COURSE 3: THEORY OF CLASSIFICATION.
Reading edition
Text Books Required.
Brown (J. D.)—Library classification and cataloguing. Grafton, 1912. 10s. 6d.
Jevons (W. S.)—Elementary lessons in logic. Macmillan, 1909. 3s. 6d.
Richardson (S. C.)—Classification, theoretical and practical; together with an appendix, containing an essay towards a bibliographical history of systems of classification. Scribner, 1912. Also Grafton, 6s. 3d.
Sayers (W. C. B.)—Canons of classification applied to “The Subject,” “The Expansive,” “The Decimal,” and “Library of Congress” classifications: a study in bibliographical classification method. Grafton, 1915. 3s. 6d.
Sayers (W. C. B.)—An introduction to library classification, theoretical, historical and practical; and, A short course in practical classification; with readings, questions and examination papers. Grafton, 1922. 10s. 6d.
Lesson 1.
Introduction. Meaning, Purpose, and Utility. Terminology. Logical Bases.
In classification, more than in any other branch of library science, practical application is dependent on a sound knowledge of theoretical principles, and students are warned that a thorough grasp of the logical bases is an absolutely essential preliminary to successful practical work.
Importance of classification in our daily life is not fully appreciated, classification being the sole foundation of all order. It would be impossible for the mental faculties to function efficiently without classification, the simplest thought or reason requiring its use.
Note the purpose of classification and the mutual dependence of classification and cataloguing.
It is essential to know the exact logical meaning of terms used in classification.
Understand the Five Predicables. After mastering their definition, study Tree of Porphyry for their application. A close study of the latter will amply repay students. It admirably illustrates meaning of Extension and Intension, and demonstrates how in the framing of the scheme the hierarchy must proceed gradually from terms of great Extension and little Intension to terms of little Extension but of great Intension.
The student is strongly advised not to pass Jevons until he has thoroughly mastered the chapters set out below.
Reading List.
Brown—Library classification. Chap. 6.
Encyclopædia Britannica—Article Classification.
Jast—Classification and discovery. L.W. Vol. 13, 1910-11, pp. 353-355.
Jast—Library classification. In Greenwood’s Library Year Book, 1900-01, pp. 21-36.
Jevons—Logic. (Give special attention to Chaps. 5, 12 and 32).
Jevons—Principles of science. Chapter on classification.
Mill—Logic. Chapter on classification.
Richardson—Classification. Introduction and Chap. 1.
Sayers—Classification in modern life. L.A. Vol. 17, 1924, pp. 8-16; 35-40.
Sayers—Introduction. Chaps. 1-2.
Questions.
1. Give an example where classification resulted in the discovery of new facts.
2. State what you consider to be the purpose of classification.
3. Define the following terms:—characteristic; denotation; correlation of property; extension; genus; connotation; difference; intension.
4. Describe the Tree of Porphyry and its relation to classification.
5. The functions of classification and those of cataloguing are often confused. Explain.
Lesson 2.
Principles. Kinds of Classification. Schedules.
The survey of the logical bases in Lesson 1 leads to a more definite consideration of the main principles of classification and schedule formation. A close study of natural and artificial classification must be made at this stage. An investigation of the difference between them will stress the importance of the choice of characteristic. It will be emphasised during this lesson that the characteristic selected must be essential to the purpose for which the classification is intended.
Botany and zoology have provided notable instances of natural and artificial classification. In studying these schemes notice particularly the process of division, the gradual modulation from Class to Division, Sub-Division, and Section, the Extension of the terms becoming smaller and the Intension greater as the process of division is continued.
One fault which can create endless confusion is Cross-Division. To avoid this the terms used in the schedule must be mutually exclusive.
The classification of books cannot reach the perfection of a classification of knowledge. The latter is limited only by the limitation of knowledge, but the former by the physical form of books. All bibliographical schemes, however, should be based on the classification of knowledge.
Realise clearly the necessity for and the functions of the topic and form classes which form part of every bibliographical scheme. Throughout this lesson it will be seen that classification is governed by the principles laid down in the Five Predicables.
If attention has been duly paid to the ground covered in Lessons 1 and 2 no difficulty will in future be experienced with regard to the theory, bases, or principles of classification, but if, on the other hand, any difficulty is felt in answering questions bearing upon these principles, students have devoted insufficient time to their study, and are strongly advised to make good the deficiency before proceeding further.
Reading List.
Brown—Library classification. Chaps. 1 and 2.
Coulson—An outline on the theory of classification. L.W. Vol. 14, 1911-12, pp. 37-42; 67-70.
Johns—Flowers of the field. Study introduction.
Richardson—Classification. Lecture 2.
Savage—Form and alphabetic book classification. L.A.R. Vol. 9, 1907, pp. 375-383.
Sayers—Canons. Chaps. 1 and 2.
Sayers—Grammar of classification. L.A.A. Series, 1912. Principles 1-20.
Sayers—Introduction. Chaps. 3-5.
Questions.
1. What is meant by “cross-division”?
2. What are essential and accidental characteristics in classification?
3. The process of division is governed by “difference.” Explain.
4. Name the difference between philosophical classification and bibliographical classification.
5. What is the difference between a rigid and a flexible classification?
6. What is meant by “form” as compared with “subject” in classification?
Lesson 3.
History. Principal Schemes. Comparisons. Special Classes.
A glance at the list of schemes which have been devised is sufficient to convince us of the formidable task it would be to acquire detailed knowledge of each one. This, however, is not essential. Apart from the principal epoch-making schemes, only sufficient attention need be paid to them to trace the development of classification. Bacon’s scheme has had a great influence and must receive full consideration. Sayers’s Introduction contains the most satisfactory outline of this. In the same work brief outlines of the principal schemes are given, and good accounts are available in Brown’s Library Classification. These two books cover sufficient ground for the general student, but those who wish to make a more exhaustive survey of the various schemes will find further details in Edwards’s Memoirs of libraries, Vol. 2.
Of the schemes in use at the present time the Decimal, Subject, Expansive, and Library of Congress are selected as the most important, and while a good knowledge of the two latter is required, students are urged to concentrate their main study upon and confine their practical exercises to the Decimal and Subject schemes, chiefly because they are almost in exclusive use so far as British libraries are concerned, but also on account of the fact that candidates for the Library Association certificate are required to pass a practical test in these two.
Pay particular attention to the Introductions.
The popular method of systematically comparing the two class by class is the best. It will be found most convenient to take the classes in the order appearing in the Decimal, and compare with the corresponding portions of the Subject. Make full use of Sayers’s Canons here. Valuable for analysis of the four main schemes. The Indexes should also be included in the comparison.
Study carefully the criteria of a practical book classification as given in Richardson’s Classification, page 42, and consider to what extent these requirements are met.
Special consideration must be given to those classes which at various times have been severely criticised, and the student should be completely au fait with the arguments for and against the treatment of the forms and subjects upon which opinions vary, e.g., Biography.
Hulme’s Principles of book classification, in L.A.R., Vol. 13, 1911, pp. 354-358; 389-394; 444-449. Vol. 14, 1912, pp. 39-46; 174-181; 216-221 (summarised in Sayers’s Introduction, Appendix 1) takes a view of classification not entirely supported by the reading matter set in this course. For this reason the student is advised to reserve his study of these articles until having covered the reading prescribed, so that he may read them more critically and make a clearer comparison of the points of view.
Reading List.
Aldred—The expansive classification. L.A.R. Vol. 7, 1905, pp. 207-219; 196-201.
Brown—Library classification. Chaps. 3 and 4.
Brown—Manual of library economy. 3rd edition. Chap. 16.
Brown—Subject classification. Introduction.
Dewey—Decimal classification. Introduction.
Dickie—Critical examination of the arrangement of History and Geography in the Decimal and Subject classifications. L.W. Vol. 25, 1922-23, pp. 401-407.
Hale—The decimal classification as applied to small libraries. L.W. Vol. 16, 1913-14, pp. 263-268; 311-316.
Mash—Classification of technology. L.W. Vol. 15, 1912-13, pp. 1-5; 50-55.
Mould—Wanted, a classification. L.A.R. Vol. 8, 1906, pp. 127-147; 208-211.
Pepper—Classification of biography. L.A.R. Vol. 15, 1913, pp. 328-334.
Richardson—Classification. Appendix.
Sayers—Canons. Chaps. 3-6.
Sayers—The Dewey decimal classification after thirty years. L.A.R. Vol. 12, 1910, pp. 314-334.
Sayers—Introduction. Chaps. 7-10.
Smith—Library classifications: a comparison by classes. Supp. to. L.W. Vol. 21, 1918-19.
Smither—Library of Congress classification. L.W. Vol. 16, 1913-14, pp. 130-136.
South Kensington Museum; Board of Education. Classification for works on pure and applied science in the Science Library, the Science Museum. 2nd edition. Stationery Office, 1921.
This classification affords a clear and accurate view of the anatomy of the literature of the pure and applied sciences in the twentieth century.
Walker—Suggested re-arrangement of the Dewey classes of 100 and 200. L.W. Vol. 16, 1913-14, pp. 163-165.
Wright—Technological classification. L.W. Vol. 18, 1915-16, pp. 312-316; 344-347. Vol. 19, 1916-17, pp. 9-10.
Brown’s Subject Classification was published in 1906 and reviews and criticisms of the work can be read in the following professional periodicals:—Savage (E. A.) in L.W. Vol. 9, 1906-07, pp. 48-55. Lyster (T. W.) in L.A.R. Vol. 8, 1906, pp. 384-386. Coutts (A. T.) in L.A. Vol. 6, 1909, pp. 304-318. Brown’s Revisions, etc., in L.W. Vol. 12, 1909-10, pp. 41-45; 81-86; 121-124; 153-160.
Questions.
1. Write a brief essay on the history of classification.
2. Outline Bacon’s Scheme and its influence on classification.
3. Give a brief account of any natural scheme of classification.
4. State in which class or classes it is preferable to adopt an alphabetical arrangement, and why.
5. The Divisions 140 Philosophic Systems, 180 Ancient Philosophers, and 190 Modern Philosophers in the Decimal Classification are not satisfactory to the classifier. Explain.
6. What means are provided in the Decimal, Subject and Expansive Classifications for obtaining alphabetical and chronological arrangements of a particular subject?
Lesson 4.
Notation. Expansions. Mnemonics. Author Marks. Arrangement. Guiding.
Notation affects in a very large degree the usefulness and even the librarian’s choice of a scheme.
A notation must be simple, brief, and flexible. Consider the extent to which the principal schemes meet these requirements, and weigh the advantages and disadvantages of a “pure” notation, as in the Decimal, or a “mixed” notation, as in the Subject scheme. The most notable expansion of the Decimal notation is the “Brussels,” which should be carefully surveyed.
Note the mnemonic features of the various notations, as these assist in the rapid interpretation of the symbols, and enable one’s mind to more readily grasp the linking-up of the whole scheme. Notation is of itself insufficient for practical arrangement on the shelves, as the necessity arises for some method of regulating the order of the books within each Division, Section, etc., hence the use of Author Marks. Several tables have been compiled, but the most detailed and best known is Cutter’s, although the other tables must receive due attention as the Cutter Author Marks are not in exclusive use.
The arrangement of the books on the shelves is most important, and it is essential to reach the best solutions of the problems regarding “broken sequence,” “oversize books,” etc.
It must be remembered that the Library is intended for the use of people who do not want to study the intricate details of a notation in order to find what they want, and it should be made possible for readers not merely to find the subjects they require, but also to find their way about the various classes intelligently, but unaided. To achieve this a most carefully devised method of guiding will be necessary, and all methods and contrivances should be studied, as faulty or insufficient guiding will minimise the benefits of exact classification.
Reading List.
Brown—Library classification. Chap. 5.
Brown—Manual of library economy. 3rd edition. Chap. 17.
Coutts—Classification and shelf-guiding. In Brown and others. Open Access Libraries. Grafton, 1915.
Hopwood—Dewey expanded. L.A.R. Vol. 9, 1907, pp. 307-322; 340-345 (also L.J. Vol. 32, 1907).
Jast—A new book number. L.W. Vol. 3, 1900-01, pp. 120-123; 150-152.
Purnell—Development of notation in classification. L.A. Vol. 8, 1911, pp. 25-33; 44-50. (Also published separately in L.A.A. Series, but now o.p.)
Savage—Classification guides and indexes. L.W. Vol. 8, 1905-6, pp. 261-266.
Sayers—Canons. Chap. 7.
Sayers—Elements of notation. L.W. Vol. 15, 1912-13, pp. 226-231.
Sayers—Grammar. Principles 21-23.
Sayers—Introduction. Chaps. 6 and 13.
Stephen—Application of exact classification to shelf arrangement. L.W. Vol. 11, 1909, pp. 251-255; 325-331.
Stewart—Guiding an open-access lending library. L.W. Vol. 7, 1904-05, pp. 113-118.
Stewart—Oversize books. L.W. Vol. 9, 1906-07, pp. 208-211.
Questions.
1. What are the essentials of a good notation?
2. How would you mark book-stacks, shelves, etc., in a large open-access library in order to guide readers to specific subjects?
3. Compare the notations of the Decimal and Subject Schemes.
4. After the classification number has been applied it is still necessary to individualise the books within the limits of a subject. Describe what you consider to be the best method, with alternatives.
5. Illustrate by examples from the Decimal Scheme the advantages derived from its mnemonic features.
6. Give the chief marks, with explanations, used in the Brussels extension of the Decimal classification.
Lesson 5.
Practical.
As a preliminary to actual classification it is essential to obtain a thorough grasp of certain rules which, in a general sense, govern the placing of books.
With this aim in view students should first read Chapter 12 of Sayers’s “Introduction,” and again read Jast’s “Library classification” in Greenwood’s Library Year Book, 1900-1901, and the Introductions to the Decimal and Subject Schemes.
Students may afterwards pass on to Sayers’s “Introduction,” part 3—A short course in practical classification, with special reference to the Decimal and Subject schemes. This provides a thorough test of ability in classification, bringing forward examples requiring a decision on the points which present most difficulty in practice.
It is important that students should guard against misuse of the index. In placing a book reference must be made direct to the schedules, and the index used only as an aid to, not a means of classification.
TEST EXAMINATION.
Questions to be answered without the aid of text-books, notes, etc.
1. It is impossible to think or to reason aright unless we classify. Explain.
2. In what way may the physical form of a book affect the classifying of it?
3. The Decimal Classification contains instances of “cross-division.” Name as many as you can.
4. What are the respective advantages of a relative and a specific index?
5. Explain the geographical divisions in the Decimal, Subject, and Expansive Schemes.
6. In a classified library the shelf arrangement is affected by the size of the books. What arrangement would you adopt, and in what way would this affect the guiding?
7. What does Brown mean by “locality” versus “subject”? Give examples.
8. Explain the difference between history as a “topic” and as a “form.”
9. Detail the respective advantages and disadvantages of a “pure” and a “mixed” notation.
10. State briefly the arguments for and against separating a complete set of an author’s works.
A practical test is not included, as this, in its best form, is easily accessible in the papers set at past Library Association examinations, which are obtainable from the office of the Association.
The student must bear in mind that it is far better to classify from the actual book, but where this entails any inconvenience the articles appearing in the “Nineteenth Century and After” and the books reviewed in the “Times Literary Supplement” may be classified.
Further, I would urge the student to be ever on the qui vive for books which seem to present most difficulty, as herein lies the best practice.
FACTORS AND NOTES.
Brief chronological list of the principal schemes of classification.
250 B.C. Callimachus
1548 Conrad Gesner
1623 Francis Bacon
1678 Jean Garnier
1679 Ismael Bouillaud
1773 Cels
1806 Barbier
1810 Schrettinger
1836-38 British Museum
1842 Brunet
1857 Royal Institution (Vincent)
1859 Edward Edwards
1870 W. T. Harris
1873 Cutter. Published 1876
1876 Melvil Dewey
1879 Schwarz
1887 Sonnenschein
1888 Hartwig
1890 Bonazzi
1894 Quinn-Brown
1898 Brown’s Adjustable
Brussels Expansion of Dewey
1902 Library of Congress
1906 Brown’s Subject
Classification Systems Used in British Municipal Libraries.
In looking over the statistics of nearly 600 British Municipal Libraries I find the systems of classification adopted stated as “Main Classes,” “Brown,” “Sectional,” “Adjustable,” “Fixed Location,” “Various,” etc., and to compile a list under the various heads would serve no useful purpose. I find, however, that the Dewey Decimal System, sometimes modified, is in use in over 300 libraries, Brown’s “Subject” and Brown’s “Adjustable” in over 100 libraries, Cutter’s “Expansive” in about 10, and the remainder various.