Part 1 — Part I.—The Age of Tennyson (1832-1870).

Forces at Work.—This was an age of rapid change, and many events call for remark. Note especially the transcendental movement and its effects in England and America, the spread of democratic government, the raise of nationalism in Europe and its results on English poetry, the deep feeling for the working classes expressed in the Chartists and Christian Socialist movements, the Oxford Movement, the growth of commercial enterprise, the conventional outlook of the middle classes and the succeeding Pre-Raphaelite revolt, the beginnings of popular education and its effect on the reading public, especially in the development of magazines and newspapers, and also the cumulative effect of the new science on poetry, philosophy, history, and general outlook.

Literary Features.—As in the last age literature is abundant, the only weak section being the drama. In poetry and speculation the tendency is away from the hopeful expectations of the revolutionaries. Doubt and often despair is the note commonly struck. The old foundations are being undermined and man is seen to be not the easily perfectible animal he was thought to be. In work of a less philosophical character, the increased material prosperity of the middle classes tends towards conventionality, and the renewed interest in the past to imitative forms. The beginnings of the revolt occur in the fifties but it does not fully realise itself until the next period. In addition to the meditative element, narrative and lyric poetry are well represented. The most important event is the rise of the novel to the first place among literary forms. One must also notice the beginnings of the short story, the development of the literary lecture, and the popularity of the long essay, the new literary criticism and critical biography, and the rise of the scientific treatise to real literary rank. History is still chiefly “literary,” but there are tentative attempts at a philosophy of history and the beginnings of an application of scientific method to history.

1. Poetry.—(a) The Intellectual Movement: Browning. Tennyson. Arnold. Clough. Fitzgerald. Bailey. Horne. (b) The Pre-Raphaelites: The Rossettis. De Tabley. Morris. Patmore. (c) The Spasmodics: Dobell. Alex. Smith. (d) Religious Verse: Keble. Newman. Hawker. Faber. Williams. Neale. C. Rossetti. (e) Ballad Writers: Tennyson. Browning. Macaulay. Aytoun. Barham. Hawker. Ingelow. Massey. F. H. Doyle. A. L. Gordon. (f) Vers de Socitete: Praed. Milnes. Locker-Lampson. (g) Political Poetry: Cooper. Loft. (h) Wit and Humour: Barham. Hood. Blanchard. Calderley. J. K. Stephen. Aytoun. Lear. (i) The Celts: Mangan. De Vere. Darley. (j) The Ladies: Browning. Rossetti. E. Bronte. Ingelow. Proctor. L.E.L. (k) Dialect Writers: Motherwell. Barnes.

2. The Drama.—(a) Poetic Drama: Browning. Beddoes. Knowles. Planché. De Vere. Sir H. Taylor. Lytton. Horne. (b) Melodrama: Boucicault. Tom Taylor. Wills. Jerrold. Poole. (c) Farce and Comedy: Brooks. H. J. Byron. Reade. Robertson. Gilbert.

3. The Novel.—(a) Historical Romance: Ainsworth. James. Lytton. Grant. Thackeray. Kingsley. Reade. (b) Domestic Romance: Warren. Wood. Craik. Yonge. Reade. (c) Society Romance: Lytton. Disraeli. (d) The Novel of Manners: (i) English—Dickens. Thackeray. The Brontës. Gaskell. Kingsley. Eliot. Meredith. Trollope. (ii) Scotch—Oliphant. Macdonald. (iii) Irish—Carleton. Maginn. Mahony. Lover. Lever. (e) Romance of Adventure, etc.: Marryat. Whyte-Melville. Borrow. Collins. (f) Children’s Writers: M. Scott. Hughes. Kingsley. Carroll. Gatty. Rands. H. Martineau.

4. Essayists and Critics.—(a) Literary Biography: Carlyle. Lockhart. Stanley. Lewes. Forster. (b) Johnsonian Tradition: Jeffrey. Wilson. Lockhart. (c) Romantic School: Carlyle. Hunt. De Quincey. Macaulay. Wilson. Froude. (d) The New Victorian School: Ruskin. Thackeray. Rossetti. Arnold. Swinburne. (e) The Miscellaneous Essay: John Brown. The Hares. Landor. Helps. Rands. (f) The New Literary Lecture: Carlyle. Thackeray. Dickens.

5. Letters, Diaries, etc.—Carlyle. Macaulay. Thackeray. Dickens. Fitzgerald.

6. Satire and Humour.—Dickens. Thackeray. Jerrold. See also Poetry, Sec. (h).

7. Study and Research.—(a) Theology: (i) The Tractarians—Newman. Keble. Pusey. (ii) Liberals—Whately. T. Arnold. Maurice. Thirlwall. Stanley. Church. (b) Philosophy: (i) Carlyle and transcendentalism. (ii) Hamilton, Mansel, and the “commonsense” school (iii) J. S. Mill and the utilitarians, (iv) H. Martineau, Lewes, and the Comtists. (v) Spencer, James Martineau. Buckle. Bagehot. (c) Science: Lyell. Miller. Chambers. Spencer. Darwin. Huxley. Wallace. Scientific Travel—Wallace. Bates. Borrow. Livingstone. Speke. Burton. (d) Historians: (i) Students of Origins—Kemble. Palgrave. Trench. Muller. (ii) Ancient History—Lewis. T. Arnold. Thirlwall. Grote. Finlay. Milman. (iii) Literary Historians—Carlyle. Macaulay. Hallam. Froude. Burton. (iv) Scientific and Philosophical—Buckle. Maine. (v) Military history—Napier. Kinglake. Kaye. (e) Biographers: Carlyle. See also Essayists, Sec. (a).

American Literature (1830-1865).

1. Poetry.—(a) The New Englanders: Longfellow. Whittier. Lowell. Holmes. Emerson. Willis. (b) The Southerners: Poe. Lanier. Timrod. (c) The Middle States: Halleck. Drake. B. Taylor. Holland. Boker. Whitman.

2. The Drama.—Bird. Smith. Conrad. Boker.

3. The Novel.—(a) The Romancers: Hawthorne. Poe. Kennedy. Simms. Melville. (b) Novel of Manners: Stowe. Winthrop. O’Brien. “Ik Marvel.” (c) The Short Story: Hawthorne. Poe. Cooke.

4. The Humorists.—(a) Seba Smith. Haliburton. “Josh Billings.” “Artemus Ward.” D. R. Locke, (b) Saxe. Leland. Whittier. Lowell. Holmes.

5. Essayists and Critics.—Emerson. Ticknor. Poe. Lowell. Hudson. Willis. Tuckerman. Grant White. Whipple. Curtis. Natural History Essay: Thoreau. Burroughs.

6. Political Writings and Oratory.—Webster. Clay. Choate. Phillips.

7. Study and Research.—(a) Philosophy and Religion: Channing. Alcott. Parker. Emerson. Fuller. Thoreau. Bushnell. Beecher. Hopkins. (b) History: Bancroft. Prescott. Motley. Parkman.

8. Children’s Writers.—Sedgwick. Child. Warner. Finley. Whitney. Goodrich. Abbott. Dana.

Later Victorian and Georgian Age (1870-1920).

Forces at Work.—Amidst ever increasing complexity one may briefly note (a) The influence of British imperialism and commercialism, the development of dominion literature, and the Celtic Revival partly due to the frustration of Irish nationalism; (b) the rapid development of industry and the resulting increase in production and population; (c) the growth of trade unionism, the widening rift between classes and masses, and the resulting emphasis in literature on political and social abuses; (d) realisation of a national Education Act, its further development, and the subsequent growth of popular literature and of journalism; (e) the spread of the scientific spirit and its effects in heightening a critical and analytical attitude; (f) the influences from France, Russia, and Scandinavia with their trend towards crude or impressionistic realism and psychological analysis.

Literary Features.—The complexity of the age favoured many attitudes besides realism and analysis. In poetry one may range from romantic lyric or narrative to “satires of circumstance” or “stage-door flashlights,” while the feeling towards new models is shown not only in choice and treatment of subject but in the wide experimentation in new forms of verse. The drama in its first stage is limited to romantic comedy, but after Ibsen it becomes realistic and often satirical. The novel rises to be the chief instrument of public expression, and amidst the vast output, one may note the steady stream of romantic, realistic, and propaganda novels, while the short story achieves a triumph in itself. Miscellaneous prose writers are prolific; the growth of journalism tends to shorten the literary and critical essay, but the lengthy literary biography has still many adherents. A prominent class is the historical, philosophical and scientific treatise, and with the rise of popular education children’s literature achieves a special place. In poetry, style ranges from florid Swinburne and ornate Thompson to the delicate silver of Bridges, while in prose there are masters in every style.

Later Victorian and Georgian Age (1870-1920).

1. Poetry.—(a) The Victorian Tradition: Tennyson. Browning. Austin. Bridges. Blunt. Gosse. Lang. “Owen Meredith.” Phillips. Watts-Dunton. Beeching. Benson. Gale. Quiller-Couch. Carpenter. Hewlett. Flecker. (b) The Pre-Raphaelites: Rossetti. Patmore. Morris. Swinburne. De Tabley. (c) The Impressionists: A. Symons. Dowson. Wilde. Le Gallienne. (d) Political and Muscular School: Henley. Watson. Kipling. Newbolt. Binyon. (e) The Catholic Poets: L. Johnson. F. Thompson. Meynell. L. Housman. Chesterton. (f) Philosophic and Realistic: E. Arnold. Meredith. Hardy. Watson. J. Thomson. Marston. Davidson. A. E. Housman. Gibson. Masefield. Abercrombie. Drinkwater. Brooke. Thomas. (g) The New Nature Poets: Davies. De la Mare. Hodgson. (h) The Celts: (i) L. Morris. O’Shaughnessy. De Vere. Buchanan. Shairp. (ii) Yeats. “A.E.” Jas. Stephens. Colum. Hyde. (j) The Ladies: (i) Webster. Woods. Meynell. Field. R. M. Watson. (ii) Barlow. O’Neill. Hopper. Tynan. Shorter. Gore-Booth. (k) Adlington, Flint, and the “Imagists.”

2. The Drama.—(a) Poetic Drama: Tennyson. Swinburne. Phillips. Davidson. (b) Prose Drama: (i) Wilde. (ii) The Romantics—Pinero. Jones. Grundy. Chambers. Carton. (iii) The Realists—Shaw. Barker. Galsworthy. Hankin. Cannan. Houghton. Zangwill. (iv) The Middle School—Barrie. Sutro. Bennett. Milne. Maugham. Davies. Drinkwater. (v) The Irish Literary Theatre—Yeats. “A.E.” Geo. Moore. Synge. Gregory. Ervine. Mayne.

3. The Novel.—(a) The Realists and the Novel of Manners: Eliot. Trollope. Reade. Meredith. Gissing. Hardy. Crackanthorpe. Harland. Moore. Wilde. Kipling. Phillpotts. Conrad. Zangwill. Wells. Bennett. Galsworthy. Walpole. Beresford. Lawrence. Mackenzie. (b) Philosophical Novel: Butler. Morris. Shorthouse. Shaw. Davidson. Watts-Dunton. “Mark Rutherford.” (c) The Scotch Novel: Macdonald. McCleod. Black. Munro. “Ian Maclaren.” Crockett. Stevenson. “Geo. Douglas.” (d) The Romance: W. Morris. Collins. Stevenson. Besant and Rice. Blackmore. Hudson. Haggard. Baring-Gould. Doyle. Kipling. Parker. G. Allen. Merriman. D. C. Murray. Hall Caine. Wells. “A. Hope.” Locke. (e) The Ladies: (i) Eliot. Mrs. Oliphant. Lady Ritchie. Mrs. Wood. Mrs. Craik. C. M. Yonge. “J. S. Winter.” M. E. Braddon. (ii) Mrs. H. Ward. “O. Schreiner.” Sarah Grand. “George Egerton.” B. Harraden. “Lucas Malet.” “Ouida.” “J. O. Hobbes.” “E. Robins.” May Sinclair. Kaye-Smith. (f) Humorous sketch: Anstey. Jerome. Jacobs. Pain. Pett Ridge. Lyons. Milne. Birmingham. Somerville and Ross. (g) The Short Story: Hardy. Kipling. Doyle. Bennett. Wells. Zangwill.

4. Essay and Criticism.—(a) Literary Criticism: M. Arnold. J. Brown. L. Stephen. W. E. Henley. J. A. Symonds. A. Lang. E. V. Lucas. G. K. Chesterton. G. B. Shaw. Garnett. Gosse. “Q.” Archer. Clutton-Brock. Nevinson. Harrison. (b) Art Criticism: Ruskin. Pater. Wilde. Wedmore (c) Literary Essay: Stevenson. Jefferies. Pater. Carpenter. Bain. Paget. A. C. Benson. Squire. (d) Literary Biography: Forster. Masson. Smiles. Oliphant. L. Stephen. Pattison. Morley. (e) Letters and diaries: Swinburne. Stevenson. Brooke. Cory. “Barbellion.”

5. Study and Research.—(a) Religion and Philosophy: (i) Lewes. Eliot. H. Martineau. Congreve and the positivists. (ii) Spencer. Darwin, Huxley, and the evolutionists (iii) Jowett, T. H. Green, Caird and the Neo-Hegelians. (iv) Newman, Church, Martineau, and the theologians. (b) The Scientists: Darwin. Wallace. Huxley. (c) Travel: A. B. Edwardes. Stanley. Stevenson. Burnaby. Isabella Bird. M. Kingsley. (d) The Historians: (i) Buckle. Maine. Bagehot. Pearson. Seeley. Acton. Lecky. Maitland. and the philosophical school. (ii) Froude. Freeman. Stubbs. J. R. Green. Creighton. Gardiner, and the Oxford school. (iii) Kinglake. Henderson, and the military historians.

6. Children’s Writers.—(a) English: Stephenson. Ewing. Carroll. Lear. Parry. Farrow. Nesbit. Lucas. Kipling. Barrie. Henty. Fenn, etc. (b) American: Stowe. Hawthorne. Alcott. “Mark Twain.” Harris. Field. Ryley. Coffin. Stockton. Pyle. Ellis. Burnett.

7. American Literature.—(a) Poetry: T. B. Aldrich. J. Miller. R. W. Gilder. J. W. Ryley. E. C. Stedman. R. H. Stoddard. R. Hovey. (b) The Drama: Howells. Daly. Fitch. Howard. The Mackayes. (c) The Novel: H. James. W. D. Howells. G. W. Cable. J. L. Allen. E. P. Roe. F. M. Crawford. L. Wallace. J. London. F. Norris. E. Wharton. (d) The Essayists: C. E. Norton. T. W. Higginson. M. W. Conway. E. C. Stedman. H. James. G. W. Curtis. H. W. Mabie. E. More. (e) The Humorous Sketch and Story: “Mark Twain.” “Bret Harte.” Ambrose Bierce. “Max Adeler.” “Bill Nye.” H. Ade. F. P. Dunne. C. G. Leland. “O. Henry.” (f) Religion and Philosophy: Gladden. Brooks. Fiske. Pierce. Schaff. MacCosh. Royce. W. James. Dewey. Baldwin. G. Santanyana. (g) Historians: Lea. Bancroft. Mahan.

TEST PAPER (1832-1920)

1. Who were the Pre-Raphaelites? What was their literary attitude?

2. Outline the history of the drama from Robertson to Barker.

3. In what respects do Hardy and Meredith agree and differ as poets and as novelists?

4. Compare Whitman with Swinburne, or Tennyson with Browning.

5. Write a brief essay on the cult of the short story from Irving to O. Henry.

6. Show the development of realism either in poetry or prose fiction from 1870.

7. Name three American and three English humorists. Compare the work of any two of them.

8. Write brief notes on any three of the following: Macaulay, Jas. Thomson, Sir W. Watson, O. W. Holmes, E. Fitzgerald. W. B. Yeats, J. Conrad, H. G. Wells.

9. What do you know of the following: “Eothen,” “Erewhon,” “The Hound of Heaven,” “Vailima Letters,” “A Shropshire Lad.”

10. Compare Dickens and Thackeray as satirists.