PART II. OUTLINES OF TROPICAL CLIMATOLOGY (continued 3)

Commencing with the Southern United States, all that need be described in the present work is the belt extending from California in the west to Florida in the east.

Los Angeles, California.

Month Monthly Means Absolute Maxima Absolute Minima Relative Humidity % Monthly Rainfall Number of Rainy Days

F. C. F. C. F. C. Ins. Mm.

January 54 12·2 87 30·6 30 -1·1 66 2·80 71·1 6

February 55 12·8 88 31·1 28 -2·2 69 2·82 71·3 6

March 57 13·9 99 37·2 31 -0·6 73 2·72 68·7 7

April 60 15·6 99 37·2 38 3·3 73 1·10 27·9 4

May 63 17·2 103 39·4 41 5·0 74 0·51 12·7 3

June 67 19·4 100 37·8 46 7·8 73 0·10 2·5 1

July 71 21·7 109 42·8 50 10·0 74 0·02 0·0 0

August 72 22·2 106 41·1 51 10·6 74 0·04 0·1 0

September 70 21·1 108 42·2 44 6·7 72 0·04 0·1 0

October 64 17·8 96 35·6 40 4·4 71 0·81 20·4 3

November 60 15·6 96 35·6 34 1·1 64 1·47 36·9 3

December 56 13·3 88 31·1 30 -1·1 65 3·28 82·7 6

The climate of California is undoubtedly one of the finest in the world. Like the rest of the western seaboard of America, the rainfall is small, but there is always sufficient water for cultivation by the agency of irrigation; and the clearness of the atmosphere and genial temperature renders this State the ideal of the physician in search for health resorts. Apart, indeed, from the excitements of “euchre” and the germs introduced by the Chinese settler, it seems difficult to understand why anyone should suffer illness in such a climate as that of Los Angeles, whose principal characteristics are epitomised in the above table. Let us hope, however, that “Ah Sin” has not driven the angels too far away for recall by the rapidly advancing sanitation of American civilisation.

With a total rainfall of only 15·43 ins. (392 mm.), and a remarkably high percentage of hours of sunshine, even during the rainy months, one begins to understand how it is that a Californian fellow-member of the Golf Club of Rome used to complain of the “gloom” of a Roman winter. The one drawback is the enormous daily range of over 50° F., which must be necessarily trying to delicate subjects who neglect obvious precautions; but avoidance of the fierce heat out of doors of the afternoon, and the chill that follows sunset, should suffice to neutralise this defect. Across the sierras, in Texas the rainfall remains very scanty, amounting to no more than 9·8 ins. (250 mm.) in the district of El Paso, but improves steadily as we approach the eastern frontier, where it reaches 52 ins. (1,320 mm.) at Galveston, on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico. This place is regarded as a health resort for the Southern States; Dr. Solly, the American authority on medical climatology, writes:—

“The climate of Galveston, in the Gulf of Mexico, is warm, mild and humid. Occasionally, there are winters when the temperature does not fall below 32°. During the past twenty years there have been thirteen years in which the temperature has not fallen below 24°, and but two years below 20°. The seasonal mean temperatures are: Winter, 55°; Spring, 69°; Summer, 83°; Autumn, 71°. The annual mean is 70°. Monthly mean for January, 53°; for July, 84°. The extreme temperature record is 98°, and the minimum 20°. The mean rainfall is 51 inches, distributed as follows: Winter, 11·5 inches; Spring, 10·2 inches; Summer, 13·3 inches; Autumn, 16·6 inches. The heaviest rain takes place in September, and the least in February and July. The mean annual relative humidity is 77 per cent.; for Winter, 81 per cent. Wind movement averages 11·1 miles, the prevailing winds being from S. and S.E. The highest winds occur in winter and blow from the N., but the average ‘northers’ of upper Texas are but little felt in the Gulf of Mexico.”

Proceeding westward along the Mexican Gulf we find the climate grows steadily moister, New Orleans, which is placed very nearly in the middle of its northern coast, presenting the following climatic factors.

New Orleans. Lat. 29° 58′ N. Long. 90° 11′ W.

Month Monthly Mean Temperature Monthly Absolute Maxima Monthly Absolute Minima Relative Humidity Mean Monthly Rainfall Number of Rainy Days

F. C. F. C. F. C. Ins. Mm.

January 58·8 14·8 82 27·8 15 -9·4 79 5·17 130·9 11

February 58·1 14·4 82 27·8 25 -3·9 81 4·56 115·7 10

March 62·0 16·7 84 28·9 30 -1·1 76 5·35 135·9 9

April 69·0 20·6 88 31·1 38 3·3 76 5·28 133·5 8

May 74·6 23·7 92 33·3 53 11·7 74 4·76 120·7 9

June 80·3 26·8 97 36·1 58 14·4 78 6·49 165·0 14

July 82·2 27·9 99 37·2 67 19·4 78 6·50 165·1 16

August 81·5 27·5 96 35·6 63 17·2 79 6·02 153·6 14

September 78·3 25·7 95 35·0 56 13·3 77 4·70 119·4 11

October 69·8 21·0 90 32·2 40 4·4 74 3·25 82·5 7

November 60·7 15·9 85 29·4 30 -1·1 79 4·30 109·2 9

December 55·5 13·1 81 27·2 20 -6·7 80 4·38 111·7 4

Year 68·8 20·4 99 37·2 15 -9·4 78 60·52 153·7 128

The amenity of the climate of Florida is proverbial, as the maxima rarely run so high, and the annual and daily range is much smaller than is the case further west, owing to the effect of the Gulf Stream, which sweeps out past its projecting shore. On this account there is an almost entire absence of frost, and the State has become celebrated for its cultivation of oranges, a fruit which is at once nipped by any approach to freezing point. Dr. Solly describes it as follows:—

“The climate is marine in character, and is very equable and temperate for its latitude. The mean annual temperature runs from 69° at Sanford to 79·8° at Jacksonville; for the winter, the variation is from 54·6° at Pensacola to 66·5°, at Jupiter. Frost, snow and ice are very rare. Annual rainfall varies from 53·19 inches at Pensacola to 57·16 at Cedar Keys; of this, one half usually occurs in the summer. The mean relative humidity varies from 76 per cent. at Pensacola to 80 at Cedar Keys. In the winter months it is from 76 to 87 per cent. The total number of rainy days ranged from 103·8 at Cedar Keys to 124·1 at Pensacola, and the number of cloudy days in the same places was 66.8 and 84·5. Dr. Hall, while admitting the prevalence of malaria, states that there are many places quite free from it, and that it is generally diminishing.”

Mexico.

—Extending, as it does, completely across the southern portion of the North American Continent, the climate of Mexico presents the same sequence from the drought of the eastern to the moderately ample rainfall of the western coasts; and here too, there are places in the central highlands that are much drier than any to be found on either coast. These points are illustrated in the table on following page.

The corresponding data as to temperature are given below.

Table of Temperatures of Mexican Stations.

Place Mean Annual Temperature Coldest Month Warmest Month

Name Mean Temperature Name Mean Temperature

F. C. F. C. F. C.

Mazatlan 74·5 23·6 January 66·1 19 July 81·6 27·6

Culiacan 76·5 24·8 January 65·0 18·3 July 84·5 29·2

Leon 65·5 18·5 December 56·4 13·5 May 73·6 23·2

Mexico 59·5 15·4 December 53·6 12·0 May 64·5 18·1

Puebla 60·0 15·6 January 53·1 11·8 May 64·5 18·2

Matamoros 73·5 23·2 January 62·6 17·0 July 84·2 29·0

Montery 70·4 21·3 January 54·6 12·6 June 82·0 27·8

Vera Cruz 76·6 24·8 December 70·5 21·4 August 81·3 27·4

Cordoba 69·0 20·6 January 64·4 18·0 May 73·5 23·1

Central America and the Isthmus of Panama.

—This portion of the American continent is notoriously unhealthy, especially along the only routes practicable for an inter-oceanic canal.

It is said that the construction of the railway across Panama cost a human life for every sleeper that was laid.

Much of this is due to malaria, but yellow fever also frequently attacked the workers, and it is to be hoped that as both these diseases are known to be capable of transmission only by the agency of mosquitoes, that a rational prophylaxis against the bites of these insects will form part of the sanitary programme of the huge work that is now being proceeded with. In any case, when the new canal comes to be finished it will behove passengers by the mail boats to provide themselves with mosquito nets for this portion of the voyage.

Rainfall Table of Mexican Stations.

Place Pacific Coast Central Plateau Atlantic Coast

Mazatlan Chihuahua Leon Mexico Oxaca Matamoros Vera Cruz

Latitude, N. 23° 11′ 28° 38′ 21° 7′ 19° 26′ 16° 57′ 25° 49′ 19° 12′

Longitude, W. 106° 24′ 106° 30′ 101° 40′ 99° 8′ 94° 42′ 97° 38′ 96° 8′

Elevation 30 ft. 4,650 ft. 5,850 ft. 7,400 ft. 5,150 ft. 63 ft. 48 ft.

Scale Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm.

January 1·34 34 1·49 38 0·36 9 0·16 4 0·13 3 1·58 40 0·39 10

February 0·24 6 0·28 7 0·34 8 0·24 6 0·55 14 2·34 59 0·55 14

March 0·24 6 0·0 0 0·36 9 0·59 15 0·59 15 2·44 62 0·60 18

April 0·04 1 0·24 6 0·28 7 0·59 15 1·77 45 2·24 57 0·13 3

May 0·28 7 1·38 35 1·14 29 2·02 51 3·94 100 2·22 56 4·26 108

June 1·85 47 8·51 216 4·88 124 4·09 104 8·64 219 3·63 92 12·48 317

July 6·54 166 6·04 153 5·68 144 4·09 104 4·09 104 2·37 60 14·81 376

August 10·35 257 5·24 133 5·91 150 4·83 123 4·26 108 1·66 42 8·74 222

September 8·63 219 1·08 27 5·07 129 3·97 101 5·94 151 7·04 179 11·62 295

October 3·15 80 1·14 29 1·69 43 1·68 43 2·92 74 4·45 113 9·03 229

November 0·48 12 0·0 0 0·39 10 0·43 11 0·39 10 4·47 114 3·24 82

December 0·91 23 0·08 2 0·36 9 0·16 4 0·03 1 2·24 57 2·03 51

Year 33·92 863 25·44 646 26·39 671 22·97 581 33·21 844 36·66 931 67·92 1,728

The north-east Trades dominate the Atlantic coast of these regions throughout the year, but on the Pacific side, during the summer months, a southerly breeze takes its place.

The rainfall is very heavy, but even here, in spite of the narrowness of the dividing belt of land, the comparative dryness of the Southern or Pacific coast is quite obvious, as may be seen from a glance at the table on the following page.

The rainfall, it will be noted, varies greatly owing to small local differences of environment, and includes at least one place far up on the world’s list of the wettest spots.

The stifling heat and damp of Greytown used to be well known to naval officers of the last generation, and it is probably a fortunate circumstance for their successors that the harbour has now so silted up as to be useless, for at one time it was frequently visited by our men-of-war.

The corresponding temperature records, given below, do not run very high, but the places on the Atlantic shore are extremely enervating on account of the extreme dampness of the air.

Table of Temperatures in Localities in Central America.

Place Absolute Mean Annual Maxima Absolute Mean Annual Minima Coldest Month Warmest Month

Name Mean Temperature Name Mean Temperature

F. C. F. C. F. C. F. C.

San Salvador 93·4 34·1 56 13·3 December 70·2 21·2 April 75·2 24

Taboga Island 96·5 35·8 66·4 19·1 February 77·2 25·1 June 80·2 26·8

San José 88·5 31·4 50·2 10·1 December 65·6 18·7 May 68·7 20·4

Coban 88·3 31·3 40·2 4·5 December 62·3 16·8 May 68·8 20·5

Guatemala 87·5 30·8 45·6 7·6 January 62·0 16·7 May 68·5 20·3

Quezaltenango 76·4 24·6 26·7 -3·0 January 50·2 10·1 May 62·0 16·7

Belize 91·2 32·9 59·6 15·4 December 74·5 23·6 August 82·5 28·1

Colon 94·3 34·5 66·0 18·9 November 78·5 25·8 June 79·8 26·6

Gamboa 96·6 35·9 57·2 14·0 February 76·8 24·9 June 80·4 26·8

Rainfall Table for Central America.

Place San Salvador Taboga Island Rivas San José Guatemala Coban Belize Greytown Colon

Situation Pacific Coast of Salvador Pacific, off Panama Costa Rica, near Pacific Coast Costa Rica, near Pacific Coast Guatemala, Inland Guatemala, Inland Atlantic Coast, British Honduras Atlantic Coast, Costa Rica Atlantic Coast, Panama

Latitude, N. 13° 39′ 8° 52′ 11° 30′ 90° 56′ 14° 38′ 15° 30′ 17° 32′ 10° 30′ 9° 22′

Longitude, W. 89° 13′ 79° 31′ 85° 47′ 84° 8′ 90° 31′ 90° 25′ 88° 10′ 83° 22′ 79° 55′

Elevation (feet) 2,970 near sea-level 1,500 3,600 4,810 2,500 near sea-level near sea-level near sea-level

Scale Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm.

January 0·07 2 0·48 12 0·38 10 0·38 10 0·42 11 5·36 136 5·78 147 21·39 543 1·88 48

February 0·07 2 0·03 1 0·01 2 0·13 3 0·13 3 4·58 116 3·08 78 5·78 147 1·49 38

March 0·59 15 0·16 4 0·19 5 0·83 22 0·88 20 3·67 93 1·54 39 4·75 120 1·30 33

April 1·54 39 0·87 22 0·33 8 1·17 30 2·38 60 2·44 62 1·54 39 10·39 264 2·65 68

May 7·83 199 5·27 134 7·53 191 7·98 203 4·97 126 7·22 183 3·24 83 12·73 328 11·40 290

June 10·01 255 5·17 131 11·11 282 10·16 258 10·36 263 12·47 317 8·18 208 16·63 422 13·67 347

July 13·22 336 4·43 112 7·47 190 7·98 203 9·18 232 12·22 310 9·09 231 29·87 760 14·14 359

August 11·58 293 5·67 144 8·13 206 9·81 249 9·28 236 8·28 210 8·18 208 20·03 509 14·64 372

September 11·34 288 7·22 183 9·42 239 12·13 308 9·73 247 9·53 242 8·63 219 9·29 236 12·40 315

October 6·66 169 6·83 173 16·88 429 12·68 322 7·38 187 9·82 249 12·68 322 14·42 366 13·54 345

November 2·60 66 5·54 140 3·88 99 4·57 116 0.78 20 8·90 226 9·14 232 20·96 530 23·18 589

December 0·48 12 4·73 120 1·48 38 2·10 53 0·24 6 6·66 169 7·08 180 26·57 675 11·98 304

Year 65·97 1,676 46·37 1,178 66·88 1,699 70·97 1,777 55·55 1,411 98·94 2,313 78·18 1,986 192·67 4,895 122·37 3,108

Rainfall Table for Central America.

Place San Salvador Taboga Island Rivas San José Guatemala

Situation Pacific Coast of Salvador Pacific, off Panama Costa Rica, near Pacific Coast Costa Rica, near Pacific Coast Guatemala, Inland

Latitude, N. 13° 39′ 8° 52′ 11° 30′ 90° 56′ 14° 38′

Longitude, W. 89° 13′ 79° 31′ 85° 47′ 84° 8′ 90° 31′

Elevation (feet) 2,970 near sea-level 1,500 3,600 4,810

Scale Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm.

January 0·07 2 0·48 12 0·38 10 0·38 10 0·42 11

February 0·07 2 0·03 1 0·01 2 0·13 3 0·13 3

March 0·59 15 0·16 4 0·19 5 0·83 22 0·88 20

April 1·54 39 0·87 22 0·33 8 1·17 30 2·38 60

May 7·83 199 5·27 134 7·53 191 7·98 203 4·97 126

June 10·01 255 5·17 131 11·11 282 10·16 258 10·36 263

July 13·22 336 4·43 112 7·47 190 7·98 203 9·18 232

August 11·58 293 5·67 144 8·13 206 9·81 249 9·28 236

September 11·34 288 7·22 183 9·42 239 12·13 308 9·73 247

October 6·66 169 6·83 173 16·88 429 12·68 322 7·38 187

November 2·60 66 5·54 140 3·88 99 4·57 116 0.78 20

December 0·48 12 4·73 120 1·48 38 2·10 53 0·24 6

Year 65·97 1,676 46·37 1,178 66·88 1,699 70·97 1,777 55·55 1,411

Place Coban Belize Greytown Colon

Situation Guatemala, Inland Atlantic Coast, British Honduras Atlantic Coast, Costa Rica Atlantic Coast, Panama

Latitude, N. 15° 30′ 17° 32′ 10° 30′ 9° 22′

Longitude, W. 90° 25′ 88° 10′ 83° 22′ 79° 55′

Elevation (feet) 2,500 near sea-level near sea-level near sea-level

Scale Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm.

January 5·36 136 5·78 147 21·39 543 1·88 48

February 4·58 116 3·08 78 5·78 147 1·49 38

March 3·67 93 1·54 39 4·75 120 1·30 33

April 2·44 62 1·54 39 10·39 264 2·65 68

May 7·22 183 3·24 83 12·73 328 11·40 290

June 12·47 317 8·18 208 16·63 422 13·67 347

July 12·22 310 9·09 231 29·87 760 14·14 359

August 8·28 210 8·18 208 20·03 509 14·64 372

September 9·53 242 8·63 219 9·29 236 12·40 315

October 9·82 249 12·68 322 14·42 366 13·54 345

November 8·90 226 9·14 232 20·96 530 23·18 589

December 6·66 169 7·08 180 26·57 675 11·98 304

Year 98·94 2,313 78·18 1,986 192·67 4,895 122·37 3,108

The West Indies.

—These islands are all under the influence of the north-east Trades, and enjoy a mild but rather moist climate, with comparatively little variation through the year. Nearly all of them are extremely healthy for places in the Tropics, although they are occasionally visited by devastating outbreaks of yellow fever.

The Americans have, however, proved in the case of Havana that it is quite possible to reduce the risk of this disease to a minimum by the adoption of appropriate measures against the mosquitoes that carry the disease, and it ought to be possible for any one, who takes the matter in earnest, to insure himself almost completely against this danger.

In the north, among the lesser Antilles, the Trade wind has an almost purely easterly direction. During the months from June to November terrific revolving storms, known as hurricanes, are of not uncommon occurrence and constitute one of the gravest drawbacks to cultivation, besides often causing much injury to life. So enormous is the force of the wind during these visitations that even objects of great weight and small surface are set in motion, it being an absolute fact that huge Admiralty anchors have been shifted from the position in which they lay in the dockyard at Port Royal in Jamaica.

Havana, Cuba. Lat. 23° 9′ N.; Long. 82° 23′ W. Near Sea-level.

Month Mean Temperature Absolute Maxima Absolute Minima Relative Humidity Rainfall Number of Rainy Days

F. C. F. C. F. C. Ins. Mm.

January 70·3 21·3 84·4 29·1 52·3 11·3 75 2·71 68·7 7·5

February 72·0 22·2 87·6 30·9 51·4 10·7 73 2·27 57·2 5·7

March 73·2 22·9 91·4 33·0 55 12·8 70 1·83 46·0 5·5

April 76·1 24·5 93·6 34·3 52·9 11·6 69 2·83 72·0 4·6

May 78·8 26·0 99·0 37·2 64·4 18·0 71 4·47 113·2 9·3

June 81·5 27·5 97·7 36·5 69·1 20·6 76 7·16 181·7 12·8

July 82·4 28·0 100·6 38·2 71·2 21·8 74 5·06 128·5 12·7

August 82·2 27·9 98·6 37·0 69·8 21·0 75 6·02 153·1 12·6

September 80·7 27·0 96·1 35·6 70·9 21·6 79 6·71 171·0 15·4

October 78·1 25·7 91·9 33·2 61·9 16·6 78 7·42 188·5 15·1

November 75·3 24·0 88·7 31·5 56·5 13·6 77 3·08 78·3 10·2

December 71·4 21·8 86·0 30·0 51·8 11·0 74 2·15 54·6 8·5

Year 76·3 24·8 100·6 38·2 51·4 10·8 74 51·73 1313·5 119·9

It is unfortunately impossible, from considerations of space, to do more than give a few examples of the climatic conditions to be met with, but those selected may suffice to give a general idea of what may be expected, as no very great differences will be found, in spite of the large area over which these islands are scattered.

Jamaica, a table for which is given below, has a rather heavier rainfall of 70 ins. (1,778 mm.), but not so high as that of Martinique, 94·5 ins. (2,399 mm.), though even this cannot be considered high for a tropical climate. Of the other islands, Nassau in the Bahamas has 54·41 ins. (1,382 mm.); Port Au Prince, Haiti, 55 ins. (1,397 mm.); St. Croix, 46·56 ins. (1,183 mm.); St. Kitts, 51 ins. (1,295 mm.); Guadeloupe, 64·4 ins. (1,635 mm.); and Barbados, 57·74 ins. (1,467 mm.)—figures which serve well to indicate the general uniformity of climate throughout the group.

The table for Jamaica is as follows, but it must be remembered that most of the troops are now quartered at camps at a moderate elevation above the town, where it is considerably cooler than at the sea level.

Kingston, Jamaica. Lat. 17° 50′ N.; Long. 76° 42′ W.

Month Mean Monthly Maxima Mean Monthly Minima Mean Relative Humidity % Mean Monthly Rainfall

F. C. F. C. 7 a.m. 4 p.m. Ins. Mm.

January 86·2 30·1 66·7 19·3 84 63 3·79 96·4

February 85·3 29·5 67·0 19·4 81 65 2·62 66·5

March 85·4 29·6 67·8 19·9 84 65 2·86 73·0

April 86·5 30·3 71·1 21·8 83 66 4·50 114·3

May 87·8 31·0 73·2 22·9 73 70 9·56 243·0

June 89·0 31·7 73·4 23·0 72 66 4·77 121·1

July 89·8 32·0 73·3 22·9 73 60 6·51 165·6

August 89·9 32·1 73·3 22·9 80 63 7·12 181·0

September 89·3 31·8 74·1 23·4 83 68 10·37 263·0

October 88·0 31·1 73·5 23·1 88 69 6·50 165·1

November 87·3 30·7 70·9 22·2 85 68 6·53 176·0

December 85·6 29·8 68·2 20·2 83 58 5·53 140·0

Even Trinidad, the most southerly of all the islands in no way rivals the East Indies either in temperature or rainfall, the total of the latter being 65·5 ins. (1,663 mm.). Its hottest months, March and September, have a mean temperature of 78·5° F. (25·8° C.), and its coldest, February, of 75·4° F. (24° C.); the absolute extreme temperature of the year being 89·5° F. (31·9° C.) and 64° F. (17·9° C.). The highest temperature for any island is 100° F. (37·8° C.) at Havana, but from its landlocked position this place appertains more to the climatic conditions of the mainland than to the islands in general.

South America.

—The greater part of the tropical portion of the southern division of the western continent comes within the influence of the north-east Trades, which sweep up from the sea an enormous volume of watery vapour, which is precipitated gradually as the air current passes across the land. The second great factor in the determination of its climate is the position of the enormous mountain range of the Andes, quite close to the western coast, and of such a height as to cut off practically the last drops of moisture brought by the Trades, so as to leave the narrow belt of country between the Andes and the Pacific with a rainfall so scanty as to be in some instances almost negligible, as is the case with Lima, amounting to little more than an inch and a half in the year. So vast, however, is the amount of moisture imported by the Trades that the supply lasts out well, quite to the foot of the Andes, the rainfall of Manaos, half-way across, being rather greater than that of the east coast; but once the mountains are passed the change is abrupt and enormous. Unfortunately, however, when one sets one’s self to plot out the change as represented by a line of observations carried across the continent, one finds one’s self at once met by the difficulty that there is very little exact information to be obtained, as the all-absorbing interests of the ever-changing political barometer leaves the population little time to study the mercurial instrument, and they appear to be much fonder of playing with repeating rifles than with aneroids. Practically speaking, there is little exact information to be obtained for places at any distance from the coast, and on this account the tables given below refer almost exclusively to the littoral regions, and any attempt at anything beyond remarks of the most general character is out of the question.

Quite at the southern boundary of our limits we have the first-class observatory of San Paolo, which although but little outside the geographical, tropical zone, enjoys a temperature which shows that we are rapidly leaving warm climates behind, for the climate is already milder than most localities in the subtropical zone of the old world.

San Paolo. 23° 33′ S.; 46° 38′ W. E.F., 2,400.

Month Mean Monthly Temperature Mean Monthly Maxima Mean Monthly Minima Relative Humidity Mean Monthly Rainfall Number of Rainy Days

F. C. F. C. F. C. Ins. Mm.

January 68·2 20·1 77·2 25·1 61·7 16·5 86 7·08 180 18

February 68·9 20·5 78·8 26·0 62·7 17·0 86 8·23 208 12

March 67·4 19·6 77·2 25·1 61·8 16·6 87 5·96 152 19

April 63·5 17·5 73·4 23·0 57·5 14·2 87 2·84 72 14

May 61·0 16·1 72·0 22·2 52·3 11·2 80 1·90 48·3 6

June 56·8 13·8 69·7 20·9 47·5 8·6 80 0·48 12·3 4

July 61·0 16·1 71·0 21·7 52·8 11·6 78 1·93 48·9 10

August 61·0 16·1 69·7 20·9 55·2 12·9 83 2·30 58·4 17

September 62·0 16·7 72·8 22·7 55·0 12·8 81 1·02 26·2 7

October 65·8 18·8 78·0 28·6 58·5 14·7 79 0·77 20·0 5

November 64·4 18·0 76·0 24·4 57·2 14·0 79 3·57 89·5 14

December 80·5 26·9 79·0 26·1 63·5 17·5 84 8·74 222 23

With a total rainfall of 44·77 ins. (1,137 mm.) and absolute extremes of temperature of 98° F. (36·5° C.) and 55° F. (12·9° C), the climate, though perhaps not bracing, can never be unpleasant. The shore is here washed by a warm southerly current from the equatorial regions, whereas on the west coast the inshore current is a northerly one from the antarctic regions. On this account it is necessary to go a good deal to the geographical north to select a place on the west coast for comparison of the rainfall in the same isotherm.

Molendo. Lat. 17° 5′ S.; Long. 72° 0′ W. (The Port of Arequipa in South of Peru.)

Month Mean Monthly Temperature Mean Monthly Maxima Mean Monthly Minima Monthly Rainfall

F. C. F. C. F. C. Ins. Mm.

January 72·3 22·4 79·4 26·3 66·7 19·3 0 0

February 72·8 22·7 79·5 26·4 67·5 19·7 0·08 2

March 71·5 21·9 78·0 25·6 66·0 18·9 0 0

April 68·2 20·1 74·8 23·8 63·4 17·4 0·08 2

May 65·8 18·8 72·7 22·7 62·8 17·1 0·17 4

June 63·0 17·2 68·5 20·3 57·8 14·3 0·6 1

July 60·9 16·0 66·0 18·9 55·7 13·2 0 0

August 59·5 15·3 65·0 18·3 54·7 12·6 0·23 6

September 61·2 16·2 67·0 19·4 56·0 13·3 0·06 1

October 63·3 17·4 70·0 21·1 57·3 14·1 0·08 2

November 66·3 19·1 73·0 22·8 60·2 15·7 0·08 2

December 70·8 21·6 78·2 25·7 64·7 18·2 0·06 1

Year 60·4 19·1 72·7 22·6 61·0 16·1 0·83 21

Table of Temperature Data of Places in South America.

Place Latitude Longitude Eleva- tion in Feet Mean Temperature of Year Maximum Temperature of Year Minimum Temperature of Year Hottest Month Coldest Month

Name Mean Temperature Name Mean Temperature

F. C. F. C. F. C. F. C. F. C.

Northern Coast, on Atlantic Seaboard.

Caracas, Venezuela 10° 30′ N. 66° 55′ W. 3,000 71·2 21·8 79·7 26·5 57·8 14·3 May 74·0 23·3 January 68·5 20·3

La Guayra, port 10° 37′ N. 67° 0′ W. — 78·2 25·7 — — — — September 80·7 27·0 Feb.-Mar. 75·7 24·3

Tovar 10° 26′ N. 67° 20′ W. 6,000 58.0 14·4 — — — — April 59·6 15·3 January 54·5 12·5

Western Littoral—Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru.

Medellin 6° 10′ N. 75° 45′ W. 4,676 70·0 21·1 85·0 29·4 56·5 13·6 February 71·0 21·7 November 68·5 20·3

Bogota 4° 35′ N. 71° 14′ W. 8,650 58·0 14·4 72·0 22·2 45·8 7·7 Mar.-April 58·7 14·8 July 56·8 13·8

Quito 0° 14′ S. 78° 32′ W. 9,300 56·3 13·5 73·5 23·1 38·2 3·4 Dec.-Jan. 56·7 13·7 Sept.-Oct. 56·2 13·4

Antisana 0° 21′ S. 78° 6′ W. 13,200 40·8 4·9 52·0 11·0 21·0 -6·2 January 43·2 6·2 July-Aug. 37·3 3·0

Guayaquil 2° 10′ S. 79° 56′ W. — 80·7 27·0 95·0 35·0 66·2 19·0 January 83·4 28·5 July 77·8 25·5

Lima 12° 4′ S. 79° 21′ W. 530 66·2 19·0 88·2 31·2 48·5 9·2 February 73·7 23·2 July 59·0 15·0

Anca 18° 25′ S. 70° 22′ W. — 67·5 19·7 82·4 28·0 56·0 13·3 Dec.-Jan. 71·7 22·0 August 63·2 17·3

Salta 24° 46′ S. 65° 24′ W. 4,000 63·2 17·3 109·4 43·0 23·0 -5·0 December 72·2 22·3 June 50·8 10·5

Copiapo 27° 22′ S. 70° 23′ W. 1,200 61·5 16·4 87·3 30·7 37·4 3·0 January 69·8 21·0 July 53·2 11·8

North-East Coast—British Guiana.

Georgetown 6° 50′ N. 58° 8′ W. — 79·0 26·1 90·0 32·2 70·0 21·1 Sept.-Oct. 80·7 27·0 Jan.-Feb. 77·5 25·3

Dutch Guiana.

Burnside 5° 53′ N. 50° 23′ W. — 78·7 25·9 92·8 33·8 68·7 20·4 October 80·0 26·7 February 77·3 25·2

Paramaribo 5° 44′ N. 50° 13′ W. — 78·7 25·9 94·4 34·6 67·8 19·9 September 80·8 27·1 January 77·2 25·1

French Guiana.

Cayenne 4° 56′ N. 52° 18′ W. — 79·5 26·4 94·4 34·6 68·0 20·0 Sept.-Oct. 81·4 27·4 January 77·5 25·3

Brazil, Amazon Coast.

Para 1° 30′ S. 48° 24′ W. — 78·5 25·8 — — — — June 79·5 26·4 January 77·7 25·4

Interior of Brazil.

Manaos 3° 8′ S. 60° 0′ W. 150 79·0 26·0 — — — — November 79·8 26·6 April 77·0 25·0

San Antonio 9° 5′ S. 64° 0′ W. — 78·0 25·6 — — — — October 79·4 26·3 June 76·8 24·9

Peruvian frontier 11° 30′ S. 68° 30′ W. 650 77·4 25·2 — — — — December 80·0 26·7 June 72·2 22·3

Cuyaba 15° 86′ S. 56° 7′ W. 700 77·5 25·3 105·8 41·0 48·2 9·0 Sept.-Oct. 80·7 27·0 June 69·5 20·8

Uberaba 19° 44′ S. 47° 45′ W. 2,600 70·3 21·3 96·8 36·0 36·5 2·5 February 74·2 23·4 July 64·0 17·8

Western Central Brazil.

Pernambuco 8° 4′ S. 34° 51′ W. — 78·5 25·8 97·5 36·4 64·5 18·1 February 81·7 27·6 July 73·7 23·2

Victoria 8° 9′ S. 35° 27′ W. 550 76·7 24·8 99·4 37·4 57·3 14·1 February 79·5 26·4 July 72·8 22·7

Colony of Isabella 8° 45′ S. 35° 42′ W. 750 74·2 23·4 91·2 32·9 56·2 13·4 February 76·6 24·7 July 70·0 21·1

Bahia 12° 59′ S. 38° 36′ W. 200 77·8 25·5 89·0 31·7 70·7 21·5 February 80·8 27·1 July 73·7 23·2

Rio Janeiro 22° 54′ S. 43° 10′ W. 200 72·5 22·3 97·7 36·6 55·2 12·9 February 77·2 25·1 July 67·5 19·7

Joinville 26° 19′ S. 49° 43′ W. — 68·0 20·0 — — — — February 75·5 24·2 July 61·5 16·4

Villa Formosa 26° 13′ S. 58° 5′ W. 250 70·2 21·2 100·3 38·0 37·7 3·2 January 79·2 26·2 July 61·3 16·3

Table of Temperature Data of Places in South America.

Place Latitude Longitude Eleva- tion in Feet Mean Temperature of Year Maximum Temperature of Year Minimum Temperature of Year

F. C. F. C. F. C.

Northern Coast, on Atlantic Seaboard.

Caracas, Venezuela 10° 30′ N. 66° 55′ W. 3,000 71·2 21·8 79·7 26·5 57·8 14·3

La Guayra, port 10° 37′ N. 67° 0′ W. — 78·2 25·7 — — — —

Tovar 10° 26′ N. 67° 20′ W. 6,000 58.0 14·4 — — — —

Western Littoral—Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru.

Medellin 6° 10′ N. 75° 45′ W. 4,676 70·0 21·1 85·0 29·4 56·5 13·6

Bogota 4° 35′ N. 71° 14′ W. 8,650 58·0 14·4 72·0 22·2 45·8 7·7

Quito 0° 14′ S. 78° 32′ W. 9,300 56·3 13·5 73·5 23·1 38·2 3·4

Antisana 0° 21′ S. 78° 6′ W. 13,200 40·8 4·9 52·0 11·0 21·0 -6·2

Guayaquil 2° 10′ S. 79° 56′ W. — 80·7 27·0 95·0 35·0 66·2 19·0

Lima 12° 4′ S. 79° 21′ W. 530 66·2 19·0 88·2 31·2 48·5 9·2

Anca 18° 25′ S. 70° 22′ W. — 67·5 19·7 82·4 28·0 56·0 13·3

Salta 24° 46′ S. 65° 24′ W. 4,000 63·2 17·3 109·4 43·0 23·0 -5·0

Copiapo 27° 22′ S. 70° 23′ W. 1,200 61·5 16·4 87·3 30·7 37·4 3·0

North-East Coast—British Guiana.

Georgetown 6° 50′ N. 58° 8′ W. — 79·0 26·1 90·0 32·2 70·0 21·1

Dutch Guiana.

Burnside 5° 53′ N. 50° 23′ W. — 78·7 25·9 92·8 33·8 68·7 20·4

Paramaribo 5° 44′ N. 50° 13′ W. — 78·7 25·9 94·4 34·6 67·8 19·9

French Guiana.

Cayenne 4° 56′ N. 52° 18′ W. — 79·5 26·4 94·4 34·6 68·0 20·0

Brazil, Amazon Coast.

Para 1° 30′ S. 48° 24′ W. — 78·5 25·8 — — — —

Interior of Brazil.

Manaos 3° 8′ S. 60° 0′ W. 150 79·0 26·0 — — — —

San Antonio 9° 5′ S. 64° 0′ W. — 78·0 25·6 — — — —

Peruvian frontier 11° 30′ S. 68° 30′ W. 650 77·4 25·2 — — — —

Cuyaba 15° 86′ S. 56° 7′ W. 700 77·5 25·3 105·8 41·0 48·2 9·0

Uberaba 19° 44′ S. 47° 45′ W. 2,600 70·3 21·3 96·8 36·0 36·5 2·5

Western Central Brazil.

Pernambuco 8° 4′ S. 34° 51′ W. — 78·5 25·8 97·5 36·4 64·5 18·1

Victoria 8° 9′ S. 35° 27′ W. 550 76·7 24·8 99·4 37·4 57·3 14·1

Colony of Isabella 8° 45′ S. 35° 42′ W. 750 74·2 23·4 91·2 32·9 56·2 13·4

Bahia 12° 59′ S. 38° 36′ W. 200 77·8 25·5 89·0 31·7 70·7 21·5

Rio Janeiro 22° 54′ S. 43° 10′ W. 200 72·5 22·3 97·7 36·6 55·2 12·9

Joinville 26° 19′ S. 49° 43′ W. — 68·0 20·0 — — — —

Villa Formosa 26° 13′ S. 58° 5′ W. 250 70·2 21·2 100·3 38·0 37·7 3·2

Table of Temperature Data of Places in South America.

Place Latitude Longitude Eleva- tion in Feet Hottest Month Coldest Month

Name Mean Temperature Name Mean Temperature

F. C. F. C.

Northern Coast, on Atlantic Seaboard.

Caracas, Venezuela 10° 30′ N. 66° 55′ W. 3,000 May 74·0 23·3 January 68·5 20·3

La Guayra, port 10° 37′ N. 67° 0′ W. — September 80·7 27·0 Feb.-Mar. 75·7 24·3

Tovar 10° 26′ N. 67° 20′ W. 6,000 April 59·6 15·3 January 54·5 12·5

Western Littoral—Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru.

Medellin 6° 10′ N. 75° 45′ W. 4,676 February 71·0 21·7 November 68·5 20·3

Bogota 4° 35′ N. 71° 14′ W. 8,650 Mar.-April 58·7 14·8 July 56·8 13·8

Quito 0° 14′ S. 78° 32′ W. 9,300 Dec.-Jan. 56·7 13·7 Sept.-Oct. 56·2 13·4

Antisana 0° 21′ S. 78° 6′ W. 13,200 January 43·2 6·2 July-Aug. 37·3 3·0

Guayaquil 2° 10′ S. 79° 56′ W. — January 83·4 28·5 July 77·8 25·5

Lima 12° 4′ S. 79° 21′ W. 530 February 73·7 23·2 July 59·0 15·0

Anca 18° 25′ S. 70° 22′ W. — Dec.-Jan. 71·7 22·0 August 63·2 17·3

Salta 24° 46′ S. 65° 24′ W. 4,000 December 72·2 22·3 June 50·8 10·5

Copiapo 27° 22′ S. 70° 23′ W. 1,200 January 69·8 21·0 July 53·2 11·8

North-East Coast—British Guiana.

Georgetown 6° 50′ N. 58° 8′ W. — Sept.-Oct. 80·7 27·0 Jan.-Feb. 77·5 25·3

Dutch Guiana.

Burnside 5° 53′ N. 50° 23′ W. — October 80·0 26·7 February 77·3 25·2

Paramaribo 5° 44′ N. 50° 13′ W. — September 80·8 27·1 January 77·2 25·1

French Guiana.

Cayenne 4° 56′ N. 52° 18′ W. — Sept.-Oct. 81·4 27·4 January 77·5 25·3

Brazil, Amazon Coast.

Para 1° 30′ S. 48° 24′ W. — June 79·5 26·4 January 77·7 25·4

Interior of Brazil.

Manaos 3° 8′ S. 60° 0′ W. 150 November 79·8 26·6 April 77·0 25·0

San Antonio 9° 5′ S. 64° 0′ W. — October 79·4 26·3 June 76·8 24·9

Peruvian frontier 11° 30′ S. 68° 30′ W. 650 December 80·0 26·7 June 72·2 22·3

Cuyaba 15° 86′ S. 56° 7′ W. 700 Sept.-Oct. 80·7 27·0 June 69·5 20·8

Uberaba 19° 44′ S. 47° 45′ W. 2,600 February 74·2 23·4 July 64·0 17·8

Western Central Brazil.

Pernambuco 8° 4′ S. 34° 51′ W. — February 81·7 27·6 July 73·7 23·2

Victoria 8° 9′ S. 35° 27′ W. 550 February 79·5 26·4 July 72·8 22·7

Colony of Isabella 8° 45′ S. 35° 42′ W. 750 February 76·6 24·7 July 70·0 21·1

Bahia 12° 59′ S. 38° 36′ W. 200 February 80·8 27·1 July 73·7 23·2

Rio Janeiro 22° 54′ S. 43° 10′ W. 200 February 77·2 25·1 July 67·5 19·7

Joinville 26° 19′ S. 49° 43′ W. — February 75·5 24·2 July 61·5 16·4

Villa Formosa 26° 13′ S. 58° 5′ W. 250 January 79·2 26·2 July 61·3 16·3

In contrast with the fairly liberal rainfall of the east coast we find places almost as rainless as Waddy Halfa in the Soudan.

Arequipa, e.g., though situated high up on the Andes, is nearly as dry as Lima, but receives a few trifling showers during the height of summer and autumn (January to March).

Arequipa. Lat. 16° 24′ S.; Long. 71° 30′ W. E.F., 7,680.

Month Mean Monthly Temperature Relative Humidity Monthly Rainfall

F. C. Ins. Mm.

January 56·5 13·6 65 1·08 27

February 55·4 13·0 69 5·28 134

March 56·0 13·3 — 0·84 21

April 53·2 11·8 71 0 0

May 49·0 9·4 — 0 0

June 47·5 8·6 44 0 0

July 51·0 10·6 45 0 0

August 53·0 11·7 52 0 0

September 56·0 13·3 55 0·03 1

October 56·7 13·7 59 0 0

November 57·2 14·0 — 0 0

December 56·8 13·8 65 0·03 1

Year 54·2 12·3 59 7·28 185

These Western figures must serve as a specimen, though only for a single year; for as already remarked, meteorology is but fitfully studied in South America.

Many towns and districts, especially on the northern and eastern coasts, are at a considerable elevation above the sea, and in estimating the probable climate of such localities the following scale of diminution of mean temperature for height in the equatorial Andes may be of service:—

Elevation in Feet - Sea-level 1,500 4,500 7,000 10,000 13,000 17,000 20,000

Tempera- ture F. - 80° 77° 68° 59° 50° 40° 32° 20°

Or expressed in the metric system:—

Elevation in Metres - Sea-level 490 1,420 2,320 3,270 4,190 5,120 6,040

Tempera- ture C. - 27° 25° 20° 15° 10° 5° 0° -5°

The tables given on pages 92, 93, compiled from Hann’s “Klimatologie” include some of the better-known sites in South America, but it will be observed that we are wofully wanting in detailed information as to places in the interior, by far the majority being places on the coast.

The small variation and remarkable uniformity of temperature in places spread over so large an area, when situated at all near the same level above the sea, is very remarkable, as also is the fact that nothing approaching the excessive temperature of Africa, the other great Southern Peninsula, is to be met with here.

Guiana, Venezuela, and the other countries of the north and north-eastern coasts, are no doubt steamy and unhealthy, but the greater part of Brazil seems to possess a climate by no means prohibitive of European energy, though doubtless the deltas of the great rivers, like similar situations elsewhere, are best avoided from the point of view of health.

Tables of the rainfall of a few places in each of the regions included in the preceding table will be found below:—

Rainfall in Places on N. and N.E. Coast, South America.

Place Cartagena, Colombia Caracas, Venezuela (3,000 ft.) George Town, Brit. Guiana Paramaribo, Dutch Guiana Cayenne, French Guiana Para, Brazil

Month Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm.

January 0 0 0·37 9 6·92 176 9·93 252 14·23 361 11·97 303

February 0 0 0·33 8 4·88 124 6·12 155 12·43 316 11·02 280

March 0·19 5 0·28 7 5·42 138 7·48 190 15·53 394 12·98 329

April 0·13 3 1·03 26 6·43 163 9·82 249 15·16 385 13·37 340

May 5·18 132 2·17 55 10·95 279 11·97 304 19·25 489 7·64 194

June 4·83 124 4·57 116 11·96 303 11·88 300 14·84 377 4·18 106

July 3·12 79 4·82 122 9·07 230 9·27 235 6·64 169 2·78 71

August 5·0 127 3·63 92 7·02 178 7·08 180 2·68 68 2·04 52

September 7·23 184 5·37 136 2·60 66 2·68 68 1·12 28 2·63 67

October 10·95 279 5·02 128 2·38 60 2·83 72 1·33 34 2·44 62

November 5·37 136 2·60 66 5·68 144 4·03 102 4·72 120 3·52 90

December 0·98 25 1·03 26 10·92 277 9·48 241 10·64 270 5·08 129

Year 43·67 1,094 31·14 791 84·23 2,138 92·43 2,348 118·53 3,011 79·64 2,023

Rainfall, Western Littoral-Colombia, Ecuador and Peru.

Place Medellin, Colombia Quito, Ecuador Lima, Peru Iquitos, East Slope of Andes Salta, Peru Tucuman, Peru

Month Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm.

January 2·18 55 3·24 82 0·07 1 10·24 260 5·68 144 7·38 187

February 2·52 64 3·88 99 0 0 9·83 250 5·44 138 6·63 168

March 5·28 134 4·84 123 0 0 12·24 311 4·64 118 6·27 159

April 6·93 176 6·95 177 0 0 6·48 165 0·92 23 1·78 45

May 7·77 197 4·62 117 0·13 3 10·00 254 0·37 9 1·14 29

June 6·62 168 1·33 34 0·37 9 7·43 189 0·03 1 0·52 13

July 4·13 105 1·08 27 0·39 10 6·53 167 0 0 0·52 13

August 5·13 130 2·22 56 0·33 8 4·62 117 0·07 2 0·23 6

September 6·42 163 2·57 65 0·27 7 8·70 221 0·27 7 0·63 16

October 7·37 187 3·87 98 0·13 3 7·24 184 0·48 12 3·14 79

November 5·87 149 3·97 101 0 0 8·52 216 1·88 48 4·33 110

December 2·67 68 3·57 91 0 0 11·47 291 2·93 74 5·75 146

Year 62·88 1,596 42·13 1,070 1·64 41 103·33 2,625 22·64 575 38·23 971

Rainfall, Interior and East Coast.

Place Merida, Yucatan— Interior Manaos, Brazil— Interior Cuyaba, Brazil— Interior Pernambuco, Coast, Brazil Bahia, Coast, Brazil Rio Janeiro, Coast, Brazil

Month Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm.

January 1·02 26 9·37 238 10·03 255 4·34 110 3·58 91 4·68 119

February 0·53 13 9·84 250 8·58 218 5·98 152 3·43 87 4·34 110

March 0·70 1 11·88 301 8·70 221 5·92 150 7·87 200 5·38 137

April 0·17 4 13·08 332 3·52 90 10·96 277 14·34 364 4·57 116

May 0·96 24 7·33 186 2·14 54 14·81 378 12·28 312 3·63 92

June 5·88 149 6·02 153 0·72 18 15·18 386 11·54 293 1·85 47

July 3·86 98 2·88 72 0·34 8 28·27 718 8·98 228 1·64 41

August 7·76 197 2·40 61 0·37 9 12·60 320 4·93 125 1·85 47

September 4·50 114 1·74 44 3·63 92 6·83 173 3·15 80 2·28 58

October 2·95 75 4·13 105 4·27 108 1·03 26 4·88 124 3·08 78

November 4·12 104 7·65 194 7·68 195 1·14 29 6·83 173 4·28 109

December 1·24 31 10·48 266 8·67 220 2·04 52 3·63 92 5·43 138

Year 33·86 860 85·12 2,202 59·00 1,498 117·00 2,971 85·39 2,169 43·00 1,091

Bermuda

(St. George), lat. 32° 22′ N., long. 64° 30′ W.—This group of Islands is becoming a favourite health resort with Americans, who are able in a couple of days (600 sea miles) to exchange the turmoil of Wall Street for the holy calm of the Atlantic. The climate is extremely pleasant, without being too relaxing, the mean temperature of the year being 69·4° F. (20·7° C).

Jan. April August October

62° F. (16·6° C.) 64° F. (17·8° C.) 79° F. (26·2° C.) 69·5° F. (20·7° C.)

The month of March, with a mean of 61° F. (16° C.), is cooler than February, and the absolute annual extremes of temperature are 91·5° F. (33° C.), and 43° F. (6° C.). The relative humidity stands very constantly about 70 per cent., and the cloudiness of the sky rather higher. The general direction of the wind is S.W., bearing more to the north in winter, and southerly in summer and autumn. There are on the average 159 days on which rain falls during the year, producing a total of 45·28 ins. (1,150 mm.) of rain; the most rainy month being October, and the least so April and June. There is very little variation during the twenty-four hours, so that the climate is well suited for delicate chests.

These islands depend for water almost entirely on rain caught and stored in tanks, so that the amount obtained during the last shower is said to be one of the main subjects of conversation and interest among the islanders.

Madeira

(Funchal). Lat. 32° 37′, Long. 16° 55′ W.—Situated off the coast of Africa, in nearly the same latitude as the preceding, this well-known health resort has a slightly lower mean annual temperature of 65·5° F. (18·6° C.); the mean of the coldest month, February, being 59·6° F. (15·4° C.), and of the hottest, August, 72·7° F. (22·6° C.)

During twenty-five years the absolute extremes of temperature were 90·7° F. (32·7° C.) and 43·6° F. (6·5° C.). The air is drier than that of Bermuda, the relative humidity averaging 68 per cent.; March, with 65 per cent., being the driest, and July, with 70 per cent., the moistest month.

The amount and distribution of the rainfall is as below:—

Jan. Feb. Mar. Apl. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

Rainfall - Ins. 4·18 3·18 2·87 2·13 0·92 0·53 0·03 0·08 0·67 2·38 5·28 4·67

Mm. 106 81 73 54 23 13 1 2 17 60 134 119

No. of rainy days 10·7 8·6 9·4 7·3 5·3 2·3 0·8 1·0 3·3 7·9 10·5 11·6

The total rainfall is thus under 27 inches, and owing to the occurrence of east winds coming from the African desert, the air often becomes very dry during its continuance. Madeira has earned a high reputation for the treatment of cases of consumption, but has been less recommended for such cases since the introduction of the open-air treatment; and it should be recognised that neither this nor any other climate can do more than retard the progress of advanced cases. It is an excellent country, however, in which to live in the open air, and cases that find Funchal too relaxing can obtain a somewhat more bracing climate on the higher ground of the interior of the island.

In any case Madeira forms an excellent resort for those who, without being actually ailing, find themselves unable to withstand the damp and cold of our English winters.

Notes on the Observation of Meteorological Data.

Few houses will now be found without a thermometer and barometer, and many people are fond of keeping a register of their observations. Moreover, where the observer chances to be stationed in an out-of-the-way place, even a casual domestic register of this sort may be of considerable value. . . . The instruments required are the wet and dry bulb thermometers, a rain gauge, and a barometer.

Those who have to move about in the backwaters of civilisation, will probably find the mercurial barometer rather a “white elephant,” as it requires great care and attention whenever it is necessary to move it; and for such, a good aneroid is a more desirable possession. It is, of course, important that the instrument should be compared, whenever opportunity occurs, with a standard mercurial instrument; but for merely observing extent of fluctuation an aneroid is quite accurate enough for all practical purposes. The rain gauge must of course be set up in some open and unsheltered position near the ground level, and the thermometers should be hung in a north verandah (for the northern hemisphere) against a piece of felt which will help to protect them from the heat radiated from the wall. The aneroid, on the other hand, may be hung in any position where it is well protected from the weather—on the ground-floor. The direction of the wind can easily be observed by means of a small triangular flag or burgee hoisted to a pole, which, unless the neighbourhood be a very open one, is best lashed up in a tree so as to project above its branches.

Those, however, who desire to take up the study of their local meteorology seriously, will do well to obtain a little pamphlet, entitled “Hints to Meteorological Observers,” by W. Marriott, published at 1s. 6d., under the auspices of the Royal Meteorological Society, by E. Stanford, 12, Long Acre, W.C., which contains complete instructions on the subject.

From the point of view of the tropical resident, it is unfortunate that some of the tables in this publication are hardly carried high enough, but the instructions will enable anyone to amplify them. On this account, I append a table for calculating relative humidity of a less elaborate sort, but more extended than that furnished in the pamphlet, as this is one of the most important of all climatic factors from a sanitary point of view.

The table is only worked out to half degrees of difference between the wet and dry bulb instruments, and for the most part to 4° intervals of the dry thermometer, but it is easy, by reading between the lines, to fill up the gaps, where any marked interval exists; and it will be observed that at the lower right-hand corner of the second table, the numbers progress in regular arithmetical progression, so that it is not difficult to infer the percentages in cases of somewhat higher degrees of temperature and dryness.

Table for Calculating the Relative Humidity of the Atmosphere % by the Dry and Wet Bulb Thermometer.

Difference of Wet and Dry Bulbs Reading of the Dry Bulb Thermometer. Difference of Wet and Dry Bulbs

32° 34° 36° 38° 40° 44° 48° 52° 56° 60° 64° 68° 72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92° 96° 100°

0·5 92 94 95 95 96 96 96 96 97 97 97 97 97 97 98 98 98 98 98 98 0·5

1 87 89 91 91 92 92 92 93 93 93 94 94 94 95 95 95 95 95 95 95 1

1·5 81 84 86 87 88 88 88 89 89 90 91 91 92 93 93 93 93 93 93 93 1·5

2 76 80 82 83 84 84 85 86 87 88 88 89 89 89 90 90 91 91 91 91 2

2·5 70 75 78 79 80 81 82 83 83 84 85 85 86 87 87 87 88 88 88 89 2·5

3 65 71 74 76 76 78 79 80 81 82 82 83 83 84 85 85 85 85 86 87 3

3·5 60 66 70 72 73 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 82 83 83 83 83 84 85 3·5

4 56 62 66 69 70 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 80 81 81 81 82 83 4

4·5 52 58 62 65 66 69 70 71 72 74 75 75 76 79 78 78 79 79 80 81 4·5

5 48 55 59 62 63 65 67 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 76 77 77 78 79 5

5·5 45 52 56 59 61 62 64 65 67 69 70 71 72 73 74 74 75 75 76 77 5·5

6 41 49 53 56 58 60 62 63 65 66 68 69 70 71 72 72 73 73 74 75 6

6·5 38 46 50 53 55 57 59 61 62 64 65 67 68 68 69 70 70 71 72 73 6·5

7 35 43 47 50 52 55 57 59 60 62 63 65 65 66 67 68 68 69 69 70 7

7·5 32 40 44 48 49 52 54 56 58 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 66 67 68 69 7·5

8 30 37 42 45 47 50 52 54 56 58 59 60 61 63 64 64 65 66 67 68 8

8·5 29 35 40 42 44 48 50 52 54 56 57 58 60 61 62 63 63 64 65 66 8·5

9 27 33 38 41 42 46 48 50 52 54 55 56 58 59 60 61 61 62 63 64 9

9·5 25 31 36 38 40 43 46 48 50 52 53 54 55 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 9·5

10 23 30 34 36 38 41 44 46 48 50 52 53 54 56 57 57 58 59 60 61 10

10·5 21 28 32 34 36 40 42 44 46 48 50 51 52 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 10·5

11 19 26 30 32 34 38 40 43 45 46 48 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 11

11·5 17 24 28 30 32 36 38 41 43 45 46 48 49 50 52 53 54 55 56 57 11·5

12 16 23 27 29 31 34 36 39 41 43 45 46 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 12

12·5 15 21 28 27 29 32 34 37 39 42 43 45 46 47 48 49 51 50 53 54 12·5

13 14 20 24 26 28 31 33 36 38 40 42 43 45 46 47 48 50 51 52 53 13

13·5 13 18 23 25 27 30 32 35 36 38 40 41 43 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 13·5

14 12 17 22 24 25 28 30 33 35 37 39 40 42 43 45 46 47 48 49 50 14

14·5 11 16 21 22 24 26 29 31 34 36 37 39 40 42 43 45 46 47 48 49 14·5

15 10 15 20 21 23 25 28 30 33 35 36 38 39 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 15

15·5 10 14 18 20 22 24 26 28 31 33 35 37 38 39 41 42 43 44 45 46 15·5

16 9 13 17 19 21 23 25 27 30 32 34 35 37 38 39 40 42 43 44 45 16

16·5 8 12 16 18 20 22 23 26 29 31 33 34 36 37 38 39 41 42 43 44 16·5

17 7 12 15 17 19 21 22 25 27 30 31 33 34 36 37 38 39 41 42 43 17

17·5 7 11 14 16 18 20 21 24 26 28 30 32 33 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 17·5

18 6 10 13 15 17 19 20 23 25 27 29 31 32 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 18

18·5 — — — — — — 19 22 24 26 28 30 31 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 18·5

19 — — — — — — 18 20 23 25 27 29 30 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 19

19·5 — — — — — — 17 19 21 24 26 28 29 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 19·5

20 — — — — — — 17 18 20 23 25 27 28 30 31 32 33 34 35 35 20

Table for Calculating the Relative Humidity of the Atmosphere % by the Dry and Wet Bulb Thermometer.

Difference of Wet and Dry Bulbs Reading of the Dry Bulb Thermometer. Difference of Wet and Dry Bulbs

32° 34° 36° 38° 40° 44° 48° 52° 56° 60°

0·5 92 94 95 95 96 96 96 96 97 97 0·5

1 87 89 91 91 92 92 92 93 93 93 1

1·5 81 84 86 87 88 88 88 89 89 90 1·5

2 76 80 82 83 84 84 85 86 87 88 2

2·5 70 75 78 79 80 81 82 83 83 84 2·5

3 65 71 74 76 76 78 79 80 81 82 3

3·5 60 66 70 72 73 75 76 77 78 79 3·5

4 56 62 66 69 70 72 73 74 75 76 4

4·5 52 58 62 65 66 69 70 71 72 74 4·5

5 48 55 59 62 63 65 67 69 70 71 5

5·5 45 52 56 59 61 62 64 65 67 69 5·5

6 41 49 53 56 58 60 62 63 65 66 6

6·5 38 46 50 53 55 57 59 61 62 64 6·5

7 35 43 47 50 52 55 57 59 60 62 7

7·5 32 40 44 48 49 52 54 56 58 60 7·5

8 30 37 42 45 47 50 52 54 56 58 8

8·5 29 35 40 42 44 48 50 52 54 56 8·5

9 27 33 38 41 42 46 48 50 52 54 9

9·5 25 31 36 38 40 43 46 48 50 52 9·5

10 23 30 34 36 38 41 44 46 48 50 10

10·5 21 28 32 34 36 40 42 44 46 48 10·5

11 19 26 30 32 34 38 40 43 45 46 11

11·5 17 24 28 30 32 36 38 41 43 45 11·5

12 16 23 27 29 31 34 36 39 41 43 12

12·5 15 21 28 27 29 32 34 37 39 42 12·5

13 14 20 24 26 28 31 33 36 38 40 13

13·5 13 18 23 25 27 30 32 35 36 38 13·5

14 12 17 22 24 25 28 30 33 35 37 14

14·5 11 16 21 22 24 26 29 31 34 36 14·5

15 10 15 20 21 23 25 28 30 33 35 15

15·5 10 14 18 20 22 24 26 28 31 33 15·5

16 9 13 17 19 21 23 25 27 30 32 16

16·5 8 12 16 18 20 22 23 26 29 31 16·5

17 7 12 15 17 19 21 22 25 27 30 17

17·5 7 11 14 16 18 20 21 24 26 28 17·5

18 6 10 13 15 17 19 20 23 25 27 18

18·5 — — — — — — 19 22 24 26 18·5

19 — — — — — — 18 20 23 25 19

19·5 — — — — — — 17 19 21 24 19·5

20 — — — — — — 17 18 20 23 20

Difference of Wet and Dry Bulbs Reading of the Dry Bulb Thermometer. Difference of Wet and Dry Bulbs

64° 68° 72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92° 96° 100°

0·5 97 97 97 97 98 98 98 98 98 98 0·5

1 94 94 94 95 95 95 95 95 95 95 1

1·5 91 91 92 93 93 93 93 93 93 93 1·5

2 88 89 89 89 90 90 91 91 91 91 2

2·5 85 85 86 87 87 87 88 88 88 89 2·5

3 82 83 83 84 85 85 85 85 86 87 3

3·5 80 81 82 82 83 83 83 83 84 85 3·5

4 77 78 79 80 80 81 81 81 82 83 4

4·5 75 75 76 79 78 78 79 79 80 81 4·5

5 72 73 74 75 76 76 77 77 78 79 5

5·5 70 71 72 73 74 74 75 75 76 77 5·5

6 68 69 70 71 72 72 73 73 74 75 6

6·5 65 67 68 68 69 70 70 71 72 73 6·5

7 63 65 65 66 67 68 68 69 69 70 7

7·5 61 62 63 64 65 66 66 67 68 69 7·5

8 59 60 61 63 64 64 65 66 67 68 8

8·5 57 58 60 61 62 63 63 64 65 66 8·5

9 55 56 58 59 60 61 61 62 63 64 9

9·5 53 54 55 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 9·5

10 52 53 54 56 57 57 58 59 60 61 10

10·5 50 51 52 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 10·5

11 48 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 11

11·5 46 48 49 50 52 53 54 55 56 57 11·5

12 45 46 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 12

12·5 43 45 46 47 48 49 51 50 53 54 12·5

13 42 43 45 46 47 48 50 51 52 53 13

13·5 40 41 43 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 13·5

14 39 40 42 43 45 46 47 48 49 50 14

14·5 37 39 40 42 43 45 46 47 48 49 14·5

15 36 38 39 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 15

15·5 35 37 38 39 41 42 43 44 45 46 15·5

16 34 35 37 38 39 40 42 43 44 45 16

16·5 33 34 36 37 38 39 41 42 43 44 16·5

17 31 33 34 36 37 38 39 41 42 43 17

17·5 30 32 33 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 17·5

18 29 31 32 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 18

18·5 28 30 31 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 18·5

19 27 29 30 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 19

19·5 26 28 29 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 19·5

20 25 27 28 30 31 32 33 34 35 35 20