his legs. The eminences and depressions formed by the bones of his head will be comparatively finely chiseled. He, in fact, shows “quality” when compared to other members of the same breed that are equally well bred as far as possessing the characteristics of the breed, and as far as the stud book is an indication of breeding. This is a further example of the fallacy of the view that “quality” and breeding are the same thing.

HEREDITARY UNSOUNDNESS IN HORSES

The question of hereditary unsoundness in all its aspects is by no means an open book to the horse-breeder, but it is one well worth studying by him, if as thorough a knowledge as is possible of this subject will tend to lessen the percentage of unsound stock produced. Of the various causes which tend to make horse-raising disappointing and unprofitable, this is one of the important ones, if not the most important. Literally speaking, it is not so much the inheritance of a disease itself that we fear, but it is the tendency to the development of this disease. Comparatively few foals are dropped with unsoundnesses, that impair their value ultimately, but there are many that are foaled with a predisposition to the development of unsoundness. The study of this subject, then, practically resolves itself into a consideration of what constitutes the predisposing causes of unsoundness.

They may be divided into several heads, viz: Defective formation, defective quality, and insufficient quantity of tissue and temperament. Within certain limits, the practised eye of the observant horseman can determine in sire or dam the existence of these defects that are transmissible to the offspring, and predispose it to the development of unsoundness.

It is claimed by some authorities that some horses and mares possess a peculiar habit of body, an indefinable something about them which predisposes them and also their progeny to the development of some unsoundness. Such cases are rare, however, and their supposed existence is very frequently the result of the inability of an observer to appreciate the existence of detectible predisposing causes. If this indefinable something is the determining cause of predisposition in some cases, then the only positive evidence of its existence is the developed unsoundness. This theory presupposes that none of the detectible predisposing causes already mentioned exist in sufficient degree in such cases, so that when subjects of them are subjected to more than ordinarily exciting ones they would develop unsoundness unless the peculiar habit of body exists. It is also an acknowledgment of the helplessness of breeders in a considerable degree to prevent breeding colts with an inherent tendency to unsoundness. No matter how capable and careful a breeder is he will produce a certain percentage of unsound stock, due to heredity, but with care it can be reduced to a small one. Many breeders use a sire from convenience or from some quality he possesses, such as speed, action, style or disposition, knowing they are taking a chance of perpetuating some tendency to unsoundness that he possesses. Favorite mares are also bred, with a disregard to the well-established principle that “like begets like,” even when they are the victims of hereditary unsoundness or a strong predisposition to it. The successful breeder must divest himself of all sentiment and be capable of appreciating all defects which constitute predisposition to unsoundness. Of the predisposing causes, defective formation is the most fertile one. The predisposition to navicular disease is hereditary. Horses with narrow, deep heels are predisposed to it. Some observers may say: “But look at the large number of horses one sees with narrow, deep heels that have not got navicular disease.” Of course, such an argument is fallacious, as there may be many compensating conditions that will tend to neutralize the tendency to this disease in some subjects. A horse with the formation of foot described, even although he is subjected to the exciting causes of hard, fast and steady work, and irrational and infrequent shoeing, may be endowed by nature with a very light step. Nothing tends to prevent “wear and tear” of the legs and feet like light stepping. Here, then, is an example of an influence which tends to counterbalance the ill effects of a defective formation, but renders complicated the study of formation as a predisposing cause of unsoundness. One, then, has to weigh the influence of compensating conditions in determining the ill-consequences likely to result from defective formations of feet when transmitted to offspring. That defective formation of feet is handed down to progeny there is no manner of doubt. The predisposition to ringbone is undoubtedly hereditary, and when the pastern is of good formation one seldom finds it unless it is the result of some extraordinarily exciting cause. The two extremes of long, light oblique pasterns, and the short, straight coarse ones, are both predisposed, the former from the tension to which the ligaments are subjected, and consequent tendency to sprain, and the latter from the increased tendency to concussion. As we proceed up the front leg we find defective formation in the neighborhood of the knee, predisposing to unsoundness. Many horses that are more or less knee-sprung are practically sound. Others become progressively weak and are decidedly unsound; so that we are not much amiss in characterizing the condition called knee-sprung as an hereditary unsoundness. A commission was appointed some years ago in England to make out a list of hereditary unsoundnesses. The list included navicular disease, ringbone, spavin, sidebone, periodic ophthalmia or moonblindness, and roaring. It will be observed that knee-sprung was not included. In order not to complicate matters they made the list as short as possible, and only included the most serious forms of unsoundness or those that are very obstinate in yielding to treatment or are incurable. Unsoundnesses such as knee-sprung, curb or splint, though the tendency to them is undoubtedly hereditary, were not included. This was because these conditions seldom permanently interfere with a horse’s practical soundness. A horse is what is called “tied in” below the knee when the leg immediately below that joint is narrower from before backwards, than it is just above the fetlock. In this condition the tendons behind the knee are not well developed, and are placed too close to the shank-bone at this point. This imperfect tendonous development in a front leg is not usually confined to the tendons behind the leg, called the flexor tendons, as an imperfect development of these tendons is usually associated with an impaired development of the tendons running down the front of the leg called the extensor tendons. Such a condition frequently results in shaky knees, and if the subject experiences hard work, he is likely to become progressively worse. In some cases the flexor tendons appear to be much better developed than the extensors, and in an individual so formed, particularly if he is inclined to stand with his forefeet well back under him, there is an inordinate strain on the extensors, leading to relaxation and a corresponding tendency to contraction of the flexors. Here we have a lack of balance between the extensors and flexors, and the result is a knee-sprung condition. Although shaky-kneed or knee-sprung horses are not frequently incapacitated for work, the breeder should not lose sight of the fact that this condition is apt to considerably depreciate a horse’s value in the market, particularly for some purposes, and he can seldom afford to ignore this fact. It is not intended to advise breeders never to breed to a sire that stands a little over in the knees, especially if sufficient cause can be assigned for it, but we should recommend them to be very wary about using sires and dams that show a congenital tendency to this defect. Purchasers of horses usually look with considerable disfavor on a horse that is at all knee-sprung. Personally, the writer would rather buy a horse for his own use that is a little forward in the knees than one that stands back in them or is what is called calf-kneed. A horse with the former defect is almost sure to be much more elastic in his step than one with the latter and, consequently, will not suffer to the same extent from the ill-effects of concussion. A calf-kneed horse is also much more likely to suffer from strains. Knee-sprung, unlike the other unsoundnesses given in the list of hereditary troubles, is not very infrequently congenital. Swan-necked horses and those with thick, coarse throttles are considered to be of the formations most liable to develop the defect of the wind called “roaring.” In Great Britain and Ireland and on the continent of Europe, breeders are usually very particular about avoiding roarers for breeding purposes. The climatic conditions there seem favorable to its development; but in this country it is not nearly so much to be feared, and one should not hold aloof from an otherwise desirable sire on account of his being a roarer, though it must be admitted that the predisposition to the trouble may be transmitted. The predisposition to periodic ophthalmia or moonblindness is handed down from parent to offspring, but it is not nearly so common in this country as it once was, when the sanitary conditions were not so good; and it may be that some care has been exercised in breeding, so as to avoid its propagation. The only appreciable evidence of a predisposition to this unsoundness, outside of the existence of the disease, is the small or what is called “pig eye.” The writer knew a sire well that had “pig eyes” but sound ones, and they remained sound throughout his long life, but certainly ten per cent. of his progeny developed moonblindness.

The tendency to string-halt is undoubtedly transmissible from parent to offspring. Horses with snappy hock action are most likely to develop it. Nowadays it is not feared nearly so much as it was formerly, for if it should develop, a very large percentage of cases are curable by a not very difficult and by no means dangerous operation, which consists in the cutting of a tendon. A change has taken place in the generally accepted view as to the nature of string-halt. It was considered a purely nervous malady until it was found that the cutting of a tendon would in many instances cure it.

Curb, although not, as I remember it, included in the list of hereditary unsoundnesses, is decidedly hereditary, as well as the predisposition to it. It is not an infrequent occurrence to find foals “dropped” with curbs which frequently disappear in a large measure. But there is always some trace of them remaining. It is the rarest possible occurrence to find a broad hock, and one with the tendon standing well out behind, with any sign of curb. Narrow hocks and those with the point dipped forward towards the body of the joint; a leg with small circumference immediately below the hock, or what is commonly called tied in; those with the back tendon not standing out posterior to the bone at the back and outer part of hock—in addition to these indications of weakness and tendency to curb, if the joint is crooked, or what is called sickle-shaped, the predisposition is much increased. Curb is not so very much feared by some breeders, as it seldom causes permanent lameness. It is, however, a great eyesore; it depreciates a horse’s value very considerably, and it is liable to cause recurring lameness.

Crooked hocks, unduly straight hocks, narrow hocks, small hocks, those bent inwards or outwards, are all of weak formation, and are consequently predisposed, amongst other unsoundnesses, to bone spavin. Even though a horse should happen to have a bone spavin, provided he has a strongly formed hock, it would be safer to take a chance of breeding to him than one with a sound hock but of weak formation. So far we have run over briefly most of the defective formations that predispose to serious hereditary unsoundness. We have divided the causes into four heads, the second one of which was “insufficient quantity.” The old saying, “Size is strength, others things being equal,” applies to a horse’s extremities. We frequently hear it said that such and such a horse has “plenty of timber under him.” By this is meant that the individual in question has sufficient substance in the various structures that make up his legs and feet to give them strength and ability to stand “wear and tear.”

The practical horseman of experience learns that the horse with disproportionately small feet seldom stands much work without going sore from some unsoundness of these organs. So with the slender-pasterned horse. He is not only subject to strain at that point, but predisposed to ringbone. The horse light under the knee is apt to suffer from strains of the tendons and ligaments in that situation, as well as troublesome splints. Proportionately large joints give wearing ability to the legs. This is well exemplified in the case of hocks with plenty of tissue in them. The sire that transmits small hocks to his offspring has handed down to him one of the most prolific sources of unsoundness in these joints. Defects of formation of these joints are often a cause of trouble, as has already been pointed out, but not so much so in my experience as lack of size. Stating that a horse has plenty of timber under him does not cover all cases, as some horses have plenty of tissue in their front legs and are deficient in their hind ones. In addition to formation and quantity of tissue, “quality” is of vast importance in influencing the wearing ability of the legs and feet. Parents transmit with great faithfulness to their progeny defects in the quality of the horn of hoofs. Shelly, brittle hoofs are strongly predisposed to crack, developing sand and quarter cracks on slight provocation, and giving rise to that very troublesome inability of being unable to hold the shoes tightly. Brittle hoofs are not necessarily coarse in fibre. Hoofs of coarse fibre lack the density of structure which generally contributes to toughness. Undue size of foot, low heels and flat soles, with a tendency to be easily bruised, are apt to be associated with a lack of quality in the horn structure. A horse with bone of a spongy character or lacking in density is deficient in quality. Such an individual is predisposed to inflammatory diseases of bone, such as splints, sore shins, ringbone and spavin. The lack of quality in a horse is particularly well shown in the skin of his legs. The tendency to the development of cracked heels, stocked legs, mud fever and grease is very evident on slight provocation. Sires deficient in quality are apt to transmit to their progeny the tendency to what are called soft-legs, in which there is not only the inclination of the skin to swell up from little cause, but windgalls, puffy sheaths of tendons and boggy hocks are easily induced. If, then, we accept these statements with regard to quality, as it would appear that every practical horseman must, we must admit that coarseness or lack of quality is by no means an unimportant factor in contributing to hereditary predisposition to unsoundness. Temperament is the last of the four heads into which we divided the predisposing causes of hereditary unsoundness. Although it must be admitted that it has an influence, we look upon it as the least important of the four. The nervous horse that jumps and gets excited on slight provocation; the anxious horse that is always up in his collar and against the bit, are more taxing on the physical mechanism than easier-going horses. We cannot afford to quite ignore this question of temperament in selecting sires and dams, but if the legs and feet are well formed, have sufficient substance, and are made up of a good quality of tissue, they will generally stand any taxing that may result from a high-strung temperament.

HITCHING IN HORSES

Of the many defects of action that horses show, one that detracts very much from the gracefulness of movement in the trot and walk is “hitching.” It is a peculiar hopping movement which results from a lack of power, or from defective balance. It is said that good cooks are born, not made. Exactly the opposite is the case with “hitchers”; they are made, not born, although there is no doubt that some colts are foaled with a predisposition to “hitch.” Still, even then, it may be kept in abeyance by good handling. The causes of “hitching,” then, may be said to be predisposing and exciting. Of the predisposing ones the most prolific is the want of power and freedom of movement in the hindquarter. Cat-hammed horses, those with short hindquarters, and those that stand with their hocks too far behind them, are very liable to “hitch.” Bad driving is a cause that frequently contributes to this fault. Some drivers will make almost every young horse they handle get into the habit, for it becomes almost a habit in some individuals.

Starting off at too fast a pace, urging a horse beyond his speed, particularly if he has a heavy trap behind him, and allowing him to go uncollectedly from driving with a loose rein, are causes. Drivers that allow horses to rattle along with their heads loose, particularly if they are inclined to be free, will make many hitchers, especially amongst young horses and those in which there is a predisposition to the fault.

Besides the causes already discussed and really the most important of all, is the mouth, for a very large percentage of “hitching” is referable to that organ. Horses which carry their heads steadily, hold them straight, with no crossing of jaws or opening of the mouth, and which keep their tongues in position under the bit and have responsive, firm mouths, never “hitch” when they have proper driving. Any discomfort of the mouth caused by bruises, abrasions or excoriations, making a horse sideline or bore, is very apt, in the case of a very prompt horse, to cause “hitching.” On the other hand, horses that do not face the bit firmly on account of soreness of the mouth or from the bit being placed too low in the mouth or from lack of courage, or any cause that makes them go with unsteady heads, are apt to “hitch.” A driver or rider with what is called bad hands is also apt to make a horse “hitch.” A driver with bad hands either takes a heavy, unyielding grip of the reins, or else holds them unsteadily, either of which causes is apt to put a horse off his balance.

The uninitiated are apt to mistake “hitching” for lameness, and it is very hard to persuade them to the contrary, especially if a horse keeps doing it persistently. It is not an unsoundness, however, for there is no lesion necessarily of the extremity “hitched.” Habitual “hitching” is a fault or defect, just the same as other defects of action and “forging” are faults.

If a horse is a persistent “hitcher,” however, he might almost as well be lame, as far as the unsightliness of the gait is concerned. In good hands, however, there is not much fear of it becoming habitual, and if it has become so from any cause, it can usually be remedied by good handling.

In standing about sale and show rings, we frequently hear onlookers say that such and such a horse is going lame behind, when in reality he is only “hitching.” At sale and show times horses are frequently urged and pulled together to a degree very apt to put them off their balance, especially when they are called upon to keep making short turns. Some horses, even at the walk, will persistently “hitch” in being ridden in a ring when sharply bitted. Horses may be seen to drag and hop on one hind leg in going around a ring at a walk when ridden with bit and bridoon, but if a change is made to a snaffle bit they will go squarely, thus showing how a sharp bit will cause unsteadiness and irregularity of the gait in some light-mouthed horses.

In case there is any doubt as to whether irregularity of the gait is due to lameness or to “hitching,” it is easily settled by jogging the animal in question at a slow trot “in hand” without any bit in the mouth, or at most a plain snaffle, with the head loose and carried straight. It may be emphasized here that the only true test in the determination of the question as to whether a horse goes sound or not, unless the lameness is fairly pronounced, is to jog “in hand” as already explained. Horses are sometimes condemned as going lame in the show ring when it is impossible to determine with certainty whether they are lame or not until taken out of harness and run “in hand.” It is sometimes a help, in deciding whether a horse is slightly sore forward or not, to get on his back, when the increased weight on the legs will intensify the tenderness.

The idea of a horse “hitching” in front is sometimes ridiculed, but occasionally one may be seen to do it unmistakably, and it is usually the result of some discomfort in connection with the mouth. As has been already said, anything that puts a horse off his balance is liable to make him “hitch.” A horse may be said to be “balanced” when every leg bears its proper proportion of weight and also exerts its share of propulsion. The position of the head is very important in regulating balance. If it is carried too low, too much weight is thrown on the fore extremities; if too high, too much strain is put on the hind ones. It is most important that the head shall be carried steadily and in proper position, for a want of firmness in its carriage is apt to put a horse off his balance and consequently lead to “hitching.”

HORSESHOEING AND HORSES’ HOOFS

As with many other subjects relating to horseflesh, there is a wide diversity of opinion as to the treatment of the horse’s hoof, particularly as to that phase of it which has to do with shoeing. In New York, especially, there is a deeply rooted prejudice in favor of allowing the hoofs to grow out to very considerable proportions. If you ask some of the strong advocates of this practice their reason for it, you get the nonexplanatory answer that they like to see a horse with a good foot. The question then naturally presents itself: Does a luxuriant growth of horn constitute a good foot, and is a long hoof conducive to the welfare of the foot and that portion of the extremity above it? There is no doubt you can take liberties with a horse’s foot with impunity under some circumstances, but if you want a horse to do everyday work, the nearer you get a hoof to its proper dimensions the better for the foot and the leg above it. For ordinary work the hoof should be kept of such dimensions that every part of the lower surface of it shall bear its proportionate amount of weight, and that there shall be no disturbance in the proper relations of the various parts that make up the legs and feet.

Dealers keep their horses’ toes long because length of toe increases their action. A horse with long toes is bound to exert more muscular force in order to raise his feet off the ground and extend them in progression; consequently his action is increased. As they do not work their horses hard, but merely give them exercise enough to keep them well mannered to show to their customers, they do not as a rule experience the ill-results they would if they were worked fairly hard. The same remarks apply to heavy harness show horses, that are simply kept in condition to show all the style and action possible.

Everyday work, however, is another matter. The dealer and showman is right from his standpoint, but not from the standpoint of the owner who is looking for everyday service.

Too long a toe acts as a lever and very much increases the tension of the tendons and ligaments that support the fetlocks, rendering them liable to strain, and also increasing the tendency to windgalls.

Too long a toe is also a fertile cause of corns, as it increases very much the pressure on the heels and consequent liability to bruise the quick of the foot at that place, which bruise constitutes a corn.

Besides having the toes too long, the heels are allowed to grow down, taking all the pressure off the frog. Nature intended the frog to bear its proper proportion of weight, and, if it doesn’t do so, it shrinks, the heels contract, and the inner quarter curls in and acts as a wedge between the shoe and the quick, and is thereby another cause of corns. Too long a hoof hastens fatigue, as the increased exertion necessary in raising and advancing the foot in progression augments the expenditure of force. The tendency to “interfere” is also much increased.

This prejudice in favor of keeping the hoofs long has been brought about and encouraged largely by the example and expressed opinions of dealers. A dealer sells a horse with long hoofs, and the purchaser sends him to the forge. The shoer, unless he has been otherwise definitely instructed, and if he understands what is best for the horse’s legs and feet, will reduce the hoofs to their normal proportions. When the owner drives or rides his new purchase again, he finds the action curtailed, and thinks the horse is going sore. He applies to the seller of the horse, who tells him that he has had his feet cut away so much that it has made him sore. This might be the case in exceptional instances, but very rarely.

In addition to reduction of the hoofs in size, the shoes may be lightened, which further lessens the action. What are called “green horses” are very apt to go sore if put abruptly into work, from the fact that their tissues have not been by degrees hardened for work; in other words, they are not in condition, and it will take some weeks before they can be safely put into anything like hard work.

After reading the foregoing, it will naturally be asked: What is the guide in determining the dimensions to which the hoof should be reduced at the time of shoeing? The practised eye of the man who understands the natural poise of the horse’s leg can determine at a glance how much to reduce the hoof so that every part of the leg and foot will approximately bear its due proportion of weight. The direction of the line of weight in the extremities varies in different individuals and nature can be assisted by regulating the direction of this line in order that no part shall be unduly taxed. The horse with the straight pastern and high heel is apt to suffer from the ill-effects of concussion, while the oblique-pasterned horse is more likely to suffer from strain. The ill-consequences of these defects of formation can be neutralized in a measure by regulating the length of hoof according to circumstances. For instance, the disadvantage of long and oblique pasterns can be overcome in a measure by keeping the hoof shortened up as much as possible, thereby reducing the tension on the supporting tissues of the fetlock. In the same way the elasticity of tread can be promoted in a straight-pasterned horse by reasonable length of toe.

Nature in some instances supplies compensations for defects of formation. In the fore extremity, the oblique shoulder, long arm and forearm and smooth flexion of the joints may in a measure counteract the injurious consequences of calf-knees and unduly short and straight pasterns. Added to this there may be that lightness of step, with which some horses are endowed, that has its determining cause in the nervous system, and which so much aids the wearing ability of the legs and feet.

Fleming, who is a justly recognized authority on horseshoeing, gives as a guide to determine the amount a horse’s hoof should be reduced at the time of shoeing, that the hoof should be shortened by the rasp until it is flush with what is called the “white line.” The “white line” is that portion of the hoof that forms the connecting medium between the outer margin of the sole and the inner and lower margin of the wall. Its outline is very clearly defined in a freshly rasped hoof. Fleming, doubtless, assumes that the sole and white line have not been reduced with the knife, but have been allowed to remain, as nature intended them, of their normal thickness.

Just here it may be remarked that the practice of paring away the sole of the foot, or in other words, thinning it, is a pernicious one.

The shoer appears to like to do this, as it cuts very easily and gives, as he thinks, a “neat” appearance to the hoof. The owner appears to endorse this, as he is very careful to have his groom stop the feet, forgetting that he has permitted the shoer to remove a much more efficient stopping than any artificial one in the outer surface of the sole. This is very easy of explanation and illustration if one takes an unmutilated hoof. First of all it must be noted that the outer hard and tough crust, called the wall, grows out indefinitely, unless it is worn or broken off by contact with the ground or reduced by the instruments of the former. This is not the case with the sole, for it is so constituted that after it attains a certain thickness, by a process of nature it exfoliates of its own accord, thus maintaining its normal thickness. These outer scales that keep coming off are nature’s stopping. Why? Because by protecting the inner and deeper layer from the drying effects of the air, they maintain moisture that is necessary in the sole. If, by paring, you cut through and examine a normal sole, you will find that the part next to the quick (the part freshly secreted by the quick) is moist, and as you proceed to the surface of the sole it gradually gets dryer, the outer part being almost entirely free from moisture and admirably adapted to protect the inner and moister part until it is gradually forced outward by fresh growth from within and becomes in its turn a “stopping” for the inner and freshly formed layer of sole. What happens if the knife is used instead of nature being allowed to go on with its own process of desquamation? Why, the deeper parts of the sole become exposed to the action of the air before they are prepared for it by a gradual process of drying, and abruptly dry and contract. This is what causes the sole to become increasedly cupped, and the hoof to become contracted in a great measure. The stopping of horses’ hoofs is not always necessary if the sole is left, as it should be, in an unmutilated condition, unless horses are made to stand a great deal upon dry floors. Much of the fuss and waste of time and material involved in the stopping of horses’ hoofs are based on error. All that is necessary to remove the sole in a normal foot is accomplished when the rasp is flatly applied to the lower surface of the wall in reducing it to its proper dimensions. The thicker the sole the better, provided it does not project below the wall, or receive too much pressure from the shoe. One can readily understand how much more efficient a thick sole is as a protection to the underlying quick, especially on rough, frozen and stony roads, than a comparatively thin one.

Now, if the sole is left thick, as it should be, and in which case the white line would necessarily be, it is a good guide for the shoer, in the majority of cases, to rasp down to the white line. Another error frequently made, though not so common as mutilation of the sole, is cutting away the frog. It does not require a deep student of physiology of the foot to see almost at a glance the function of the frog. Take a normal hoof and examine the frog and you will observe that it is placed at the back of the hoof, where the major portion of the pressure comes. You further find that, unlike either the sole or the wall, it is endowed with elasticity equal to india rubber. It is very evident that it is intended not only to come in contact with the ground, but also to act as a buffer in lessening concussion. Now, what happens if you cut it away and leave the heel so high that it does not come in contact with the ground? Why, it shrinks and becomes as hard as wood, entirely unsuited to stand pressure without bruising the underlying quick, and no longer capable of performing its office of breaking concussion. Not only that, but with a thin, dried-up sole, the shrunken hoof draws the quarters with it, and you have contracted feet or at least contracted heels. After this mischief has been done through ignorance, then the horse must have that curer of all ills of the foot (according to some wise ones), spreaders, to overcome the contraction of the hoof.

Although horses are largely kept under artificial conditions, there is no reason why their hoofs should become contracted if rationally treated, unless some disease of the foot develops, such as navicular disease. Under such circumstances, the contraction is the result of disease, not the cause of it.

Another point that should be carefully watched in preparing the hoof for the reception of the shoe is to have it level. If either inside or outside of the hoof is left too long, it changes the direction of the line of weight and subjects some portion or portions of the extremity to undue strain or pressure and consequent liability to injury.

Horses that are turned out into soft fields or put into box stalls or barnyards, where there is not sufficient attrition to wear the hoof to its normal dimensions, should have it rasped down every month to its proper proportions. This particularly applies to young colts, and neglect of it is the initial step in causing hoofs of defective formation.

CORRECT ACTION IN HORSES

While it is the intention of this article to endeavor to picture ideally good action, by which wear and tear and loss of power are reduced to a minimum, it is not intended to decry the possession for certain purposes, by a horse, of what is usually called high action. To render horses attractive for show and for pleasure purposes it is a highly desirable quality and very much increases their market value. The good horseman would much prefer, however, to sit behind a horse with moderate action, that raises his feet, advances them in a straight line with stride enough to insure desirable progress—yet not so much that the feet cannot be put down squarely—every part bearing its proper proportion of weight and striking the ground lightly, than one with excessive but markedly defective action. High action, like other qualities possessed in a high degree, is very apt to be associated with defects that detract from its perfection and lessen a horse’s wearing quality. The ill-consequences of these defects are intensified in direct ratio to the excessiveness of the action. The craze for high action at any cost is not so rampant as it used to be some years ago. Horse-show promoters became wearied of seeing their premiums for action carried off by acrobatic monstrosities, and it caused them to modify the wording of their prize lists and call for all-around goers with twenty-five per cent. for conformation. The horse that winds his legs about, “straddles,” “points,” “rolls,” “spreads behind,” “waddles,” or drags his hind legs, is no longer in favor with the good judge, no matter how excessive his action.

The character of the action is a very important factor in determining the amount of wear and tear a horse will stand. To become a good judge of action is not such an easy matter as might be imagined. There are many who have a good eye for a horse, and, in fact, are, in a measure, good judges, who cannot intelligently criticize a horse’s action from different standpoints. There are many who are taken with flashy action, which, as a rule, enhances the market value of a horse possessing it, but is very apt to be associated with greater defects from a utilitarian standpoint than that which is less attractive. In estimating the quality of action correctly in different individuals one has to have an ideal. How seldom in sitting behind a horse and closely observing his way of going at the trot and walk, do we find action that comes up to our ideal! Perfect action, as far as usefulness is concerned, is frictionless and light, and the foot is placed on the ground squarely. There is no loss of time or power in progression, or, in other words, the frictionless mover does not labor, neither does the light-stepper experience the ill-effects of concussion, which is the result of bringing the foot to the ground in a pounding manner. What a saving of wear and tear and power the smooth-mover and light-stepper experiences! One is amazed in instances to observe how much work a weak-footed, poor-legged horse will stand and still remain in workable condition. It can be accounted for in many cases by the defects mentioned being compensated for by light action.

It is interesting and instructive to study the numerous and varying conditions that conduce to defective action. Lightness of step appears to be a quality not always dependent upon the conformation of the individual. For instance, length and obliquity of the pasterns are usually said to cause lightness and elasticity of the tread, but do not always do so, for we find many heavy-going horses of this formation. Mechanically, this should conduce to light-stepping, and does in a measure, but the fact that horses with oblique pasterns sometimes pound, leads us to look for another explanation. The statement may be advanced, in explanation, that the elasticity resulting from oblique pasterns may be neutralized by a straight shoulder; but this theory will not hold, as one not infrequently finds straight-shouldered, short-pasterned horses which step lightly. Another explanation must be found. We have to seek elsewhere in the animal economy than in the peculiar arrangement of the bones, muscles, tendons and ligaments of the limbs to account for the light step of some horses.

The endowment with this desirable quality is undoubtedly referable to the nervous system, just as speed is. We cannot determine the degree of a horse’s speed by studying his external form. We have to subject him to a test, and so we have in forming a conclusion as to the degree of lightness or heaviness of his step.

With regard to labored progression, the tendency to it is usually determinable by an inspection of a horse’s conformation. All deviations from the steadily carried top in the trot, in which there is no rolling, jerking or waddling, and from the straight flexion and extension of the forelegs, in which there is no straddling, dishing or winding-in, and from the equally straight and easy flexion of the hock, can, as a rule, be determined by an examination of an individual’s conformation. The horse with thick or loaded shoulders and wide chest is apt to roll; the one that stands with his forefeet placed wide apart, straddles; the knock-kneed one, as well as the one that toes-in, generally dishes, while the horse that toes-out, winds in. The horse with his hocks wide apart and feet close together, “screws” his hocks outwards and usually “plaits.” When the hocks are placed behind instead of under the quarters there is likely to be a dragging movement of the hind legs. It is therefore true that faulty progression is usually determinable by conformation. Defective conformation of the legs shows itself with almost unvarying regularity in its effect upon the action. In order to have straight, undeviating action a horse must flex and extend his legs during progression in a line parallel to the long axis of the body. The knock-kneed, bow-legged, or even calf-kneed horse cannot do this, and consequently experiences the ill-results of loss of time and power in progression.

Apart altogether from the question of the degree of the lightness or heaviness of the step, the manner in which the feet are placed on the ground has a great influence in determining wear and tear, and is consequently an important point to study. The horse that toes-in usually has the inside quarter of his forefeet defectively developed, which becomes more marked if he is not rationally shod. This defect of formation of the inner quarter consists in a slanting off of it from before backwards and outwards and from above downward and toward the centre of the foot, causing this quarter to assume a wedge-like form and literally to act as a wedge between the shoe and the sensitive part of the inner quarter, thus predisposing it to bruising. In addition to this, the horse that “dishes” usually brings his foot down with force on the inner quarter. This manner of planting the foot not only subjects the ligaments to undue tension, but is a fruitful source of troublesome corns.

On the other hand, a horse that toes-out is apt to come down with most force on the outside of his foot. This is a much more defective formation than the former, for it not only causes winding-in and great liability to interfere, but the planting of the foot is usually accomplished in a manner that results in the production of considerable concussion, and also subjects the ligaments to great tension, so that the legs soon begin to show the effects of wear and tear. Some horses come down with most force on their toes, causing them to stub their toes, as it is called. Such a manner of planting the foot is apt to cause stumbling and increases concussion to a marked extent. Short-pasterned, straight-shouldered, and short-gaited horses often show this defect.

Just the opposite manner of planting the foot or coming down with the heel first is not at all uncommon. This defect of action is not only likely to cause bruising of the heels, but subjects the tendons and ligaments at the lower and back portion of the forelegs to excessive strain. Ordinarily this imperfection is only observed in long-gaited horses, but some that plant their feet in a favorable manner when going at a slow pace, when forced to a faster one lengthen their stride, and show this defect, often called “pointing,” to a pronounced degree. Deep and oblique-shouldered horses with little knee action, like thoroughbreds, often go in this way, but its ill-effects are not so great as in those with a considerable amount of knee action.

“Threading” or “plaiting” are terms used to designate the swinging of the elevated foot around the one that is placed on the ground in progression. This ungraceful manner of going, which occasions a loss of power, is most clearly shown in the walk or slow trot.

FORGING, OVER-REACHING AND CLICKING

This Paper Won the Prize Given by The American Veterinary Review for the Best Essay on This Subject

That very disagreeable and annoying fault of striking the forefeet with the hind ones during progression, variously referred to as “clicking,” “over-reaching” and “forging,” is one to which some horses are predisposed; but it is excited by a number of conditions which can, as a rule, be remedied by rational treatment, even in some instances where there is a predisposition. Forging is the result of any cause that prevents a horse from getting his forefeet out of the way of his hind ones, in progression.

Undue shortness of body is a frequent predisposing cause, but one must not fall into the error frequently made of assuming that a short-backed horse is necessarily a short-bodied one. A horse may have a short back but long quarters, causing him to stand over a lot of ground or be what is called “long underneath,” and be anything but short-bodied, and in fact possessing the ideal formation, as far as this point is concerned, and be anything but inclined to forge. Horses with the fore pasterns disproportionately long, when compared to the hind ones, especially if the forefeet are also inclined to unusual length, experience retardation in the flexion and extension of the forelegs, to a degree that renders interference from the hind ones liable.

An important factor in good action is the straight advancing of the forelegs in progression. Any deviation from this, as in wind-out or winding-in, or a combination of these two defects, sometimes called “wiggling,” retards sufficiently prompt action of the forelegs to enable the feet to make way for the hind ones. These defects of action are the result of the fact that the bones that make up the foundation of the legs are defectively related to one another in forming the joints. There are very palpable illustrations of these defects of formation in horses with “knock-knees,” calf-knees, turned-in or turned-out pasterns. We notice in individuals a lack of harmony in formation between the fore and hind extremities. For instance, some horses have the pasterns of the hind extremities of a length disproportionate to those of the fore, and vice-versa. So with action: some have quick and extensive flexion of the hock, out of proportion to the degree of promptness of flexion and extension of the forelegs. Such horses are liable to forge. Those that stand lower at the withers than they do at the highest point of the croup are also liable to this fault, as are also low-headed horses, particularly if they are of a sluggish temperament, as they not only lack “snap” in their action, but the lowness forward interferes with the freedom of the forward action.

In addition to the predisposing causes of forging there are a number of exciting ones, and horses that cannot be said to be predisposed may be found to forge under certain circumstances. Perhaps the exciting cause most frequently in operation is the lack of strength or condition. Many young horses forge for a time, or until they have been fed and worked sufficiently to establish nervous force and proper muscular development, so that they have perfect control of their legs.

Horses that are not in good condition may go a mile or two without “clicking,” but as soon as they become fatigued or winded, begin to forge. They are particularly apt to do this if driven or ridden fast at first, and the more so if the weight they are drawing or carrying is excessive for the pace at which they are traveling.

Horses that are called upon to carry a rider—not being used to it—may temporarily show this fault, particularly if the footing is soft or going heavy.

Those used to the hard footing and light draft of the pavement in cities may never be heard to forge until driven on a country road where the draft is greater and the going heavier.

The mouth, too, is not without an exciting influence. The horse that has a hard, unyielding, unresponsive mouth is much more liable to forge than one that, at a touch of the whip or spur, will raise his head, get his nose in, and respond to the pressure of the bit, so as to go in a balanced manner.

Indifferent riders and drivers that have bad hands, and do not know how to keep their horses collected, will allow many to over-reach.

One need never be discouraged about a young well proportioned horse, but should wait until the mouth is made, the animal got into good condition by steady judicious work, good feeding and grooming.

In horses inclined to “click,” the forefeet should be kept as short as possible, and the shoes for them should be as light as can be used in order to conserve their normal condition. Very frequently horse owners use an increased weight of shoe on forefeet as a remedy for this fault, which is a palpable error, as undue weight is one of the exciting causes. Rounding off the toes of the front shoes has a tendency to enable a horse to raise his feet from the ground more quickly, and is an aid. It is well, however, not to resort to artificial measures more than necessary. It is best, in fact, to keep the feet in as natural a condition as the circumstances of the case will permit. But in order to overcome forging in some horses, either as a temporary or permanent expedient, the principle to pursue is to encourage slow or dwelling movement of the hind feet, in order to allow the fore ones to get out of their way.

The most effectual way of doing this is to raise the toes of the hind feet and lower the heels. The toes can be raised either by thickening the shoe at the toe or putting on a toe piece. Allowing the toes of the hind hoofs to grow long is an aid, and gives opportunity for setting the shoes back, so as to do away with or lessen the noise of “clicking.”

“Forging” is not an unsoundness, but it is a defect or fault, as bad action is.

INTERFERING, STRIKING, CUTTING OR BRUSHING IN HORSES

Of the many faults, accidents or habits to which horseflesh is heir, “interfering” is one of the most troublesome. Fortunately, however, it is one that admits of a large measure of prevention, and the ill-effects of it can, to a very considerable extent, be overcome. In the consideration of this subject, one of the most important points to thoroughly study is the causes. Of the somewhat numerous influences which contribute to this fault, defective conformation is a very important one in predisposing to it. It is important from the fact that cases that are largely the result of defective formation are the most difficult to successfully cope with. A horse of perfect formation of limbs should raise, advance and put down his feet approximately in a straight line in the walk or trot. Any deviation inwards from the straight line renders him liable to strike if any exciting cause is brought into operation.

Narrow horses, particularly if they are leggy, are apt to go close both behind and in front, and consequently to “brush.” Those that “toe-out” either in the hind or fore extremities, usually wind inwards in progression, and are consequently apt to interfere. In fact, there is no formation of limb that so strongly predisposes to this fault, in its most aggravated form, as the defect just mentioned. Horses as a rule that “toe-in” in the fore limbs, wind outwards, and consequently show no disposition to “brush.” In such cases the “turning-in” of the toes is due to the position in which the leg is fixed on to the body. It is due to the back part of the leg showing a tendency to turn outwards from the body. This can be most clearly observed at the elbow, where the point inclines outwards. “Toeing-in,” however, is not always the result of a malposition of the limb throughout, for sometimes the deformity is confined to that portion of it from the fetlock down, constituting what might be called a “club-foot.” This formation often predisposes to “striking” to a marked degree, as in progression the foot comes very close to the opposite limb. In spite of the predisposition many horses show to interfering, from defective formation, such horses may be seen working month after month without inflicting any injury to themselves.

Horses that are in good condition, well balanced in going, and that have complete power of co-ordinating the movements of their limbs, are the ones that are likely to escape the not infrequent consequences of defective formation of limb. The exciting causes of interfering are numerous, but the one most frequently heard spoken of is defective shoeing, and it is no doubt sometimes a cause, but not nearly so frequently as is sometimes supposed. The unfortunate shoer is frequently maligned for what is no fault of his. It does not matter how some horses are shod, or whether they are shod or not, they will interfere under some circumstances.

The best that we can do in the way of shoeing is to use a good, rational shoe, properly applied on a suitably prepared foot. Too heavy a shoe will sometimes act as a cause from the excessive weight taxing the muscular control of the limb unduly, so that during quick movements and sharp turns, “striking” is particularly apt to occur. Leaving the hoofs too large is sometimes a cause, from the simple consequence of its bringing the hoof closer to the opposite leg. Not only that, but the increased length of toe resulting from too large a hoof intensifies the tendency to winding either in or out in progression, and consequently increases the tendency to “cut.”

The first step, then, in the attempt to prevent striking, is to reduce the wall to reasonable dimensions with the rasp. Defects of the form and direction of hoof may sometimes be remedied in a measure; as, for instance, in a horse that “toes-out,” shorten the outer part of the toe to a greater extent than the inner. The tendency of this is not only to correct the unsightliness of the deformity, but also to remedy its ill-consequence in progression. The same may be done, but just in the opposite way, in horses which “toe-in.” In the hind legs it is generally the inner part of the toe of the hoof that inflicts the injury. This can be rasped so as to reduce its convex form to an approach to a straight line with the rasp, which lessens somewhat the danger. The shoe should be of reasonable weight, strong enough to keep it from breaking, and set in as much as possible on the inside without running too much risk of bruising the sole. Have the inside branch of the shoe narrow and rounded, so that there will be as little danger of inflicting injury as possible. The nails may also be withheld from the inside of the toe, so that no injury may be done from the clinches. It is a good plan to also shorten the inside of the hoof more than the outside and compensate for this by deepening the inside branch of the shoe, so as to keep the foot level and have even bearing. The inside branch of the shoe may be made almost straight from the toe back, and the hoof made to correspond pretty much in form. The following out of this plan of shoeing will minimize the likelihood of injury being done by striking.

The weighting of the shoe on the outside is often recommended by having the outer branch considerably heavier than the inner one, with the idea that the weight on the outside makes a horse go wider. This would, no doubt, be the tendency, and provided it does not increase the weight of the shoe too much, there is no objection to it.

Another plan sometimes followed is to raise the inside of the foot higher than the outside, with the idea that the fetlock of the leg on the ground will be thrown outwards, and thus be more likely to escape injury from the opposite foot. This plan is irrational, from the fact that it causes a horse to tread unevenly, and thus tends to result in injury to some other part of the leg, disturbing the relations of the various parts that make up the weight-bearing column.

In the front legs a three-quarter shoe is sometimes used, the shoe only coming half way round on the inside, and not covering the ground surface of the inner quarter. The difficulty about this plan is getting the shoe so applied that all the wall will bear its normal amount of weight. It doesn’t do to leave the inner quarter unsupported, for in that case there will be tilting of the leg inwards when the foot is put on the ground, or, in other words, uneven treading, with the ill-consequences already explained.

Charlier shoes sometimes do very well and are much safer than a three-quarter shoe. This is a light, narrow-webbed shoe, that only comes half way round on either side of the hoof and is sunken into a groove cut out of the plantar surface of the wall, so that the lower surface of it is just flush with the quarters that are not grooved out. By this plan there is an even bearing all round the hoof, a light shoe, and one no more likely to cause injury to the opposite leg than the natural unshod hoof. The drawback about this shoe for general use on hard roads is that it has not strength enough to form a substantial stay to the hoof. It also lessens the action, and horses are apt to go sore with them on very hard roads.

It is questionable if we have a much better device for shoeing interfering horses than the rubber pads now so generally in use in cities. Their use has a tendency to prevent interfering by virtue of their effect in preventing slipping, which is one of the exciting causes of this trouble. In the hind legs, where “cutting” is most usual, the inner and back part of the fetlock is the common seat of injury. Occasionally in horses with a good deal of hock action, they will strike the leg higher up, and in very low, close-going horses the inside of the coronet is scraped.

In the front legs the injury may be anywhere from the fetlock to the knee. When it is high up it generally gets the designation of speedy-cut. Another cause of “striking” is fatigue. It has already been pointed out that when a horse has not perfect control of his legs he is apt to “brush,” so that horses that have not had regular work and good feed for a length of time, or, in other words, are not in good condition, are easily fatigued and consequently liable to interfere.

The uneven footing of rough roads, slippery roads or pavements, the swaying of a two-wheeler, are all circumstances likely to interfere with a horse’s equilibrium, and consequently are not infrequently exciting causes of “striking.”

Another very fertile exciting cause, particularly in cities, and one which, strange to say, is never referred to in print, is the influence of discomfort in connection with the mouth in causing “interfering.” There is nothing that puts a horse out of balance more completely than anything wrong with his mouth. Horses that cross their jaws, open their mouths, put their tongues out or over their bits, carry their heads sideways, fuss with their bits, slobber, pull, etc., or “pull out” or “crowd” in double harness, generally have some soreness of the mouth caused by their bits, and, if they are at all predisposed, are very apt to “cut.” We see examples of this every day in cities where dealers get horses from the country that have been chiefly used to snaffle bits. They at once begin to drive them with curb bits, and they nearly all show some discomfort at the change in the various ways already mentioned. It is very common to see a horse cut his legs badly, under such circumstances, that showed no evidence of ever having struck before. The treatment of “interfering” resolves itself largely into methods of prevention. The most important point is to remove the cause, where practicable, and if not, to endeavor to neutralize its operation as much as possible.

If a horse is in danger of “striking” himself on account of the mouth not being in proper order, or from any other exciting cause remaining in operation, protect the part or parts that are likely to be injured, with a boot. If any part is injured from “cutting,” keep that part protected until it has entirely recovered from the effects of the injury.

In a large majority of cases after a horse is in good condition, his mouth well made, and he is properly shod, there will be no need for boots, unless he is subjected to some exciting cause, or unless he is markedly predisposed from defective formation.

THE HORSE’S MOUTH

The discussion of the subject of the horse’s mouth has been prompted by observing the thoughtlessness and carelessness of otherwise good horsemen and lovers of horseflesh with regard to the horse’s mouth. If a horse has a sore mouth he manifests it in some way unpleasant to his driver or rider, but it is rarely that an examination of that organ is made in order to determine the nature and extent of the trouble. Such an examination is not difficult to make by one at all accustomed to the handling of horses, and can be made as follows: Take the horse into a place in which the light is good. To examine the near side of the mouth, pass the left hand into the off side of it, grasp the tongue gently, and pull it a little to one side—it is not necessary to pull it out of the mouth—in order to expose the branch of the lower jaw, or bar, as it is sometimes called. The thumb of the right hand should be placed in the roof of the mouth so as to separate the jaws, when the part that the mouthpiece of the bit presses on can be easily scrutinized. The other side can be examined in the same manner by using the hands in the opposite way.

The soreness, however, is not always confined to the bars of the lower jaw, the result of the pressure of the bit, for it is not infrequently found that the lining membrane of the cheeks is excoriated by the bit forcibly pressing the cheeks against the anterior grinders. This form of injury is seldom found in a horse that readily bends his head upon his neck or “gets his nose in,” as it is often expressed, unless it is from the use of tight pulley-bridoon bearing reins, which is almost certain to cause it, particularly if a horse bores on it. In the majority of instances it is where a jointed or snaffle bit is used, when a horse “takes hold,” and in the case of one not inclined to “bend,” that the lining of the cheeks is injured. It can be readily understood, where a jointed bit is used on a horse that does not get his nose in, that when force is exerted upon the reins, it presses the cheeks directly against the teeth, and we can at once realize the great liability to injury of the soft and sensitive cheeks when pressed between two hard bodies, such as an iron bit and unyielding teeth, which frequently have sharp projecting hooks and angles at the very point at which pressure is brought to bear. Horses driven with tight over-checks are particularly subject to this form of injury to the mouth, as can be understood from the explanation already given. In horses that cannot be made to get their noses in, in riding or driving, and which show evidence of soreness of the mouth in the lining of the cheeks, the front grinders should be kept as smooth as possible. It is impossible for a horse to have a pleasant responsive mouth when the pressure comes upon the cheeks. Nature evidently intended the yielding lower jaw to bear the pressure of the bit, with the soft and elastic tongue to aid in avoiding injury to the sensitive structure which covers the branches of that jaw. Many horses which do not bend their heads upon their necks, when used with a snaffle bit can be made to get their noses in with a curb, which is consequently, when rationally used, the more humane and also the much more effectual in promoting style and action. Occasionally, however, one finds that a horse goes better in a snaffle than in any other kind of bit unless it is one with a smooth and slightly curved, unjointed mouthpiece.

In addition to those already referred to there are many other ill-results from sore mouths, and among the more serious of these are the restless and irritable habits horses develop when being ridden or driven out of the stable, such as going off with a rush, rearing, plunging and balking. A great deal depends upon the sensitiveness of the individual as to the manner in which he shows his restiveness and irritability when with a sore mouth again facing the bit. A horse of a good, mild temperament may do nothing but show a hesitation in going into the bit and if in double harness hang back for a time, or he will not go up with his mate. Others will go sideways, cross their jaws, press on one side of the bit, or toss their heads in an irritable manner that makes it almost impossible to guide them. High-strung, nervous, determined horses may show their irritability in the more dangerous manner of rushing, plunging or rearing. Drivers of horses are sometimes very much astonished to find a previously well-mannered horse go off with a rush, rear or plunge, but it is remarkable how seldom they think of looking to the mouth to find out the cause for the unexpected display of ill-manners, when in the majority of instances it is to be found there. Even when the lips are tinged with blood from the injured lining membrane it is seldom that an examination is made to determine the extent of the injury. Frequently when an injury to the mouth is pointed out to an owner it is thought lightly of, the extreme sensitiveness of that organ not being realized.

Pinches, abrasions and cracks about the commissures of the lips usually attract attention because they are easily observed, but they really, as a rule, do not cause nearly the amount of irritation and pain that an internal injury to the mouth does, and they are easily prevented by the use of a circular leather cheek piece on the bit. Some horses that show a disinclination to go into the bit for the first mile or two, after a time begin to pull, and the farther they are driven the more they pull. This is usually the result of a sore mouth, and veterinarians frequently have to remove small portions of bone which have been detached from the jaw by the extreme pressure of the bit. Bad “side-liners” are caused by a chipped jaw or else an extensive excoriation of the soft tissues on one side of the mouth where the bit exerts its pressure. In the healing up of such injuries the tissue with which nature repairs the breach seldom seems to attain the ability to stand the pressure of the bit to the same extent that one not so severely injured does. The fact that such permanent ill-effects are apt to follow injuries to the mouth from the bit should cause the exercise of due care when there is any evidence of soreness. Certainly high-couraged, ambitious horses are predisposed to injuries of the mouth, but they can be largely guarded against by the exercise of care, and it is very important never to disregard “soreness,” however slight.

There is probably no animal in which a bad habit is more apt to become confirmed than the horse, and the restless, irritable habits he is liable to develop on leaving the stable are among the most disagreeable. Some horses do not what is called “settle down” when first driven out, but either prance, hop or canter for a varying distance. This is generally accounted for by the owner as being evidence that the animal in question is “feeling too well,” or, in other words, is suffering from an exuberance of spirits. This may be the cause, but in the large majority of cases it is attributable to uneasiness in connection with the mouth. Sometimes this discomfort may not be the result of absolute soreness, as a change of bit may cause it. It may be noticed in an otherwise well broken horse where a curb bit is first substituted for a snaffle, particularly if it is placed too low in the mouth and if, as very often happens, the tongue is put over it, in which case a horse is very unlikely to go steadily, and his mouth is almost sure to get sore in a very short time.

The placing of the bit in a horse’s mouth is a very important matter in influencing his manner of going. Some horsemen say there is one proper position for a bit in a horse’s mouth and that it should always be placed in that position. My experience is that this is best determined by experiment with each individual, and one can tell, by driving or riding a horse a few minutes, as to where the bit should be placed in his mouth. It is usually best to place it rather high at first, particularly when changing to a curb bit, but if he keeps his tongue under it and does not respond readily to pressure, lower it as much as he will stand without showing restlessness. The lower the bit in the mouth, within certain limits, the better, provided the horse will keep his tongue under it and not fuss with it, and face it with a reasonable degree of firmness.

How frequently we see horses go off their feet when going well within their speed at the trot. Sometimes this is the result of excitability, but in nine cases out of ten it is due to a feeling of discomfort or want of confidence in connection with the mouth. Very often this is caused by the arrangement of the curb in giving too much leverage, especially if the hands of the driver are not good. Some horses that go unsteadily with the reins in the bar will go much better in the half-check, or it may be in the plain check, but very often the breaking at the trot is due to an injured mouth. Horse owners sometimes endeavor to overcome this tendency to breaking by giving long drives, and fatigue will temporarily overcome it as a rule, but there are horses that go unsteadily when almost jaded. This tendency can usually be overcome in a moderately worked horse if the bitting is made comfortable for him and the soreness of the mouth relieved.

Soreness of the mouth is by no means an uncommon one among the exciting causes of “interfering” and may frequently be observed even in well broken horses when a change of bit, particularly a change to a severe one, has produced some injury to the mouth. Fatigue, bad shoeing, rough or slippery roads, and the swaying of a heavy two-wheeler are all exciting causes of “striking,” and the awkwardness arising from an imperfectly made (not thoroughly bitted) mouth, with the incidental soreness, is an important factor.

Driving green horses in double harness is a very fertile cause of sore mouths. There are undoubted advantages in handling green horses in double harness, particularly shy, nervous ones, as the break horse inspires confidence in the green one and he is more easily controlled if badly frightened; but one can make more rapid progress in making a mouth in single harness, or in the saddle, than in double harness, for the opportunity of humoring it is better, and there is only one temper to consider. Trainers of green horses usually change the side horses are driven on every day, which is a good plan, as it tends to make them drive straight; but it is a tacit acknowledgment that there is more or less soreness of the mouth.

If the mouth is bruised or excoriated on the portion of the bars of the lower jaw where the bit presses, keep the bit out of it, if possible, until it heals. This need not prevent the horse being exercised, for if a suitable place is available, he can be lunged a sufficient time daily to keep him in condition and under control. The lunging line can be buckled in the noseband of the halter, and no bit need be used. If a suitable place for lunging is not available and it is necessary to lead the horse alongside of another that is ridden, it can be done without the use of a bit by using a tightly applied standing martingale, made with a headpiece and attached to a girth that is kept in its place by a crupper. The headline should be attached to the noseband of the headstall. In some instances changing to a bit that exerts its pressure so as not to interfere with the sore part will answer, as, for instance, the substitution of a snaffle for a Liverpool; but in most instances it is better to keep the bit out of the mouth altogether until it heals. When the mouth is sufficiently healed to stand the pressure of the bit again it is a very necessary precaution before driving for the first few times to take the sharp edge off the spirit of the horse by lunging him so that the sore part will not be so likely to be reinjured by the animal’s “taking hold.”

It is well to emphasize what has already been stated, that the front grinders should be kept in condition, so that they can inflict no injury to the cheeks, by having them thoroughly beveled or rounded off with the tooth rasp. This does no harm, provided it is done in a rational way, and is frequently of much benefit in preventing injury to the lining of the cheeks.

TURNING HORSES OUT

In the large Eastern cities the practice of horse owners turning all or some of their horses out for a portion of the year is a very common one. Consequently it is an important matter for them to study this question from every standpoint. For instance, is it wise to turn a horse out if he is going sound, and is in good working condition? Many owners express themselves and act as if it were a benefit to a horse to be thrown into complete idleness at intervals for a time. Others do it with the object of saving expense. Mr. C. J. Hamlin, of Buffalo, whom everybody knows as a gentleman of long experience and also as one of good judgment in horse matters, is said to have given expression to the following aphorism, viz., that “two let-ups are as bad as a break-down.” This statement may be considered rather an exaggeration by some, but those who have had an opportunity for fully observing the effects of “turning out” on horseflesh will agree that there is a large measure of truth in it. If you throw a horse into complete or comparative idleness for any length of time, every active tissue of the body becomes relaxed and incapable of standing anything like severe work. The tendons and ligaments lose their strength, the muscular fibres their tone, the nervous system its power of supplying energy for any lengthened exertion. The relaxing effect of idleness on muscular fibre is well exemplified in connection with the circulation. Take, for instance, a saddle-horse that has been carrying 200 pounds on his back every day all winter and well into the spring, with impunity. The owner is going abroad for three months and turns his horse out. When he comes back he thinks that his horse has had a long rest, and should therefore carry him particularly well. In a short time, however, the horse begins to show signs of fatigue by dropping his head, going heavy in hand, and very likely by “forging.”

The next morning the owner goes to look at him and finds he backs out stiffly, and is more or less swollen about the fetlocks, and his feet may feel a little warmer than usual. He is suffering from muscular soreness, the tissues about the fetlocks are congested, the coats of the blood-vessels in the extremities have not tone enough to return the blood with proper force to the heart, so there is stagnation of a portion of it in the dependent parts. That delicate and intricate network of blood-vessels in the feet, from long and comparative inactivity, cannot carry on their function with integrity, so we get congestion and consequent stiffness and shortening of the gait.

“Ah, but,” someone explains, “this is only temporary. If you bandage his legs, give him laxative food and light walking exercise for a few days he will be all right again.” The chances are he will, but two or three days’ work have been lost, and if you then subject him to the same course you will very likely have a repetition of the condition. Yes, and it will be several weeks and more likely months before he is in as good condition to stand work as he was before he went out. During all these weeks or months that have been spent in reconditioning, the muscles, ligaments and tendons are more or less soft and consequently susceptible to strains of varying intensity which may necessitate lying up for treatment. It is not only strains we have to fear, but the comparative inactivity of the circulation during rest renders the legs and feet subject to congestion and inflammation at various susceptible points when abruptly called into activity in doing hard work.

No doubt, by taking time and bringing a horse gradually into work he can be restored to good condition, but to do this there is required management, some expense and tantalizing delay.

When owners are not prepared to bring their horses gradually back into condition, they will soon have stale-legged and lame horses. One or two seasons of “turning out” and bringing up and abruptly putting into work will often transform a valuable, sound horse into a “screw.” Although the legs and feet are the parts that suffer most from this treatment, a horse shows it also in his “top,” for it takes a long while to bring back the bloom and finish that go with good condition, after being turned out.

Of course it is a problem for many owners difficult to solve satisfactorily, what to do with their horses when they go away for three months, particularly those horses that are practically sound and in good working condition. It is such an easy solution of the problem to turn them out at some good farm, where they will be sufficiently fed, and kept in safety in a loose box and have a run in a paddock, and only cost fifteen dollars per month apiece. The question is: Wouldn’t it pay better to give thirty dollars and have the horses kept in condition, so that they are ready to work as soon as their owners need them? When we come to consider the danger, loss of time, and wear and tear incidental to reconditioning, we must emphatically answer, yes. In the above remarks we have only considered this question from the standpoint of horses that are practically sound and in good condition, but it is quite another matter when we have to deal with horses that are run down from overwork and other unfavorable conditions, or with pavement-sore and lame horses.

In horses that are run down comparative idleness is almost imperative, and there is nothing much better than a run in a good, shady, well-watered pasture in the early summer, before the flies get too bad. In that way they get the gentle exercise they voluntarily take and get the advantage of the alterative effect that good, fresh grass has upon the system. This, too, is good treatment for slightly pavement-sore horses, particularly if the pasture land is not too dry. Lame horses are, in almost all cases, benefited by rest, and if it is necessary that the rest shall be at all prolonged, the most economical and favorable place to treat them is in a loose box in the country. A horse is bound to get out of condition, anyway, if resting for lameness, and he is usually better in the country, getting lots of pure air and sufficient space for comfort. The beneficial effects of treatment and rest must be followed up by a very gradual process of reconditioning after the lameness has subsided, otherwise the lameness will be apt to recur.

IMPROVING ACTION

BITTING, SHOEING AND CONDITIONING FOR ACTION—I

Horses that have a tendency to show action can undoubtedly have it very much increased by the adoption of a proper system of training, but there are many without this inclination which it is hopeless to develop to a degree that makes it worth while spending time and effort on them. The influence which contributes most to the development of action is bitting. This requires knowledge, time and patience. Some horses’ mouths are much more easily made than others, and there are some it is almost hopeless to try to make anything like perfect. A good mouth is a responsive one. Pressure from both reins should cause the head to bend readily on the neck, while that from either near or off-rein should cause correspondingly prompt flexion. There are some horses that it is almost impossible to bend, owing to the defective anatomical relations of the head and neck, and unless they naturally have a lot of action, they are not likely, even in the best hands, ever to show very much. A horse with his head well put on his neck, that has a responsive mouth and some ambition, will, when urged, get his head up and nose in, and if restrained at the same time by moderate pressure of the bit, will step much higher than if he has a free head when going at the same rate of speed. Some horses, when going fast, show a considerable amount of action, that at a slow pace will exhibit very little. If such horses have their mouths well cultivated, so that when restrained their force will be exerted to step up instead of stepping on, their action, in front at least, will be much increased. If, however, a horse’s mouth is not cultivated to a proper degree of responsiveness, and he is urged into the bit, he will lug or bore and go ahead instead of going up.

To those who are anxious, then, to develop action in their horses, the first step is to endeavor to cultivate a responsive mouth. As has been stated, this requires time and skill. Many horses’ mouths are frequently permanently injured by insufficient time being taken for this process. It is a very similar one to teaching a child to write. The tyro at writing cannot regulate the movements of his hand and arm so as to make smooth and regular lines in an easy, flowing manner. The nerves and muscles of his hand and arm have to be cultivated by degrees to be able to accomplish this. So with the horse’s mouth; the nerves of it have to be educated to make prompt and easy response to pressure, and the muscles, acting under the influence of the nerves, have to be strengthened and developed, so that the head can be bent on the neck and properly carried without discomfort to the individual. The head should not only be bent on the neck to a reasonable degree, but should also be steadily carried.

The first step in the process of making a horse’s mouth is to get him used to the pressure of the bit without showing restlessness. No pressure should be brought to bear upon the tongue by means of the reins until the horse will stand a bit in his mouth without fussing. The bit should be placed sufficiently high in the mouth, so that there is no temptation for the horse to get his tongue over it. The old-fashioned plan of putting a big, thick bit, with keys hanging from it, placed low in the mouth, is entirely erroneous, as it gets the colt into the way of fussing with his tongue all the time, which is a habit to be avoided. In a good mouth, if the horse is comfortable, his tongue lies quietly in the groove formed by the branches of the lower jaw, and acts as a protective cushion in preventing injury to the delicate and sensitive covering of the bars and the bars themselves. If, then, through faulty management, the tongue is not by degrees trained to stand the pressure of the bit, the horse is sure to develop some irritable habit with that organ, such as putting it over the bit, drawing it up in the mouth, or “lolling” it. The result of the two former habits is that the bars of the jaw lose the protection of the tongue and become exposed to the pressure of the bit, which they cannot stand without suffering pain and injury. Consequently the mouth becomes very unsteady, loses its responsiveness, and the horse is put off his balance, so that he is apt to go off his feet, hitch, and go cornerwise instead of straight.

Putting the tongue over the bit and retracting it in the mouth has the further ill-effect of making a horse show irritability in a variety of ways, such as crossing the jaws, carrying the head sideways, throwing the head up, keeping the mouth open, slobbering, frequent movement of the head instead of a steady carriage of it, which is so important in conducing to a responsive mouth. Putting the tongue over the bit soon becomes habitual with some horses, and it is quite a difficult matter to remedy effectually. Spoon bits and all such mechanical contrivances to prevent it are very unsatisfactory, as a horse is never comfortable with them, and never carries a steady head with any of them in his mouth. It can, however, be cured by gradually getting a horse used to the presence and pressure of the bit on his tongue. Putting the tongue over the bit becomes such a confirmed habit that some horses will do it as soon as the bit is put in the mouth and before any pressure whatever is brought to bear on the tongue by the bit. This aggravated form of the habit can be remedied by using an ordinary ring bit with a straight mouthpiece. This should be placed high in the mouth, so that it is impossible to put the tongue over it, and left in all day except when the horse is feeding. In two or three weeks’ time the horse will become accustomed to keeping his tongue in its proper position with respect to the bit and stop trying to get it over.