Introductory material (continued 2)

This, however, is only the first step, and the next and most important one is to get the tongue used to pressure. To accomplish this, attach reins to the bit and buckle them to a roller at the withers. For some time they must be left very loose, so that the bit will exert no pressure unless the horse extends his nose beyond its usual position. In this way he will be brought to experience, by degrees, a little pressure on the tongue. For a time he should be lunged daily with the reins loose, so that he will get used to the presence and occasional pressure of the bit when in motion. Very gradually indeed the reins may be tightened, so that after some weeks the subject may gradually be brought to stand moderate pressure on the tongue, and by still slower degrees may the bit be lowered in the mouth until it reaches the lowest position the individual will stand and still keep his tongue in place and carry his head steadily. Very great vigilance must be exercised to see that the tongue never goes over; if it does so by any chance, immediately raise the bit, and lessen the pressure.

When sufficient progress has been made, as evidenced by the ability of the tongue to stand pressure when the subject is in motion, he may be ridden or driven. A rider with good hands can accomplish much in cultivating the mouth and can humor it so that the horse may gradually be brought to stand pressure. It is better to use the horse in single harness than in double, as his mouth can be better humored where there is only one temper and mouth to consider. The necessity for getting the tongue used to standing the pressure of the bit cannot be too much emphasized, but of course there is a limit to this, and some horses that are lacking in sensitiveness will stand pressure on their tongues until they become black and blue, thoroughly dried up in some cases, projected from the mouth, and the mouth kept more or less open. The most important exciting cause of this fault is placing the bit so high in the mouth that the horse will not bend his head upon his neck in response to the pressure of the bit. All this may be overcome in many instances by lowering the bit an inch or two in the mouth, when pressure of the bit will cause responsive giving of the jaw and thus relieve the tongue of undue pressure.

A horse should never be allowed to go with his mouth open, as it becomes dried, which lessens the sensitiveness and responsiveness of that organ and encourages pulling. If a horse shows a tendency to keep his mouth open, try to determine the cause, as it is sure to be due to some discomfort in connection with the mouth. In addition to removing the cause, any tendency to this fault should be checked by the use of a tight noseband. The mouth must be kept closed, as a horse never goes nicely with it open. Although faulty mouths are usually the result of careless, thoughtless, unskilful management, it must be acknowledged that there is a decided predisposition in some horses to what are called bad mouths. When this tendency does exist, however, it can usually be overcome by rational management and a pleasant, valuable, useful horse kept from becoming an uncomfortable brute, much lessened in value from the possession of a bad mouth.

The horse with a small tongue and narrow, sharp bars, is apt to be very sensitive to pressure and easily made to develop irritability and unsteadiness of the mouth; but if he is taken cautiously and carefully with easy bits, and gradually brought to stand pressure, he is likely to develop a delightfully responsive mouth. Some horses, on the other hand, have thick, leathery tongues, which it is almost impossible to make responsive, owing to their lack of sensitiveness. This inherent lack of sensitiveness of mouth is occasionally associated with a corresponding lack of sensitiveness of the skin, so that the horse does not feel the whip. I have had experience with individuals of that sort that were free-goers and determined pullers, in which there was something evidently lacking in the nerves of sensation. Cases are, of course, exceptional, where there seems to be a general lack of sensation, but it is not so rare to find a leathery mouth.

In addition to the hyper-sensitiveness of the mouth in some horses and the lack of sensitiveness in others, necessitating unusual care in making their mouths, some horses have anatomical defects which preclude the possibility of them ever having anything like perfect mouths. Those with necks below of a length disproportionate to the length of the necks above, particularly if such necks are deep at their points of attachment to the head, it is impossible for the head to be bent upon the neck so that the mouth may be responsive. A horse formed in this way is bound to stick his nose out, and when pressure is brought to bear upon the lower jaw with the bit it slips up in the mouth towards the grinders, and does not exert leverage upon the jaw at a place of vantage or so that the head can be bent upon the neck. As a rule, ewe-necked horses show this inability, but not all, by any means, for some of them are clean-cut in the throttle, and the neck just above the throttle is light, so that it can bend with ease.

In addition to the causes already explained, temperament predisposes to pulling. A free, courageous, determined horse is much more apt to get into the way of pulling than one not over-burdened with energy. Of the exciting causes of pulling, insufficient work and over-feeding are important; but really the most fruitful one is the unskilful and heavy-handed driver. Some drivers will make almost any horse pull. Many have no sympathy with a horse, and if they do observe evidences of discomfort in connection with the mouth, which may be shown in some of the ways already explained, they do not endeavor to remove the cause. It is most important in bitting horses to prevent them from getting into bad habits of any kind. They get into bad habits very quickly, which it may take a long time to eradicate. The most rational principle to proceed on is not to allow them to learn bad habits. Do not place them in a position to learn bad habits.

IMPROVING ACTION

BITTING, SHOEING AND CONDITIONING FOR ACTION—II

In my last article on this subject I drew attention to the fact that bitting, or “making the mouth,” is by far the most important matter to attend to in contributing to action. You must get the head up and the nose in, and cultivate a responsive mouth, so that when a horse is urged and restrained, he will step up instead of stepping on. It was urged that care should be used against getting horses into bad habits in connection with the mouth in the process of bitting, such as getting the tongue over the bit, retracting the tongue, side-lining, going with the mouth open, tossing the head, carrying the head unsteadily, and so forth. If some of these habits are developed, they will tend to neutralize any beneficial efforts that have been made in the cultivation of the mouth.

An easy bit should first be used, such as a straight-barred ringed one or a snaffle, so that the colt will face it firmly and carry a steady head. In the development of speed, it is also imperative to use an easy bit, but for the production of style and action, a curb bit is almost indispensable for the majority of horses. The inexperienced ones are apt to think that a curb bit is an instrument of torture. The ignorant, thoughtless and rough handler of horses can easily make it so, but if it is properly used it is really more humane for use in many mouths, than a less severe one. The curb bit gives very much increased leverage, and will make some horses bend that cannot be made to do so without it. As soon as they bend, it requires very little force to keep their noses in, and very little pressure need be exerted, so that there is no injury nor irritation resulting. In addition to this, the pressure is divided between the interior and exterior of the mouth, the curb chain exerting its share of the pressure just behind the lower lip.

Some free, courageous horses, especially if short of work, will pull to a most uncomfortable extent, both to themselves and their drivers, if driven with a snaffle bit. The same horses, if used with curbs, will go without taking hold, and with the exertion on the part of their drivers of very slight restraining force. The perfect handling of a horse with a curb bit is a very fine art, by which are produced the perfection of carriage and the maximum of style and action. To realize fully what the perfect handling of a curb bit means in promoting style and action, one has only to observe a horse skilfully handled with one, especially if he has a good mouth. The dexterous rider or driver brings out all the responsiveness there is in the horse without causing him to fight, while the unskilful handler allows a horse to carry himself imperfectly and gets him off his balance, thereby lessening his gracefulness, style and action. The change from a snaffle to a curb bit should be made carefully and discreetly, as it takes a horse some time to get used to the change. We have good opportunities in the city of observing the ill-effects of the abrupt change. A dealer gets in from the country a horse that is possibly well broken, but has never had a curb bit in his mouth. He hitches the horse, puts a curb bit in his mouth, and “pulls him together,” as it is expressed; that is, he urges him with the whip and restrains him to get all the style and action he can out of him. He is very much encouraged to see his new purchase make such a good showing. The next day he puts the horse in harness, but finds that he does not go so well, showing irritability in connection with his mouth. The horse may hold his head sideways, open his mouth more or less, put his tongue over the bit, toss his head or carry it unsteadily, pull, hitch, go off his feet, or interfere. He may display any one or a combination of these faults, showing that he is uncomfortable and out of balance.

Why this quick alteration in the manner of going between the first and second hitching? It is simply due to the fact that the delicate tissues of the mouth have become bruised or abraded from the rough handling of a bit with powerful leverage. The horse’s mouth is sore, and he cannot face the bit without showing irritability, which he manifests in the ways described. The curb bit feels different in his mouth, the pressure on the tongue is greater, and if the curb chain is tightened and reins buckled to the bit, so as to give much leverage, many horses will chafe under the newly experienced increased restraint, and will pull, thereby greatly increasing the injury to the mouth. If this is repeated, the mouth is spoiled and bad habits produced.

In getting a horse accustomed to the curb bit, it is a good plan to let him stand with it in his mouth in the stable for a few hours a day. This gets him used to the shape and size of the new bit, after which pressure can by degrees be brought to bear on it. Some trainers are opposed to the use of a dumb jockey. Of course, the mouth cannot be perfected by the use of this device alone, but it is a very useful auxiliary to other measures. The dumb jockey is a rubber contrivance attached to a girth and crupper and with elastic reins to buckle to the bit. The prejudice against it is largely the result of the irrational manner in which it is used. In the majority of instances the reins are buckled too tightly at first, causing too much pressure on the mouth, and forcing the head and neck into an unnaturally constrained position. This, instead of cultivating responsiveness of the mouth, causes irritation of that organ, gets a horse into fussy habits, and makes him lie on the bit, doing more harm than good. One not infrequently sees a horse standing in a stall with a dumb jockey on him, his mouth partly open, his tongue over the bit, and boring down on it, and sweating profusely from the discomfort he is suffering. A dumb jockey used in this way is worse than useless. One of the objects of using a jockey is to get the nose in, and from the manner in which it is used by many it is evident that they seek to accomplish this by sheer mechanical force, forgetting that they are training nerves and muscles to responsiveness, which can only be done by degrees.

As soon as a horse shows evidence of discomfort, loosen the reins and tighten them gradually again. If the subject draws his tongue up in his mouth, or puts it over the bit, raise the bit in his mouth. Some horses get their heads too low with a dumb jockey on. In such it is of much benefit to use a bearing-rein attachment to keep their heads in proper position. The benefit from a dumb jockey used in a stable is enhanced by using it when a horse is in motion. Some horses will bend when standing that will not do so when moving, and so have to be trained to it. Beneficial as a dumb jockey may be, a rider with good hands, that can use his legs on the horse’s sides, urging him by degrees into proper position with hind legs well under him, and head up and nose in, can accomplish more, as he can humor the horse at will. Next to riding, driving in single harness is best, as it is hardly possible to humor a horse’s mouth as well in double as in single harness. The tendency with most trainers is to hurry matters too much. Urging a horse into the bit too soon causes him to fuss with his mouth and is apt to make him fight the bit. The successful trainer needs a lot of patience and perseverance.

If, in the process of bitting, the mouth by accident gets sore, rest it by keeping the bit out of it until it is better. This can be accomplished in the country or in a small town, without keeping a horse altogether out of work, by putting on the cavesson and dumb jockey and having the reins tightly buckled to the cavesson and led alongside of another horse in this way or lunged. It is a bad plan to let a horse that is in the process of bitting or breaking get too fresh, as he is apt to reinjure his mouth when he is put in harness again.

Curb bits for driving are so made that different degrees of leverage can be exerted. It can be laid down as a rule that it is not wise to use anymore leverage than is essential, otherwise the mouth is apt to become sore and carried unsteadily.

There is some diversity of opinion as to the wisdom of using bearing reins. Some people, particularly the inexperienced, are very much opposed to their use. Occasionally one finds a horse—much more rarely a pair—that carries himself so well—head up, nose in and head steady—that a bearing rein is superfluous. The majority of horses, however, carry themselves better, drive more comfortably, and are really more comfortable themselves when driven with bearing reins. They can, of course, be made instruments of torture, if used too tightly buckled up and for too long periods at a time, but most horses will not only carry their heads too low, but bore, pull and “duck” if not “borne up.” The low carriage of the head is not only unsightly in a carriage horse, but causes too much weight to be thrown on the forelegs for their welfare. The French check is very much better than the pulley bridoon. The bearing rein should not be used so tightly that a horse cannot bend his head upon his neck, if he is capable of doing so. The bearing reins should seldom, if ever, be used on the driving bit; if it is at all tight, it pulls the bit too high in the mouth, causing a horse to bore and usually to bruise the bars severely immediately in front of the grinders. A jointed bit should be used in the mouth in addition to the driving bit and the bearing rein buckled to it.

So far we have been referring to bitting only as having a contributing influence in increasing the forward or knee action; but it has also a marked effect in improving the hock action. It is remarkable how much the hock action can be increased by cultivating a responsive mouth, dropping the nose into its proper position, or, in other words, balancing a horse.

Before we leave the subject of the mouth and bitting altogether, we must refer to condition as an important factor in contributing to action. Before a horse can be made to show all the action there is in him, he must be toned up to the highest pitch. He must be full of nervous energy, and his muscles thoroughly developed. He must not only feel like doing it, but must also have the power. It takes time to bring this about. The cultivation of the mouth and the toning up of the system should proceed together, but never let the toning up get ahead of the education of the mouth. It is better not to have a horse feeling too well while you are cultivating his mouth, for, if his spirits are too exuberant, he will not learn so fast, and is apt to fight and increase his chances of developing bad habits. In cases in which action contributes to a horse’s value, he must also look well. Without being too gross, he should be in full flesh; it should be well put on, and there is nothing like a lot of slow work for this. From an hour to two hours’ walking exercise every day will make the flesh look solid and give a finish which a horse merely fattened up without work never shows. Slow work, if a horse gets a sufficiency of good feed and proper grooming, will not prevent the accumulation of flesh as fast work does, and it keeps the manners of the individual good. The development of speed in trotting-bred horses is a slow process with many of them. It takes several years in some individuals to bring it to its zenith. This is in a measure also true of action, if we look to perfecting it. A good deal can be accomplished in a couple of months with some horses, but much more can be attained in two years. We have examples of horses well known in the show rings of this country to-day that have gone on improving in brilliance of style and action for years. Bitting and conditioning are the chief contributing factors.

The practical man who is conditioning and developing horses’ action, for sale, is limited as to time. He cannot afford to spend it and he has to be guided too much by circumstances, but the principle of development is the same, whether for the market or show ring. A great deal is said about shoeing in contributing to action, and it is a point that should be studied and carefully attended to, but it is decidedly secondary in importance to either bitting or conditioning. Some years ago a great deal of weight was used in shoeing show and sale horses. You would frequently see a horse weighing from 1,000 to 1,100 pounds carrying on each forefoot from one pound and a half to two pounds weight, and even more. This answers for some purposes and before some judges, but if an owner wishes to sell or show a horse on his merits, it does not do. A lot of weight on a horse’s feet will make him show more action for a short time, particularly if shown in hand and if he is feeling fresh and well. If, however, he is called upon to exert himself for any length of time, especially if the going is heavy, and if he has to draw any weight, he will soon begin to labor, pound the ground, very likely forge, and the character of his action will be destroyed. With a good judge, the character of the action is of more importance than the amount of it, and he would not look a second time at a horse that labors and pounds, no matter how high he goes. One has to be guided by the individual, and the object in view in determining the amount of weight to put in a horse’s shoes, in order to get the best results in the way of action. From 16 to 22 ounces is usually sufficient, but there are horses for which a little less or a little more may be carried with advantage for sale or show purposes.

In addition to carrying a moderate amount of weight, the hoofs should be allowed to grow to a fair length. Length of toe causes a horse to exert increased effort in raising and extending the forelegs; so the tendency is to increase the action. Defects of action can in a measure be corrected by modifying the shoes and form of the hoof. For instance, some horses extend too much and do not fold or bend their knees sufficiently, but what is called “point,” and are apt to go on their heels, or come down heel first, instead of planting the foot squarely, heel and toe at the same time. For this defect, have the toes fairly short, lighten the web of the shoe at the toe, and increase its weight gradually towards the heel. With a horse that folds too much and does not extend sufficiently, put the weight towards the toe and lighten the heel. In a horse that “dishes” or “winds out,” the heavy portion of the web should be in the inside branch; while in a horse that “winds in,” just the opposite should be done.

In carrying out these modifications, they must be done so as not to interfere with the level of the foot. If a horse does not tread level, ill-results, in the shape of lameness or wear and tear of the leg and foot, are likely to follow.

EXERCISE FOR HORSES

Everybody who owns or has to do with horses in any way, recognizes that exercise is necessary for them in some way or other. Judging, however, from the practice pursued by many persons, one cannot but conclude that opinions differ widely as to the amount necessary, the manner in which it should be given, the character of it, and the circumstances which should guide one in prescribing it.

In giving the subject reasonable thought we must first of all recognize the fact that the horse is so constituted that he is naturally an active animal. In fact, activity is his paramount characteristic. If from any cause he is brought to lead the comparatively vegetable existence of the sheep or cow, his powers become more or less impaired, temporarily though it may be.

Recognizing as we must the basic principle of a horse’s inherent activity, we can make deductions as to his reasonable treatment which are borne out by experience. It is not my intention to make theoretical statements in treating of this subject, but to endeavor to give some practical hints that may be of some use in the everyday treatment of horses. It is not convenient to draw a line of demarcation, in the treatment of this subject, between exercise and work, though one might be able to define the difference to suit one’s views.

If one were asked to explain the effects of reasonable work on a horse’s system, one might truthfully state that there is no healthy part of his organism that is not beneficially affected by it. Judicious work stimulates the appetite, promotes digestion, encourages assimilation or the conversion of food into nutritive material. It not only has an important influence on these functions already mentioned, but in a greater degree it aids the various tissues of the animal to take from the blood those elements required to restore the loss which is going on all the time, and also to promote their growth and development. Further than that, it helps the system to get rid of material that it has no further use for, and which, if allowed to remain, will prove prejudicial to it.

The casual observer will almost be able to determine the change which takes place in a horse, when not sufficiently worked, if he will give it a little thought. If he is at all liberally fed, he will not only retain his flesh, but will gain in weight. But what about his muscular tissue? It apparently looks as bulky as ever. So it is and possibly more so, but that it has become impaired in muscular power can easily be demonstrated by an hour’s brisk work in the case of a driving horse. He goes out full of life, and possibly shows to the best advantage for a short time, but soon begins to drop his head, go heavy in hand, in fact to lag, loses his action, and very likely forges. This demonstrates the fact that, no matter how well a horse may seem nourished, he cannot maintain his muscular tone and muscular power without adequate work.

The changes that take place in the muscles of locomotion also take place in the muscular tissue of other parts of the individual. The central organ of the circulation, the heart, is a hollow muscle, and the blood vessels have muscular fibres in their coats. If a horse is insufficiently exercised, the muscular tissue of the heart and blood vessels becomes impaired in power, as that of the muscles of locomotion does. If a horse in such condition is abruptly put to brisk work, the circulation is apt to show weakness, and there is danger of congestive and inflammatory attacks. A horse out of condition and lacking in muscular tone will develop congestion of the lungs, from an amount of exertion that would have no injurious effect upon one in moderately good condition. If the muscular tissue of the heart is weak, that organ lacks the power under severe exertion to force the blood through the lungs, when stagnation and congestion follow.

Horses in the condition just described, if given a long, quick journey on a hard road, are apt to develop founder or inflammation of the quick of the feet in its most intense form. The circulation being weak, the concussion resulting from the pounding on the hard road interferes with it, and congestion and inflammation are apt to result.

The amount and the character of exercise to be given during convalescence is an important point in influencing the hastening of that process, as well as in determining the completeness of the recovery and the prevention of untoward sequels. Even during sickness the restricted and gentle movements possible in a box stall of fair size not only contribute to the patient’s comfort by admitting of freedom and comfortable attitudes, but the slight exercise has a beneficial effect upon the circulation, particularly that of the legs.

After attacks of influenza, strangles, laryngitis or pneumonia, and as soon as the temperature has regained its normal condition, the question of exercise should be considered, and judgment should be used in determining how soon the patient can stand exercise. Sometimes a couple of days after the temperature has become normal and the appetite is regained in a measure, the patient shows strength enough in movement to justify one in concluding that he can stand a short walk. He may be only able to stand a few minutes’ or he may be able to stand ten minutes’ gentle leading, but usually each succeeding day it will be found he can stand a little more. If he can stand ten minutes a day, it is better, if possible, to divide it into two periods of five minutes each. In my opinion this applies to all exercise, whether that given during convalescence or conditioning for market, for the show ring, or for the race track. Exercise rouses the circulation, and in fact all the activities of the organism, with beneficial results.

Much better results can be attained by stimulating the functional activity of all the organs of the body twice in the twenty-four hours, than once. The period of convalescence is very much shortened by pursuing this plan, and the horse can be put to work much sooner, and with less danger of relapse. Those in charge of horses will often keep a convalescent one in a box stall until he gets full of life, then hitch him up. He will be for a few minutes full of vim and go, but will soon begin to sweat from the too violent exertion he gives himself. Violent exertion abruptly given is very apt to be followed by a relapse after the weakening effects of illness and the consequent inactivity.

Plenty of walking exercise during convalescence from affections of the breathing organs is the only course likely to ward off defective wind, which so frequently occurs as a sequel to these affections. One often hears it advised to turn a horse out for a few weeks after attacks such as referred to. This means a run at grass in the summer, and in the winter turning in to a box stall. In either case too much bulky food is apt to be consumed to be favorable to good wind, and systematic exercise is not given. Of the two courses, turning out to grass is the better, as the food is of a laxative character, and the animal takes some exercise. But the best of all is to keep the horse up so that the amount and character of the food can be regulated and a definite amount of exercise given. Walking exercise during convalescence from acute affections of the breathing organs brings these organs gently into play, rouses mildly their functional activity, and is the only safe way to tone them up, and prepare them by degrees for more violent exertion, which they can then perform without showing any unsoundness of wind.

Swelling of the legs occurring from any cause—for instance, as a sequel to pink-eye—can be got rid of much more promptly by judicious exercise than by allowing the horse to stand; and much time can thus be saved. Keeping in a box stall facilitates and hastens the process, but half an hour’s walking exercise should be given twice a day. When the horse is not being walked, his legs should be properly bandaged with cotton batting and in the majority of instances the swelling will be practically gone in a few days.

For sale horses and for show horses, walking exercise is a most important factor in enabling those in charge of them to attain their objects. A sale horse must be fleshy to attract most purchasers. Dealers all over the world recognize this fact, as well as the one that good, fresh-looking legs contribute in a marked degree to a horse’s saleableness.

Walking exercise does not to any appreciable extent take the flesh off a horse, nor does it make the legs stale. Flesh put on under walking exercise is harder and gives a more finished appearance to a horse. This form of exercise also stimulates the circulation of the legs, keeps them clean and renders them hard, so that when a horse so treated is put to more violent work the tissues of the legs can stand it without showing wear and tear.

In the case of show horses, plenty of walking exercise is of even more importance than in sale horses. Show horses must be fit to do themselves and their handlers credit. In many of the rings the going is heavy and horses that are likely to be in the ribbons should be in shape to stand a severe test. If they are not fit when they are called upon to make a final effort, they will not be equal to doing their best. Many a ribbon is lost through a horse becoming fatigued and losing his action and brilliancy in consequence. This is particularly the case in heavy harness horse classes. Walking exercise will do for a good deal more than half of it. After a show horse is well broken, three times a week is plenty to hitch him, and the day he is hitched he should also be walked once, and all other days twice. This plan will get him fit, allow him to keep in flesh, keep his mouth fresh, and his legs from getting stale, all of which are important points to consider in a show horse. Exercise twice a day contributes in a large measure to good manners. This is not an important point in some well broken horses of easy disposition, but in others that are apt to “get above themselves” if not well exercised, it is an important one. Nothing helps to improve a half-broken horse more than to go out twice a day.

THE HORSE’S COAT IN SPRING, SUMMER, AUTUMN AND WINTER

The state of a horse’s coat indicates, in a considerable measure, the general condition of the individual. If the coat gets into bad condition in a horse that is worked, it will soon injuriously affect his general health, which will show itself by loss of flesh, life and vigor. The care of the coat then, outside of the question of appearance, has an important influence in contributing to a horse’s well-being.

If we had summer-like weather all the year round, with its genial warmth to encourage the activity of the skin, we should have very little trouble with the coat, as it would then remain short and sleek, with very little care. With the changes of season, however, and great variations of temperature, we find marked alterations in it. The horse’s skin, and its appendage, the coat, are very sensitive to climatic conditions, and nature makes an effort to change the coat to suit altered states. Nature is very successful in this while a horse is roaming about under natural conditions, and a horse so circumstanced can stand great extremes of temperature without suffering; but as soon as he is put to work and exerted to a sufficient extent to heat him up, he then requires artificial care, in order to maintain good condition.

As has been already stated, the coat is more easily kept in a satisfactory state during the summer than at any other season of the year. The heat of summer encourages sweating, and this is beneficial rather than injurious, within certain limits, so long as the horse “cools out” and dries up in a normal manner. This is more readily accomplished in the summer than at any other time, owing to the shortness of the coat, and the little danger from drafts at this season of the year. Nothing is more injurious to a horse in this connection than allowing his coat to remain wet. At certain times of the year, when it is long, some horses will remain wet for hours after having been exerted, unless they receive great attention. The frequent occurrence of this will soon cause unthriftiness. Standing with a wet coat in this way frequently has a most relaxing effect upon the system, and must be guarded against. In summer time there is very little difficulty about this, but there is one form of treatment very much neglected in hot weather, which is of great benefit if properly applied. The coats of horses that are frequently warmed up in hot weather get sticky, greasy and stained, and it is almost impossible to get them perfectly clean and glossy without giving them a good washing at intervals. Some horsemen are afraid to adopt this treatment, but it is not at all dangerous, and most beneficial if properly carried out. As a rule it is only necessary on very hot days, and if it is done on cool ones, care must be taken to “dry out” carefully to avoid chills. When a horse comes in on a hot day, having sweated more or less profusely, water that has been warmed in the sun should be freely sponged over him. This should then be thoroughly scraped off, and a woolen cooler put over him; then he should be walked for a while, if possible, until he cools out. As soon as the coat is dry, grooming will make him look and feel fresh and well. It is not always necessary to use a cooler in “cooling out” when it is very warm.

The autumn is the most trying time of the year to keep the coat in a satisfactory state, for several reasons. A partial moult takes place at this time, rendering the skin irritable to some extent. Besides, there are the extremes of cool nights and warm days. The cool nights cause the coat to grow and increase the tendency to sweating when the animal is exerted during the heat of the day. From the increased length of coat it becomes much more difficult to dry a horse after work, and he is apt to suffer unless great care is taken to protect him from the ill-consequences of standing with a wet coat. This difficulty becomes so marked in some horses at the end of September and throughout October that those in charge of them begin to discuss the advisability of clipping.

As a general rule, clipping should be deferred as late into the autumn as possible, or until the temperature of the day and night are not so much at variance; then the growth of the coat lessens considerably. A horse clipped on the 10th of November may not require clipping again for two months or more, while one clipped on the 10th of October may need it again in two or three weeks. Horses clipped early in the autumn usually have very dry-looking coats, and it seldom improves their appearance, though it does in a measure relieve them from the ill-results of standing with wet coats, especially if it is repeated several times during that season.

Every reasonable effort should be made to put off clipping until November, and the necessity for it may be avoided in nearly all cases until then. This can be accomplished in most instances by care in proper blanketing. A light sheet may be all that the horse can stand in the day time without sweating, but at night he should be kept fairly warmly blanketed to check the growth of the coat. It is usually necessary to begin this the end of August. Discretion, of course, must be used, so that the covering is not heavy enough to cause sweating. Some horses have naturally fine short coats, and with ordinary care will not need clipping, even in winter, which is so much the better; but the majority of them need it, and are much benefited by it.

Under certain circumstances, as in the case of horses having been turned out and brought up for work, say in April, it will be beneficial to clip them, for otherwise they look badly and will not thrive well on account of sweating too freely when worked.

Clipping at this season of the year retards the shedding of the roots of the coat, and it is better to let it shed naturally in case the conditions are such as will admit of it, without injury to the horse’s condition and working ability.

In a horse that is not too ambitious and has not to be exerted violently, it is better to wait for him to shed naturally, which he will do rapidly at this season of the year if he gets regular work, good grooming and is well fed. Horses that are fed warmed boiled feed for the evening meal will shed much earlier in the season than those kept on dry feed. Some horses, however, will not stand this without becoming too relaxed in the bowels, especially if worked hard more than once or twice a week; others will not stand it at all without scouring. Care in all instances must be exercised not to feed an excessive quantity. In clipping saddle horses the mistake is usually made of including the part covered by the saddle, and a great deal of trouble frequently results in consequence. Newly clipped horses, particularly if they are not thoroughly used to the pressure and friction of the saddle, are very apt to develop an eczematous eruption under it, and even horses regularly used for saddle work are not immune to such injury after clipping.

The layman is apt to assume that an attack of eczema coming on under the conditions described is due to derangement of the blood or the digestive organs. While derangement of the blood or the digestive organs may predispose to an attack of this nature, some local irritation is usually needed to determine its development. It is obvious that a considerable amount of local irritation must result when the skin, divested of its coat, is, for an hour or two daily, subjected to the pressure and rubbing of the saddle. The rubbing action is further intensified by the sweating that almost always takes place under the saddle. Another contributing cause is the rapid drying and cooling of the skin when the saddle is removed from a clipped horse’s back. The rapid drying and cooling is apt to have a deranging effect upon the circulation of the skin at this part, and consequently conduces to inflammation of that covering.

Eczema under the saddle is more apt to occur in cold than in warm weather. More than fifteen per cent. of the saddle horses clipped in midwinter develop this affection under the saddle, while not more than one per cent. with backs unclipped show it.

When harness horses develop it, it is on the parts subjected to most pressure that it first shows itself, as under the collar and back pad. The eruption has a great tendency to spread, and beginning on the skin covered by the saddle, often extends over the whole of the back and side.

Occurring, as it frequently does, with a number of clipped horses in a large stable, it is thought by stablemen and owners to be contagious, but it is not so. It is apparent, then, that clipping the coat under the saddle is a bad practice. Even in cases in which an eruption does not take place, the rubbing is apt to cause temporary baldness and troublesome abrasions, particularly if the skin has not been toughened by long and continual pressure and rubbing of the saddle, the result of steady saddlework.

THE CAUSES OF DIGESTIVE DISORDERS—I

The breeder and horse owner have not the time or opportunity to acquire expert knowledge of the diseases of the horse, but it will well repay them to give a little thought and study to the causes of preventive disorders, particularly to those of the digestive organs. The exercise of a little thought and judgment in the management of a stable of horses will lessen to almost nil the occurrence of digestive ailments among its inmates. There are certain affections to which horseflesh is heir which it is impossible to prevent under some circumstances, but those of the digestive organs can be very largely prevented.

We must study these causes under a number of heads. First of all there is the condition of the individual at time of feeding, the quantity of the food, the character of the food, and the form in which it is given. Under the foregoing heads I have not included the natural predisposition of some animals to digestive troubles, for the inherent tendency to some affections cannot be classed among the preventable causes, but, nevertheless, a little extra care may neutralize the tendency to them. Take, for instance, a horse of a nervous temperament, with a light middle-piece. Such an individual is very liable to scour when first taken out, and in some horses this cannot be prevented; but careful attention in giving non-laxative and easily digestible food in properly regulated quantities, with care about watering and the avoidance of violent and overtaxing work, especially when first taken out, will often control this tendency. If nervous, light-middled horses can once be made fat by proper dieting, and are kept in health by light, slow work, the inclination to scour will be much lessened. The accumulation of fat in the abdomen has a tendency to lessen the violence of the action of the bowels and thus to counteract scouring. Horses of the temperament just referred to are better fed on corn than oats, as corn is more fattening and less stimulating to the nervous system, so that horses fed on it are less inclined to be excitable. Greedy, voracious feeders are predisposed to digestive ailments from their tendency to overtax the digestive organs by the consumption of too large quantities of food too hastily eaten. The means of prevention of such a cause is apparent and easy of application. These are examples of two inherent predisposing causes.

A feed that an animal can take with impunity and possibly with benefit under some circumstances, may prove an exciting cause of that very serious trouble in horses, acute indigestion, under other conditions. Take, for instance, a horse that is to be called on to do an unusually long and hard day’s work. The anxious, over-zealous and well-meaning driver will, in some instances, give an extra-sized morning meal, with the idea of buoying the horse up for the ordeal of the day. As soon as the horse has had time to consume it, he starts on his journey; it may be to pull a heavy load, or for faster work. The more violent the work, the more will the digestive process be interfered with. As soon as the course of digestion is arrested, fermentation begins and it may go on to such a degree that the horse soon begins to show signs of something being amiss. He most likely came out of the stable showing life and energy, and went at his work with spirit, but after going a few miles, however, he begins to sweat more than he should, to lag, to drop his head and to bloat. As soon as he is allowed to stand he shows restlessness and becomes demonstrative in his exhibition of pain. He has acute indigestion, due to mistaken kindness on the part of his attendant. Instead of having been given a full feed or rather more than usual, he should have had less, and the first opportunity taken of giving him another small feed.

We have the same thing occurring under different conditions, as, for example, when a horse has had an unusually hard day’s work and is very tired. He is put in the stable and given his usual meal, which he eats. After an hour or so he begins to show signs of abdominal pain. His attendant cannot understand the reason for this, as the horse has only had his usual feed. He does not realize that the horse’s vital powers have become very much lowered, the result of unusual fatigue, and that the stomach participates in this temporary inability and becomes, for a time, unequal to exerting its full digestive powers, and that indigestion has resulted in consequence. Had the horse been allowed to rest for a time, given a little water and allowed to nibble hay, he might have been fed with impunity, although it is usually a wise plan to lessen the feed if a horse is unusually fatigued. The condition, then, of the individual has to be considered in determining the amount of food he should get. Horses that are in good condition, having regular hard work and full feed, are much less liable to be affected by unusual fatigue and full feed than those that are irregularly worked.

In addition to the necessity for caution in feeding when a horse is fatigued from hard work, long abstinence also necessitates care. A horse that has had his stomach empty for a long time, whether fatigued or not, is usually ravenous for his food, and is apt to consume a full allowance of concentrated food too hurriedly to permit digestion to go on satisfactorily. The old plan of giving a little thin warm gruel to a fatigued fasting horse is a good one, in order to prepare him for his full meal later on. It is not always convenient to furnish this, however, and the next best plan is to give a couple of quarts of water and a little hay, to get the stomach into working order before the full meal of concentrated food is given, preceded by more water.

The quantity of food to be allowed a horse is not only an important matter of study from the standpoint of economy, but is a very material one to consider in connection with the question of preventing digestive disorders. The statement can hardly be gainsaid that decidedly the most prolific source of ailments of the digestive tract is overfeeding. Farmers who raise their own feed are possibly the worst offenders in this respect, and particularly in the overfeeding of bulky food, or what is called by some roughage. An enormous amount of hay is thus wasted throughout the country, and injury done to many horses. It is really not an exaggeration to state that fully half the amount of hay fed to horses in the rural districts of this country is wasted. Not only is this so, but a positive injury is inflicted on the horses that consume it. It is, of course, true that horses, for the purposes of perfect digestion, require a certain amount of bulky food. Sufficient nutritious matter can be supplied in concentrated form, but digestion would not go on properly without a certain amount of bulk. Volume of feed is essential to insure the proper activity of the digestive tract.

There is a limit, however, to the bulk required, and if this limit is much exceeded, there is not only a waste of food, but injury is done. If a horse is constantly being fed too large a volume of feed, it overworks and overtaxes the digestive organs, soon weakening these organs and consequently rendering them more liable to indigestion, colic, stoppage and diarrhœa. Even if no such evidence of acute disorder shows itself, as the affections named, the unnecessarily distended bowels encroach upon the chest capacity and interfere with the action of the lungs; so that the horse cannot stand as much exertion as he might otherwise. One likes to see a horse with a good depth of rib, and well ribbed-up and not presenting a tucked-up condition, all of which is evidence of a good feeder. But no horse, unless it is a mare in foal, or one running at grass, should show what is called a “pot-belly,” as that is a sign that too much bulky food is being consumed. Too much bulky food is also a cause of that very serious trouble, called heaves, especially if the food happens to be of defective quality, and consequently difficult of digestion. One often hears it said that clover hay is apt to cause heaves. The reason is that horses are very fond of it, and if they are allowed all they want, will eat an excessive quantity of it. If the quality of clover hay is good, and only a proper ration of it is fed, it is no more likely to cause heaves than any other kind of hay.

Fully one-half the horses one sees in country districts are pot-bellied, especially in the winter. In many farm stables you see racks kept full of hay constantly in front of the horses, and the less work they do the more hay they eat, most of them eating certainly twice as much as is good for them. In cities it is different. Hay being high-priced, the quantity fed is usually limited, with the result that digestive troubles are very much rarer than in country districts. It is directly the opposite with regard to the diseases of the breathing organs. In the large, crowded stables of the cities, with breathing space limited, the air becomes charged with impurities, with the result that diseases of the breathing organs are very prevalent, while in the country they are comparatively rare. The relative prevalence of digestive and respiratory troubles in city and country affords a good illustration of cause and effect, but the country horse owner has the advantage, as he has to encounter chiefly diseases that are largely preventable. It is a difficult matter to successfully cope with the prevention of respiratory ailments in cities.

It has been already stated and emphasized that the feeding of too much bulky food to horses is one of the most prolific causes of digestive disorders. The question naturally follows: How much is sufficient for a horse to attain the best results? As far as the supply of nourishment is concerned, it can be supplied amply in concentrated form, as in oats or corn; but a certain amount of bulk is necessary. If there is not a certain amount of bulk in the food material in the bowels, the coats of these organs have not sufficient contents to contract on, so that these organs may be able to move along in proper time substances that should be excreted. The bowels become torpid, as far as excretion is concerned, and the proper digestion and absorption of nutritive material is not carried on. Under these circumstances, health and condition cannot be long maintained, and there will be a waste of food fed in concentrated form. Of course, the amount of bulky food necessary varies according to the size of the horse, and it is approximately correct to put it at about one pound per hundred-weight of the animal’s weight. This may be exceeded in some cases with impunity, to the extent of a few pounds, particularly in horses used for slow work; but it will be found sufficient in the majority of cases. While horses are being used for very fast work, or are in training, a less quantity will suffice. The usual plan in large cities is to feed the allowance of hay all at one time, in the evening, after the horse has finished his day’s work, and it works very well. People used to seeing a horse get all the hay he can eat, think, when they see him restricted, that he is being starved, but they will find he thrives if adequately fed with grain, has better wind, more endurance, particularly for fast work, and is much less liable to digestive ills.

THE CAUSES OF DIGESTIVE DISORDERS—II

Experience proves that there is no better concentrated food for a horse for good hard work than oats. This can be readily explained. First of all, it contains the essential flesh-forming, fat and heat-producing elements in approximately their proper ratio. It also supplies to the nervous system, as no other grain appears to do to the same degree, the sustenance that gives life and ambition. In addition to this, oats have a physical property that mechanically fits them for ready digestion in a greater degree than any other grain. This is due to the fact that the particles of the meal are more loosely put together than in any other grain and that the hull is coarser. On this account, when a masticated mass of oats enters the stomach, owing to its looseness it is readily permeated by the digestive fluid, so that digestion goes on readily and thoroughly. Possibly the most indigestible of all grains, when fed by itself, either ground or whole, is wheat, and this is due to its physical character. A mass of wheat forms a tough, glue-like lump in the stomach, so that it is comparatively impervious to the action of the digestive fluid, and digestion goes on slowly and imperfectly, and is apt to be arrested, causing serious indigestion. Peas and beans, owing to their flinty nature, are also less digestible than oats. Corn, when fed whole, is fairly easily digested, but when ground is difficult of digestion, unless the cobs are also ground with it, which renders it more pervious. Wheat, corn, pea and bean meal can be rendered much more digestible by being fed thoroughly mixed with a little chaffed hay. The chaffed hay, when consumed with the meal, renders the meal more pervious to the action of the digestive fluid and consequently more digestible. Where, from economy or convenience, it is found desirable to use any of these grains for horses, it can be done with comparative safety, if they are ground and fed with chaffed hay. When meal is fed with chaff in this way, it is generally quite thoroughly moistened, which is a mistake, as in this condition it is apt to be too hastily eaten and too imperfectly mixed with saliva to be thoroughly digested. One reason given for moistening is that it makes the meal stick to the chaff and insures the two being consumed together. There is something in this, but, as a rule, if they are thoroughly mixed, there will be enough of the chaff consumed to insure the digestibility of the meal. If moistening is done at all, it should be done only slightly. A horse is so constituted that the major portion of his feed should be fed to him dry, as in this condition he will digest it more thoroughly and with less liability to digestive troubles.

Of course, a certain amount of laxative food is necessary in order to mildly stimulate the bowels and keep them sufficiently active. Some horses cannot stand laxative food without their bowels becoming unduly relaxed. To such it is better not to give any, particularly if they are going to work the next day. It is an interesting point to study, and one that throws some light on the peculiarities of the digestive tract, to explain why bran mash, boiled feed and roots act as laxatives. They do not possess any purgative principle, as aloes does. If a dose of aloes is given to a horse, it is dissolved in the stomach, taken up by the blood vessels, going the round of the circulation, and is eventually eliminated by the glands of the bowels, increasing their secretion very much and rousing the action of the coats of the bowels, so that a large quantity of liquid excrement is passed. An explanation sometimes given of the laxative action of mash and the like, is that it is due to the increased amount of liquid supplied by the moist food; but that is not a satisfactory explanation, as there is not enough of it to make any difference. The most reasonable explanation appears to be that it acts as a laxative by virtue of its indigestibility. It apparently acts in the way that oil does. Small quantities, as a couple of ounces, of linseed oil, given three times a day to a horse, are digested and cause the animal to accumulate fat; but if a pint or a pint and a half is given, it will not be digested, but passes on into the bowels and stimulates them, causing laxative action. It will be noticed that it is the undigested portion of the oil that causes the purging. So it is with boiled feed and mash. It is on account of a considerable quantity not being digested, that passes into the bowels and stimulates their action. This is beneficial up to a certain point, but if the bowels are overstimulated, irritation is apt to result and the system is robbed of some nutrition. Horses that are not worked or worked very little, can stand, and, in fact, require more laxative food than those more exerted. Active exertion of itself has a naturally stimulating effect upon the bowels.

The lesson we learn from all this, is that moist food for horses should be given with care and judgment. Given too frequently or in too large quantities at a time, it is apt to cause indigestion and undue relaxation of the bowels. Most horses that are doing little work, such as those in moderate exercise, are benefited by a little boiled oats and barley, given every evening. This is a very good plan, particularly for sale horses. It is a good rule to follow with hard-worked horses, that if they happen to stand in for a day, a mash should be substituted for their evening meal of grain. With horses that work hard and regularly six days in the week, the general custom of giving the mash on Saturday evening is a good one; but in the case of horses that may be left in for the day at irregular intervals, it is usually the best plan to give simply a mash for the evening meal instead of grain.

Veterinarians meet with a frequently fatal disease called by them azoturia, which in almost all cases is a preventable disease, due to an error in feeding. It usually occurs in horses used to regular work and good feed being kept idle for a few days and getting as much feed as when they are working. It has been found in large stables that with the carrying out of the rule that if a horse does not go out during the day he shall have no grain in the evening, but only a mash, there will be very few, if any, of these cases.

Indiscretion in watering horses sometimes leads to derangement of the digestive organs. The chief trouble arises from allowing too long intervals to elapse in watering. Under normal conditions water may be given as often as it will be taken, and it is rare that a horse will take too much, unless he is very warm. Even when he is quite warm, a quart or two may be given with impunity. The proper plan is to water before feeding, as the water is then rapidly absorbed and does not interfere with digestion. Unfortunately, it is difficult to get many horses to drink, particularly in cool weather, before feeding, and they have to be watered afterwards; it is, however, wise to allow an hour to elapse before doing so. If a horse takes a full feed of grain and a drink shortly afterwards and is then put to any violent exertion, he is very apt to suffer from digestive derangement. If a horse is suffering from diarrhœa, or is purging from a dose of physic, water must be restricted and slightly chilled; otherwise, superpurgation and death may result.

An irrational plan of salting horses sometimes causes trouble. That horses require salt is generally recognized, but a great many follow the plan of giving it at intervals of a week or more, when they become very ravenous for it and eat a great deal of it, which makes them so thirsty that they will drink immoderately, and this will sometimes cause digestive derangement. Horses should have access to salt constantly; they then get the most benefit from it.

Before leaving the subject of feeding, it should have been stated that care should be taken in making changes of diet, which should not be done too abruptly, particularly changes to food which, if eaten hurriedly or in considerable quantities, is apt to cause indigestion. Good examples of such food are roots, boiled grain and grass. An attack of indigestion in a horse that is a good feeder may almost certainly be caused by giving too large a feed of roots or boiled grain or by turning him into a fresh clover field that has a luxurious growth of herbage. If the grass is short, and he has to work hard for his feed, he can be safely turned into a pasture field; but where there is luxuriant growth, there should be several days’ restricted feeding before it is safe to allow some horses, particularly greedy feeders, liberty to eat at will.

In all horses in which the excrement from the bowels shows evidence of imperfect mastication, the cause should be sought for, and removed if possible. Greedy feeders bolt their grain, not taking time for perfect mastication. This not only results in waste, but is apt to cause irritation also. Bolting the grain may be prevented in a variety of ways. Numbers of feed boxes have been invented to overcome this trouble, some of which are fairly effectual. The old-fashioned plan of putting a number of stones amongst the grain works very well. The addition of an equal quantity of bran to the grain is also an assistance, but really the most effectual plan, where practicable, is to mix two or three pounds of chaffed hay with the grain. In the case of horses which do not bolt their grain, where there is evidence of imperfect mastication, the grinders should be thoroughly examined. This should be done by a qualified and reputable veterinarian. The wandering, self-styled horse dentist should be carefully avoided, as he is apt to injure the teeth by the over-use of the forceps and tooth-rasp. Many horses’ lives are shortened by allowing unprincipled and ignorant men to ill-treat the teeth.

Horses are more liable than almost any other species, to irregular growths of the grinders, owing to their peculiar anatomical arrangement. The two rows of grinders in the upper jaw are further apart than those in the lower, and consequently overlap them on either side. The grinding surface is beveled, and in the upper jaw slants from within outwards, forming a ridge on the outside of each row. The arrangement in the lower jaw is just the opposite, the ridge coming on the inside. In order that grinding of the food may take place in a perfect manner, the teeth must come into perfect apposition. If the grinders do not come into perfect contact in the process of grinding, the food is not only imperfectly masticated, but the teeth wear irregularly. Nature’s method of keeping the teeth of normal dimensions is by the wear they experience during grinding. If from any cause this wear does not take place throughout all the grinding surface, irregular projections form, and are most apt to be found on the outer ridge of the upper rows of grinders and on the inner of the lower ones. These projections are liable to interfere with mastication to a degree proportionate to their size, and sometimes cut and abrade the cheeks and tongue. When the mouth is in such a condition, it will be much benefited by proper attention. The owner, however, should not be misled by traveling dentists into thinking that all horses’ teeth require attention. The dentist points out the projecting ridges on the outside of the upper rows and on the inside of the lower ones, and makes the owner believe this to be an abnormal condition. Some owners seem to think, or are made to think, that the grinding surfaces should be level from side to side, instead of beveled, as nature made them.

In addition to the tendency to injurious projections on the grinders, as already described, we not infrequently find on the front part of the first upper grinders and on the back part of the last lower ones, prominences of considerable size. These are found generally in horses with “parrot mouths,” or what are sometimes called “overshot mouths.” This is a deformity, as the upper jaw is placed a little too far forward with respect to the lower one, so that a portion of the first upper grinders and of the last lower ones do not come in contact with opposing teeth. These are not kept of normal dimensions by wear; consequently, projections are formed, which seriously interfere with mastication, and otherwise injure the mouth. Occasionally a broken or decayed tooth is found, which also gravely interferes with the grinding of the food. If from any cause the power of mastication is impaired, it results not only in waste, but the imperfectly prepared food is liable to cause digestive derangement. If a horse is found to slobber at the mouth and to have difficulty in eating, the teeth should always be carefully examined by an expert.

THE USE OF BURRS ON HORSES’ BITS

Every now and then one hears of the A. S. P. C. A. making a crusade against the use of burrs on horses’ bits, and it is one of the practices that their agents are always on the alert to detect. They assume that the use of a burr is such a very evident act of cruelty, that they would have no difficulty in securing a conviction, which would redound to their credit as assiduous and vigilant officials.

Owners of horses appear to be afraid to take a chance of defending such a suit. Why? Is it because they are averse to spending the time, experiencing the incidental worry, and standing the expense, or is it the fear of being convicted of cruelty to an animal? It seems to the writer that the latter is the chief reason, and from which one would naturally shrink; otherwise it appears difficult to understand why horsemen allow men who, as a rule, have very limited or no knowledge of horse management, to dictate to them as to what equipment they should use in driving their horses.

To one who knows the use of a burr, it seems incredible to think that, with a fair trial and a proper presentation of a defense, a conviction could be obtained against a driver of a horse for using a burr on a properly selected subject.

Numberless experts could be obtained as witnesses to show that the use of a burr is no cruelty in properly selected cases, and such experts could be obtained amongst horsemen of undoubted standing who would shrink from anything that savored of cruelty to animals.

Still further, it could be demonstrated, as it has been to the writer many times, that it is positively inhumane not to use a burr on some horses. One comes in contact with nervous, fretful pullers, that wear themselves out, lose their appetites, and become wrecks, that by the use of a burr often cease pulling, in a large measure, drive comfortably, and regain condition. People are heard to speak of burrs as if they are instruments of torture, placed on a horse’s bit to irritate him. Some suppose that they are used to give a horse a stylish carriage and promote action. As there is so much misconception with regard to the object of their use, it will be well to explain what is intended to be accomplished by them.

A burr is made of a piece of thick leather, studded with bristles on one side, about half an inch long. It has a hole in the centre, so that it can be fitted on the mouth-piece of the bit, and a slit running from the circumference to this hole, so that it can be taken off or put on, as occasion requires.

When it is put on it is placed on one end of the mouth-piece of the bit, right up against the cheek-piece of it, with the bristled surface towards the horse’s mouth. If the mouth-piece of the bit is of proper width, the bristles do not prick the skin of the horse’s lips, unless he voluntarily presses on them. After he has pressed on them a few times, finding they are uncomfortable, he usually stops doing it; then they don’t hurt him.

This is the object of a burr, namely, to keep a horse from pressing on one side of the bit. A horse that presses forcibly on one side of the bit, which habit is usually called side-lining, is very difficult to guide, as he takes an unyielding grip of the bit, usually holds his head to one side, and pulls to an extent most uncomfortable to his driver, and most wearing to himself. Anxious, ambitious, free, high-strung horses are apt to get into this habit, unless their mouths are properly educated to the bit, and their general handling and management good.

Not the least important amongst the exciting causes is insufficient and irregular work, causing a horse to get what is often called “above himself.” Under such circumstances, if he is a free horse, he will go up firmly against the bit, and may bruise or injure his mouth in some way, producing soreness and irritability of the gums where the bit presses. This causes him to pull more, and some horses brace themselves against the cheek-piece of the bit, which enables them to pull to an extent most trying to the driver, and most wearing to themselves. The farther they go the more they pull and the more excited, fretful and heated they become. The constant repetition of this causes them to get “run down” in condition, and the unnecessarily violent exertion they make in performing their work is very hard on their legs and feet.

If by the simple expedient of using a burr on a puller’s bit, this habit of pulling can be lessened, and practically overcome in some cases, is it not justifiable to take the risk of subjecting a horse’s lips to a few pricks with bristles in order to attain such desirable results? A fretful puller suffers infinitely more, by the over-exertion to which he subjects himself, and by working himself up into an excited and heated state, than by the use of burrs.

As for the driver, it becomes absolutely painful to him to drive a side-lining puller, and it is not without danger, especially where there is crowded traffic, as in cities, on account of the difficulty of guiding and controlling a horse with such a disagreeable fault. To a driver who has had his arms pulled out, the use of a burr does not seem by any means too drastic a remedy.

It may be asked: Is there not some other means of a less heroic nature, that may be resorted to, to overcome this disagreeable habit? There is no doubt that thoughtless, careless, ignorant and unintelligent handling and management of horses, especially of young ones, makes many pullers. Sensitive, nervous, courageous horses are predisposed to this fault, and there are some in which it is almost impossible to prevent the development of it.

Some horses, whose mouths have become irritable from pulling, will be very much benefited by “turning out” for two or three months. Keeping the bit out of the mouth for a length of time allows that organ to heal and freshen up, until it may regain something like its normal condition; but much care must be exercised when they are again put to work, otherwise they will soon relapse into their former habit of pulling. No matter how much care is exercised with some horses, that may almost be called natural pullers, they will develop the fault, and any measures adopted to overcome it are fruitless, and all that can be done is to seek measures of control, such as proper bitting and the use of burrs. Many pullers are quite valuable horses, and their owners are loth to lose their service, or even to part with them for a good price, on account of the good qualities they possess.

The use of burrs, like everything else in the management and control of horses, should be done with discretion. Bits and bearing reins can be made instruments of torture, just as much and more than burrs, if not intelligently used. The apparently simple matter of placing the bit in the proper position in a horse’s mouth is one subject to great abuse, and is the cause of much suffering. It is no exaggeration to state that fully one-third of the horses one sees on the streets in New York City have not got their bits in the proper position in their mouths. How frequently one sees horses with their mouths partly open, tongues dry and projecting more or less from their mouths, due entirely to bits being placed too high in them. Much of the pulling is due to this error in bitting, as is also the unsightly fault of tongue-lolling.

No practical person advocates not using bits, although on account of the ignorance and lack of intelligence and skill in the manner in which they are used, they are the cause of more suffering than all other causes combined.

There are some pullers that burrs do not benefit much, and they are sometimes used on horses unnecessarily. They are occasionally used on horses that do not pull, but have acquired the habit of pulling out in double harness. A much more rational and effectual way of overcoming this fault is to drive the horse on the other side.

Transcriber’s Note:

Misplaced hyphens were removed; one final stop missing at the end of a sentence was added. “It it” change to “It is.”