PART II. OUTLINES OF TROPICAL CLIMATOLOGY (continued 2)
Reading edition
The progressive improvement of climate as one gains increasing elevations, even where that at the sea-level is of the most extreme character, is instructively shown in the table on next page, taken from Dr. Petella’s pamphlet.
Table showing the Mean Monthly Temperature of Four Stations in Erythrea at Various Elevations, the diminution of temperature being equivalent to about 1° F. for every 300 Feet of Elevation, or 1° C. to each 150 Metres.
Month Massawa, 6 m. elevation = 18 ft. Ghenda, 962 m. elevation = 3,165 ft. Cheren, 1,460 m. elevation = 4,790 ft. Asmara, 2,327 m. elevation = 7,533 ft.
F. C. F. C. F. C. F. C.
January 78·0 25·6 65·2 18·4 63·3 17·3 68·8 14·9
February 78·9 26·0 69·4 20·8 67·0 19·4 61·4 16·3
March 79·4 26·3 73·3 22·9 72·0 22·2 61·5 16·4
April 84·3 29·0 78·6 25·8 77·0 24·9 62·8 17·1
May 88·5 31·3 79·6 26·3 75·8 24·3 63·5 17·5
June 92·4 33·3 84·1 28·9 76·5 24·7 63·5 17·5
July 94·7 34·8 87·2 30·7 72·7 22·6 61·5 16·4
August 94·5 34·7 83·4 28·5 68·0 20·0 61·4 16·3
September 92·9 33·8 84·5 29·2 68·4 20·2 62·5 16·9
October 89·2 31·8 76·8 24·9 67·4 19·6 56·5 13·6
November 84·3 29·0 72·3 22·4 65·2 18·4 58·4 14·6
December 80·7 27·0 65·8 18·7 63·3 17·3 58·8 14·9
Annual Means 86·5 30·3 76·7 24·8 69·7 20·9 60·0 16·5
In these elevated regions, a little away from the coast, there is a definite, though not very abundant, rainy season, and the direction of the prevailing winds is normal for these latitudes, i.e., north-east during the winter and south-west during the monsoon, which, however, breaks a good deal later here than at corresponding latitudes on the eastern side of the Arabian sea. More complete data of Addi Ugri, an Italian sanatorium on one of these Erythrean hill-stations, are extracted below from a pamphlet by Captain Tancredi, an Engineer officer.
The hottest time of the year is, it will be noticed, in the spring, and the rainy season takes place at the normal time in July and August, after the setting in of the south-west monsoon. There is also a secondary period of rainfall about February and March, corresponding to our “chota bursat” in India.
From the inspection of the table on next page it will be seen that the climate must be an exceptionally pleasant one, the mean temperature of the year corresponding to that of Southern Italy, though the range of temperature is less than a third of that of Palermo and other Mediterranean ports. The climate is also said to be very healthy, though there is generally a certain amount of malaria to be met with about the drying up of the rains. Its uniformity and mildness, coupled as it is with great dryness, suggests that the site might well be utilised for certain forms of chest disease.
Climate of Addi-Ugri, Erythrea (Serahè). Lat. 14° 53′ N.; Long. 38° 48′ 40″ E. Elevation 6,633 Feet.
Month Mean Temperature Mean Maximum Temperature Mean Minimum Temperature Relative Humidity Rainfall Number of Rainy Days
F. C. F. C. F. C. Ins. Mm.
January 64·9 18·2 79·0 26·0 51·6 10·9 39·6 0·02 0·3 2
February 66·3 19·0 81·2 27·4 51·9 11·0 28·6 0·11 2·7 1·6
March 70·6 21·4 87·0 30·6 55·5 13·1 30·0 0·62 15·4 6·6
April 70·4 21·3 85·5 29·7 56·5 13·6 35·3 0·91 22·8 9·3
May 70·6 21·4 84·5 29·1 58·2 14·5 36·6 1·85 46·2 10·3
June 69·5 20·8 82·3 27·9 60·4 15·7 39·1 2·41 60·6 15·3
July 64·3 17·9 73·6 23·2 54·6 12·6 71·9 5·30 134·9 25·0
August 63·8 17·6 73·4 22·9 54·6 12·5 74·1 7·05 179·1 24·3
September 67·5 19·7 78·6 25·9 56·2 13·3 53·4 1·45 36·8 6·6
October 67·6 19·7 80·3 26·8 54·4 12·4 53·0 0·65 16·5 3
November 65·4 18·5 78·6 25·8 52·5 11·3 43·6 0·19 4·2 1·6
December 63·5 17·4 78·0 25·5 50·0 9·9 42·3 0·32 8·3 1·6
Year 66·9 19·4 80·2 26·8 54·7 12·6 45·6 20·2 513·0 107·2
Travelling, however, in Somaliland is necessarily arduous, as the country is nearly impassable during the short rainy season, and intense heat and great suffering have to be encountered in the low-lying valleys, owing to the waterless character of the country and the intensely desiccating effects of the air, which, elsewhere than on the coast, is intensely dry. The frequent dust storms are also a source of much discomfort and even of danger.
Once issued from the Red Sea and arrived in the Gulf of Aden, things begin to improve, as although the thermometer may show but little difference from the conditions left behind in the Red Sea, it is at once felt that the heat is of quite a different kind, and that it is not, as Gilbert’s heroine would describe it, “such a stuffy class of death.” There is nearly always a fresh sea breeze, and for several months of the year the climate is much less oppressive than that of Bombay, especially in the spring. Strange as it may appear to those who have only seen the grim fortress from the sea, Aden seems to have a queer fascination about it, and is generally rather liked than otherwise, many preferring to serve there to remaining in Bombay.
The Asiatic Continent.
—Owing to the fact that the distinction between Europe and Asia is a purely geographical convention, and that the area of the eastern extremity of the Mediterranean is of too small an area to exercise any marked influence, we find that once the Syrian shore is left behind we are at once under typical intra-continental weather conditions, with a wide range of temperature, and a rainfall either small or almost non-existent. Speaking generally, these arid conditions prevail over the whole of south-western Asia, from the coast of Palestine till we have crossed the five waters of the Punjab, and within these limits there are many places that can put the maximum thermometers of even Omdurman and Suakim to shame.
The scanty rainfall is almost confined to the hills, so that cultivation in the lower lands depends more or less completely on irrigation from the rivers that have their origin in the mountain masses, which attract to their peaks the lion’s share of the little moisture obtainable. On this account the greater part of western tropical Asia is desert, but in spite of this under-irrigation, Mesopotamia was once the granary of the world, and might still, under a more enlightened government, soon regain her position.
Palestine.
—On account of its petty area, the whole of Palestine must be considered as a part of the Mediterranean littoral, and hence enjoys a moderate rainfall, which, combined with almost continuous sunshine, without really excessive heat at any period of the year, renders the enthusiasm with which this little land is described by the sacred writers easily understood.
The following table will give some idea of the amount and distribution of the rainfall:—
Place Jerusalem Smyrna Jaffa Beirut Mosul
Latitude 31° 47′ N. 26° 38′ N. 32° 4′ N. 33° 54′ N. 37° 20′ N.
Scale Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm.
January 6·30 160 4·14 105 5·71 145 7·40 188 3·47 88
February 5·75 146 2·95 75 3·63 92 6·03 153 3·08 78
March 3·58 91 3·35 85 1·46 37 3·89 98 0·93 24
April 1·73 44 1·78 45 1·08 27 2·32 59 0·78 20
May 0·29 7 1·26 32 0·28 7 0·55 14 0 0
June 0 0 0·49 12 0·18 2 0·28 7 0 0
July 0 0 0·19 5 0 0 0·03 1 0 0
August 0 0 0·12 3 0·04 1 0·03 1 0 0
September 0·04 1 0·90 23 0·04 1 0·28 7 0 0
October 0·39 10 1·79 43 0·68 17 1·93 49 0 0
November 2·04 52 4·25 108 3·32 84 5·39 137 1·03 26
December 5·35 136 4·41 112 5·39 137 7·40 188 3·70 94
Year 25·48 647 25·59 650 21·66 550 35·59 904 11·2 283
At Jerusalem the annual extremes of temperature are from 101·7° F. (38·7° C.) to just above freezing point, while on the sea-coast the range of climate is rather less marked.
The following table, adapted, like the preceding, from Hann, epitomises most of the necessary temperature data:—
Place Elevation above Sea January Mean April Mean June Mean October Mean Annual Mean Annual Range of Temperature
Ft. M. F. C. F. C. F. C. F. C. F. C. F. C.
Jerusalem 2,510 765 47·3 8·4 59·9 15·5 75·7 24·3 68·7 20·5 62·9 17·1 67·3 38·5
Smyrna — — 45·5 7·5 56·8 13·8 79·5 26·4 65·4 18·5 61·7 16·5 79·2 44·0
Jaffa 50 15 54·0 12·2 68·4 20·2 83·5 28·6 78·8 26·0 70·2 21·2 — —
Beirut 115 35 55·5 13·0 65·2 18·4 81·5 27·5 75·2 24·0 68·7 20·4 56·1 31·2
Damascus 2,380 725 45·0 7·2 58·7 14·8 80.0 26·7 67·0 19·4 63·4 17·4 — —
Mosul 400 120 44·7 7·0 59·7 15·4 93.5 34·2 72·3 22·4 68·2 20·1 — —
Between the cultivations of Syria and Mesopotamia there stretches a wide extent of desert country of which, as yet, but little is known, as it is even now, not altogether too safe a land to travel in.
In the upper part of the Euphrates valley, at Mosul, which, to save space, is included in the two above tables, the climate, though hotter in summer, does not differ to any great extent from that of Palestine. The rainfall is, however, very much smaller and absolutely confined to the winter.
Of the lower and better known part of the valley; once the granary of the world, and even now a rich country; the climate of Bagdad, lat. circa 33° 30′ N., in Turkish Arabia, may serve as a specimen.
Months Mean Maximum Temperature Mean Minimum Temperature Relative Humidity % Rainfall
F. C. F. C. Ins. Mm.
January 63·3 17·3 39·9 4·4 84 1·59 40·5
February 65·6 18·6 40·3 4·6 76 2·49 63·0
March 74·7 23·8 47·1 8·4 62 1·93 49·3
April 80·9 27·0 54·4 12·4 52 1·19 30·3
May 90·6 32·5 67·3 19·6 42 0·21 5·2
June 103·2 39·5 76·3 24·6 35 0 0
July 106·8 41·6 78·8 25·9 33 0 0
August 107·8 42·1 78·2 25·7 32 0·13 3·2
September 100·8 38·2 71·1 21·8 37 0 0
October 91·3 33·0 62·2 16·8 52 0·10 2·5
November 76·6 24·7 50·0 10·0 74 1·03 26·6
December 64·3 17·9 43·0 6·1 81 1·16 29·5
The intense heat and dryness of the summer months are very noticeable, but the locality does not suffer from hot nights to the same extent as parts of Northern India.
Persian Gulf.
—The delights of service in this inland sea are only too well known to most of H.M.’s Indian Marine, and to many naval officers, but it must be remembered that although the climate presents much resemblance to that of the Red Sea, the Gulf corresponds to the northern end of those unpleasant waters, and that in winter the climate is further tempered by breezes from the high Persian plateau, so that in the cold weather it would be difficult to choose a more pleasant scene for a yachting cruise, coral reefs and Arabs permitting, and it is only from the middle of June to that of October that anything like the stew-pan of the southern Red Sea is met with. This, combined with the circumstance that the passage of the Gulf should only last half as long as that of the Red Sea, is one of the strongest arguments in favour of the adoption of the Euphrates valley as a rapid route of communication with the East. The climate may best be realised by an inspection of the climatic table for Bushire, which is included in the following brief note on the climate of Persia.
Persia is continental and sub-tropical in geographical position, but does not, as a matter of fact, for the most part, properly come under the category of hot climates, as, with the exception of “the Dashtistan,” or narrow belt of recently upheaved coral forming the northern shore of the Gulf, the whole country is a mountainous mass, the lowest portions of which are sufficiently elevated to bring them, from the point of view of climate, within the temperate zone. For practical purposes the country is absolutely without roads, the tracks that connect the various towns being merely made by the constant passage of travellers without any assistance whatever from art, and was probably a good deal more “advanced” two thousand years ago than it is now. On this account travelling is a very slow business, and any one proposing to visit the country must necessarily be prepared for a somewhat extended stay. As all routes cross over a succession of passes which often closely approach the snow-line, intending visitors should bring not merely clothes suitable for an English winter, but some fur-lined garment, such as is used by an automobilist, only slit behind so as to be wearable when mounted, as any one unprovided with a semi-arctic outfit may have to endure a good deal of suffering in surmounting the passes even during the summer.
Properly provided, however, travel in Persia offers many attractions, as the people are a pleasant, intelligent race, who make excellent camp servants in any capacity but as cooks, for which an Indian servant is better suited if obtainable. They are often spoken of as “the French of the East,” and there is no doubt a good deal of justification for the parallel, but, however this may be, they are not at present likely to produce an Oriental Soyer.
The Dashtistan is simply an emerged portion of the coral bed of the Persian Gulf, and the abominable character of its climate goes far to counterpoise the bright, temperate weather of the rest of the country. It is often no more than 20 miles or less wide, and is badly off for fresh water, most of the wells being brackish. Even here, the cold weather is extremely pleasant, so that one is glad to sit over a big coal fire in February in rooms not directly warmed by the sun, and there is nothing much to complain of till early June—the earlier hot months being rendered quite endurable by strong breezes which make punkahs quite needless. This, however, is succeeded by a period of intense, damp, breathless heat, entirely unassuaged by a drop of rain, which requires to be endured to be thoroughly appreciated.
The climax of discomfort is attained somewhere about the middle of August, but it is well on in October before any very decided improvement sets in, the hot weather being thus prolonged far on into the autumn. Under these circumstances, it is not surprising that cases of heat apoplexy are far from uncommon, but fortunately there is comparatively little malaria, though digestive disturbances arising from the brackishness of drinking water are naturally rather common. There is nothing like the proportion of cases of eye diseases that is to be met with in Egypt, but the intense glare and the sparseness of the vegetation make the use of neutral-tinted spectacles very advisable.
The following table of the temperature and rainfall of Bushire (Abusher) will serve as a sufficient example of the climate of the Dashtistan generally:—
Month Mean Maximum Temperature Mean Minimum Temperature Relative Humidity Rainfall
F. C. F. C. Ins. Mm.
January 65·2 18·4 52·0 11·1 79 3·39 86·2
February 66·0 18·9 52·5 11·4 80 2·51 63·7
March 72·6 22·5 58·2 14·5 72 0·87 21·7
April 84·6 29·3 66·1 18·9 61 0·58 15·1
May 89·8 32·0 75·3 24·1 60 0·02 0·5
June 92·2 33·4 80·3 26·8 61 0 0
July 95·5 35·3 84·0 28·9 65 0 0
August 96·5 35·8 83·6 28·7 64 0 0
September 94·2 34·5 78·8 26·0 65 0 0
October 87·9 31·0 70·7 21·5 65 0 0
November 78·0 25·6 62·1 16·8 74 2·16 54·7
December 69·7 20·9 55·5 13·1 73 3·98 101·3
The Dashtistan forms, however, a very small percentage of the area of Persia, as its level plain is abruptly succeeded by the mountains, which rise, terrace over terrace, to a height of 5,000 to 6,000 feet, and once the plateau of Fars is reached the traveller finds himself in surroundings which, although suffering a good deal from the scarcity of water, have much to recommend them in the purity and dryness of the air, and which would no doubt be thoroughly healthy under a decently sanitary régime. At present the country is out of the question for purposes of health, as one requires to be pretty “hard bitten” to get about it at all; but assuming the introduction of the amenities of civilisation there can be little doubt as to its suitability for the treatment of pulmonary disorders; and even as matters stand, I cannot recall meeting with cases of tuberculous disease amongst the natives of the country.
Owing to the very different levels, it is difficult to give any general idea of the climate, but the climate of two of the principal towns given below must suffice as a sufficient example.
Month Teheran. Lat. 85° 41′ N.; Long. 57° 25′ E. E.F., 3,700; E.M., 1,130. Ispahan. Lat. 32° 38′ N.; Long. 57° 40′ E. E.F., 5,000; E.M., 1,530.
Mean Maximum Temperature Mean Minimum Temperature Rainfall Mean Maximum Temperature Mean Minimum Temperature Rainfall
F. C. F. C. Ins. Mm. F. C. F. C. Ins. Mm.
January 42·3 5·7 26·2 -3·2 1·17 29·6 46·5 8·1 23·1 -5 0·21 5.2
February 52·1 11·2 32·9 -0·5 0·85 21·6 54·3 12·3 29·2 -1·6 0·21 5·2
March 57·2 14·0 38·4 3·5 2·44 62·1 61·0 16·1 36·2 2·3 0·83 20·8
April 71·4 21·8 49·9 9·9 0·87 21·7 73·1 22·9 45·7 7·6 0·60 15·2
May 82·9 28·2 59·4 15·2 0·41 10·3 84·1 29·0 54·1 12·3 0·10 2·5
June 94·4 34·6 67·1 19·5 0·04 1·2 94·4 34·6 61·9 16·6 0 0
July 98·4 36·8 72·1 22·3 0·35 8·9 98·4 36·8 66·3 19·1 0·05 1·3
August 96·7 35·9 70·7 21·5 0·04 1·2 95·5 35·3 61·5 16·4 0 0
September 90·7 32·6 64·9 18·2 0·11 2·6 90·4 32·4 55·1 12·9 0 0
October 77·5 25·3 54·0 12·2 0·14 3·7 77·4 25·2 44·4 6·9 0·27 6·5
November 61·4 16·3 42·2 5·7 1·17 29·6 61·9 16·6 35·9 2·1 0·84 21·5
December 57·3 14·1 33·9 0·5 1·33 34·0 52·3 11·3 29·2 -1·7 0·47 12·0
Year 73·0 22·8 57·0 10·6 8·92 227·0 74·1 23·4 45·2 7·3 3·58 90·3
The better rainfall of Teheran is no doubt due to its proximity to the Caspian, but in both places the climate is typically continental, both the daily and annual ranges of temperature being very considerable.
The climate of Beluchistan resembles closely that of Persia in its general characters, but owing to the generally lower level of the country the temperature is necessarily higher, approaching that of the Dashtistan.
Arabian Peninsula.
—With the exception of Muskat, which does not differ very markedly from the other Gulf ports, we have no reliable information as to the climate of Arabia proper, beyond the fact that it is a hot and arid land. The climate of the southern coast is, however, much more tolerable than that of the Persian Gulf, owing to the influence of the south-western monsoon, during the worst months.
India and Ceylon.
—If we draw a line from Karachi, at the mouth of the Indus, to those of the Hughli, a little south of Calcutta, it will be found that we have divided the irregular diamond-formed outline of the country into two triangles, the upper or northern of which may be called the continental, and the lower the peninsular triangle. We also find that the dividing line coincides pretty accurately with the Tropic of Cancer, and that, therefore, all to the north of it is sub-tropical, while in the southern triangle there is, as one travels south, an increasingly marked tendency to a duplication of the rainy season and of weather conditions generally, with a resulting general uniformity of climate throughout the year, while the proximity of the sea ensures that the daily range of temperature will be also small. North of this, therefore, there is a distinct “cold weather,” while to the south this pleasant climatic interlude can scarcely be said to exist. One of my predecessors, writing at the end of the eighteenth century, in the course of some 300 very sober pages devoted to life and habits in India, perpetrated “with deeficulty” a single joke. He devotes a table of some six lines to the elucidation of the subject of climate, the columns being headed, Hot—Cold—Rainy Seasons. Opposite Madras the first column stated, “Begins January 1, ends December 31.” From his ill-concealed contempt of Madras and Bombay “presidencies” I am sure this old “Qui hai” hailed from “the Bengal side,” but, prejudice apart, there is a good deal of truth in the impeachment.
Taking first the northern or sub-tropical triangle, we find that it presents a much greater variety of climate than can be found to the south, for while its north-western side is intensely dry and arid, the eastern angle of the triangle contains the wettest spot in the world. This triangle includes, too, within its boundaries another “record,” viz., that for extreme heat. The man who “sent back for his blankets” resided, I believe during life, somewhere in the United States; but I fear he must have been a person of comparatively small endurance, as in the entire American continent there is no spot that in the matter of heat is in the same field with Jacobabad, where 127° F. (52·8° C.) in the shade has actually been registered, and, in fact, the whole of Scind easily “licks creation” in this unenviable detail.
The northern triangle may be divided into three distinct climatic regions, viz.:—
(1) The Persian frontier zone, including the Punjab, Scind and Rajputana.
(2) The Old North-west zone, containing Oudh, Rohilkhand, Benares, &c., Behar, and a good deal of Central India.
(3) Lower Bengal, including Assam.
It must not, of course, be imagined that there is any distinct line of demarcation between these “zones,” as each climate, of course, shades off gradually into the next, but this division greatly facilitates description.
The Persian frontier zone, especially in its western portion, closely resembles Persia in climate, and gives one a very good notion of what that country would be, were it not an elevated plateau. Excluding, of course, from consideration the Himalayas and Suleiman Range, its highest part, near Rawal Pindi, is only about 1,700 feet above the sea (E.M., 530), which is too little to sensibly modify the temperature.
Along the actual north-west frontier, the rainfall is very small and the summer heat intense. The daily range is very small at the worst time of the year, as the arid soil gets so baked during the day that it is able to give out an ample supply of heat to make the short night intolerable, without having time to cool down to any appreciable extent. The few scanty showers that occur relieve matters for a few hours only, after which the only trace of their passage is an increased dampness of the air, with the concomitant exacerbation of “prickly heat.” In certain places situated in some of the confined valleys that are to be found at the foot of the Suleiman Range, the heat, day and night, is perfectly appalling. Unfortunately, some of these choice localities are of administrative importance, as affording the best alignment for our railways, and their continuous occupation by a number of unfortunate European officials and by a native staff little better able to bear it, is an unfortunate necessity.
In one of these pleasant spots the Anglo-Indian community are said to save themselves from the sun during the day by sitting beneath the Club billiard table, still wearing their solar hats, to cut off certain of the rays that have found their way through the slate bed of the table, and there is a good deal of foundation in fact for the “yarn,” as one requires to have lived there to have any adequate conception of what it is like. For seven months in the year indeed the climate is extremely trying, but as some compensation the cold weather, which lasts a full five months, at Peshawar in the north is most enjoyable and goes far to brace up residents to bear the horrors of the hot season.
At Peshawar I have been glad to sit over a blazing fire all day at the end of February, and even in Scind there are some three months of very pleasant weather. In the Eastern Punjab there is, however, a much more respectable rainfall, and the climate closely approaches that of the next zone. During the cold weather the daily range of temperature is considerable, so that if chills are to be avoided it is necessary to put on additional clothing after sunset.
The Old North-west, so called because up to “the forties” it formed our actual frontier, has in many ways the best climate to be found in the plains of India, the best part of the area being undoubtedly the Rohilkhand division. During the hot weather, it is true, the heat rivals that of the Punjab, and one may at times have a long succession of hot nights, but the worst is over by the middle of June, as with the “bursting of the monsoon” comes a great and welcome relief, which in good years is kept up through the rest of the warm weather. When, however, a “break in the rains” of any duration occurs, the climate for the time becomes, if anything, more trying than the contemporaneous conditions in the Punjab. The cold weather, however, goes on for four months, and affords one of the finest climates in the world for those who are not enthusiasts for the miseries of ice and snow.
Table Showing the Monthly Rainfall and Mean Temperature of Thirty-One Indian Stations.
No. Station January February March April May June July August September October November December Remarks
Rain- fall Mean Tem- pera- ture Rain- fall Mean Tem- pera- ture Rain- fall Mean Tem- pera- ture Rain- fall Mean Tem- pera- ture Rain- fall Mean Tem- pera- ture Rain- fall Mean Tem- pera- ture Rain- fall Mean Tem- pera- ture Rain- fall Mean Tem- pera- ture Rain- fall Mean Tem- pera- ture Rain- fall Mean Tem- pera- ture Rain- fall Mean Tem- pera- ture Rain- fall Mean Tem- pera- ture
1 Simla S u b - T r o p i c a l I n d i a . 2·35 41·5° 2·68 41·5° 2·24 50·7° 1·90 59·7° 3·64 64·5° 6·79 68·0° 17·55 65·0° 17·98 63·5° 6·56 62·4° 1·22 56·8° 0·54 49·7° 0·74 45·8° Hill station, with practically temperate climate. Not malarious.
2 Peshawar (N.) 1·77 51·7 0·98 53·6 1·70 64·2 1·84 73·7 0·75 83·6 0·35 91·0 1·79 99·0 2·70 88·4 0·64 82·8 0·11 72·9 0·57 60·6 0·34 53·0 Punjab Stations.—Intensely hot in summer, quite cold in winter; rainfall scanty. Malaria rife from August to November; sometimes of a very virulent type.
Lahore (Mid.) 1·06 54·4 1·10 57·1 0·73 69·2 0·46 80·7 1·03 87·4 1·84 92·7 6·67 89·5 5·83 87·4 2·49 84·9 0·26 76·6 0·10 63·7 0·38 56·1
Multan (S.) 0·48 56·3 0·38 59·5 0·38 72·1 0·07 82·7 0·42 90·3 0·59 94·5 2·94 93·1 1·58 91·1 0·42 88·5 0·00 70·9 0·10 67·8 0·20 58·6
3 Meerut 1·27 57·4 0·79 61·0 0·77 72·4 0·24 83·2 0·69 88·5 2·44 91·1 9·54 86·3 10·59 84·5 5·74 83·2 0·42 76·4 0·08 65·3 0·32 58·6 North-West Provinces.—Hot and dry from April to mid-June; then to September moderate rain; cool with bright sun, November to March. Malarious from August to November, but seldom of a severe type.
Agra 0·53 61·0 0·21 65·0 0·31 77·2 0·14 88·2 0·60 93·7 2·54 94·8 11·50 86·6 7·67 84·5 4·91 84·3 0·47 80·4 0·05 60·5 0·19 62·1
Allahabad 0·85 60·8 0·28 65·3 0·32 77·8 0·11 88·1 0·39 22·4 5·69 92·6 12·33 85·4 11·10 84·1 6·05 83·8 1·83 78·8 0·17 68·2 0·32 61·2
Benares 0·79 61·2 0·37 65·9 0·28 77·8 0·08 87·9 0·72 91·6 5·13 91·6 10·74 85·5 11·83 84·3 6·59 84·2 2·30 79·3 0·36 68·7 0·24 61·4
Jhansi 0·59 63·3 0·33 67·3 0·35 79·3 0·13 89·9 0·49 94·9 4·89 93·5 12·60 84·5 12·50 82·6 6·80 83·1 0·70 80·5 0·12 70·4 0·13 64·3
4 Patna 0·65 61·3 0·53 65·3 0·38 77·4 0·26 87·0 1·97 88·6 7·34 88·4 11·75 85·1 11·30 84·4 7·40 84·7 3·25 80·5 0·17 70·7 0·13 62·6 Upper Bengal.—Intermediate in climate and salubrity between N.W.P. and Lower Bengal.
Hazaribagh 0·56 61·7 0·82 65·8 0·75 76·3 0·41 85·2 2·26 86·3 7·63 84·2 14·16 79·0 13·11 78·3 8·76 78·3 3·41 75·0 0·20 67·2 0·22 66·9
5 Calcutta 0·60 66·2 1·38 70·7 1·57 80·0 1·74 85·5 7·62 85·2 10·74 85·0 12·46 83·2 12·95 82·6 9·33 82·6 4·39 80·5 0·66 72·9 0·24 66·1 Lower Bengal and Assam.—Moist, except for a few weeks in March and April; heavy and prolonged rains, but seldom with intense heat. Malaria prolonged, and often of a severe type.
Dhubri 0·40 62·5 0·53 66·0 1·93 75·6 4·83 79·4 13·97 79·4 24·53 81·0 16·17 83·1 13·76 82·3 13·35 81·4 3·50 79·0 0·26 71·8 0·10 65·3
Sibsagar 1·47 59·9 1·96 62·9 5·07 69·7 9·37 74·6 12·63 78·9 13·69 83·2 17·10 84·5 16·19 83·8 12·22 82·6 4·84 78·0 0·98 69·1 0·57 61·1
6 Jaipur 0·69 61·1 0·19 63·0 0·39 75·4 0·09 84·9 0·45 90·9 2·49 91·4 9·37 84·4 10·07 85·0 4·40 82·7 0·30 78·9 0·24 68·8 0·08 62·8 Rajputana.—Closely resembles the Southern Punjab.
7 Kurrachi 0·72 66·8 0·31 69·4 0·23 76·8 0·33 82·2 0·00 86·3 0·52 88·5 3·47 86·1 1·55 83·8 0·54 83·6 0·00 82·2 0·09 75·0 0·16 69·0 Seaport of Sind.—Waterless and desert; but climate modified by proximity to sea. Exceptionally little malaria previously to the introduction of a regular water supply.
8 Deesa 0·17 67·1 0·10 70·2 0·05 79·9 0·01 86·9 0·25 91·8 2·62 91·1 10·99 84·4 7·60 81·8 4·83 83·1 0·35 81·5 0·16 75·6 0·06 68·6 Gujarat.—Scanty rainfall, July, August; heat of prolonged drought modified by proximity to sea. Malaria moderate, more or less throughout the year, with two maxima—in February and October respectively.
9 Khandwa T r o p i c a l I n d i a . 0·31 67·6 0·06 71·7 0·13 81·3 0·17 89·3 0·45 93·1 6·05 87·7 8·82 81·0 7·14 79·8 7·56 80·2 1·73 78·0 0·31 70·4 0·56 65·3 Central India.—Prolonged dry season, intensely hot in May and June; rainfall moderate. Malaria autumnal, prolonged far into cold weather, but seldom particularly virulent.
Jubulpur 0·76 62·8 0·47 66·8 0·51 77·2 0·18 86·2 0·71 91·6 9·10 87·4 20·80 80·1 16·12 79·3 8·77 79·9 2·07 75·6 0·50 66·6 0·38 60·6
Nagpur 0·55 69·2 0·27 74·2 0·61 83·1 0·34 90·8 0·80 94·9 8·74 87·9 14·73 80·9 10·25 81·0 10·13 81·2 2·95 78·9 0·90 71·8 0·64 66·8
10 Bombay 0·13 75·1 0·01 75·5 0·03 79·6 0·01 82·7 0·94 85·2 19·37 83·3 27·17 80·7 11·43 80·3 11·81 80·2 2·47 81·8 0·66 79·7 0·09 76·8 Considerable rainfall, almost confined to three months. Not very malarious.
11 Hyderabad 0·09 71·0 0·04 76·8 0·75 83·6 0·67 88·7 1·15 90·4 4·85 83·7 6·90 78·6 8·17 78·4 5·99 78·4 3·08 77·3 1·76 72·5 0·27 69·1 Southern plateau.—Scanty rainfall, but no great annual variation of temperature; intense heat of central region modified by sea breeze as ghauts are approached. Malaria worst in August, prolonged far into cool season, but rarely of virulent type.
Poona 0·06 70·0 0·04 74·2 0·05 80·7 0·54 85·5 1·65 85·3 4·73 80·6 6·87 76·3 3·22 75·7 5·21 76·3 4·80 77·5 1·31 72·4 0·26 68·6
Belgaum 0·06 70·3 0·02 74·0 0·35 78·9 1·72 81·8 2·62 80·5 6·59 74·3 15·37 71·2 8·74 71·2 4·64 71·9 6·39 73·7 2·11 71·6 0·13 69·6
Bellary 0·13 76·0 0·04 79·5 0·22 86·1 0·58 90·4 1·70 89·8 1·85 85·1 1·93 82·6 2·58 82·1 4·09 81·7 4·29 80·1 2·13 76·0 0·14 73·0
Bangalore 0·19 67·9 0·11 72·0 0·54 77·3 1·15 81·2 4·02 80·1 3·45 75·6 4·59 73·7 5·80 73·6 4·72 73·5 7·15 72·9 3·59 70·3 0·55 68·1
Trichinopoly 0·26 77·0 0·90 80·0 0·55 85·1 1·53 89·2 3·04 89·7 1·62 88·3 1·50 87·1 4·67 86·2 3·21 85·4 7·49 82·4 5·37 79·1 2·55 76·7
12 Cochin (West Coast) 0·59 80·0 0·62 81·2 2·44 83·7 4·37 84·7 13·30 83·2 28·41 79·5 21·51 78·6 13·31 78·7 9·38 79·2 14·01 80·1 6·77 80·6 1·81 80·3 Southern littoral.—Climate uniform and moist. No marked malaria-free season, but disease seldom specially severe.
Madras (East Coast) 0·89 76·0 0·28 77·2 0·39 80·6 0·62 85·1 2·12 89·3 2·11 89·3 3·87 87·0 4·56 85·5 4·69 85·2 11·00 82·1 13·21 78·7 5·28 76·7
13 Rangoon 0·17 76·3 0·34 78·9 0·28 83·6 1·83 87·0 9·42 84·9 17·51 81·3 21·68 80·3 18·19 80·3 16·04 80·7 6·74 81·4 2·98 80·1 0·09 77·5 Lower Burmah.—Resembles Indian Southern littoral in climate, but disease often of severe type.
14 Mandalay 0·08 69·7 0·07 74·8 0·21 82·4 1·37 89·4 5·56 89·0 6·21 86·5 3·17 86·1 3·88 85·3 6·54 84·8 5·08 83·1 1·28 76·9 0·28 70·5 Climate resembles that of Southern Indian plateau. Malaria from June to December, worst in August; disease often of virulent type.
Table Showing the Monthly Rainfall and Mean Temperature of Thirty-One Indian Stations.
No. Station January February March April May June
Rain- fall Mean Tem- pera- ture Rain- fall Mean Tem- pera- ture Rain- fall Mean Tem- pera- ture Rain- fall Mean Tem- pera- ture Rain- fall Mean Tem- pera- ture Rain- fall Mean Tem- pera- ture
1 Simla S u b - T r o p i c a l I n d i a . 2·35 41·5° 2·68 41·5° 2·24 50·7° 1·90 59·7° 3·64 64·5° 6·79 68·0°
2 Peshawar (N.) 1·77 51·7 0·98 53·6 1·70 64·2 1·84 73·7 0·75 83·6 0·35 91·0
Lahore (Mid.) 1·06 54·4 1·10 57·1 0·73 69·2 0·46 80·7 1·03 87·4 1·84 92·7
Multan (S.) 0·48 56·3 0·38 59·5 0·38 72·1 0·07 82·7 0·42 90·3 0·59 94·5
3 Meerut 1·27 57·4 0·79 61·0 0·77 72·4 0·24 83·2 0·69 88·5 2·44 91·1
Agra 0·53 61·0 0·21 65·0 0·31 77·2 0·14 88·2 0·60 93·7 2·54 94·8
Allahabad 0·85 60·8 0·28 65·3 0·32 77·8 0·11 88·1 0·39 22·4 5·69 92·6
Benares 0·79 61·2 0·37 65·9 0·28 77·8 0·08 87·9 0·72 91·6 5·13 91·6
Jhansi 0·59 63·3 0·33 67·3 0·35 79·3 0·13 89·9 0·49 94·9 4·89 93·5
4 Patna 0·65 61·3 0·53 65·3 0·38 77·4 0·26 87·0 1·97 88·6 7·34 88·4
Hazaribagh 0·56 61·7 0·82 65·8 0·75 76·3 0·41 85·2 2·26 86·3 7·63 84·2
5 Calcutta 0·60 66·2 1·38 70·7 1·57 80·0 1·74 85·5 7·62 85·2 10·74 85·0
Dhubri 0·40 62·5 0·53 66·0 1·93 75·6 4·83 79·4 13·97 79·4 24·53 81·0
Sibsagar 1·47 59·9 1·96 62·9 5·07 69·7 9·37 74·6 12·63 78·9 13·69 83·2
6 Jaipur 0·69 61·1 0·19 63·0 0·39 75·4 0·09 84·9 0·45 90·9 2·49 91·4
7 Kurrachi 0·72 66·8 0·31 69·4 0·23 76·8 0·33 82·2 0·00 86·3 0·52 88·5
8 Deesa 0·17 67·1 0·10 70·2 0·05 79·9 0·01 86·9 0·25 91·8 2·62 91·1
9 Khandwa T r o p i c a l I n d i a . 0·31 67·6 0·06 71·7 0·13 81·3 0·17 89·3 0·45 93·1 6·05 87·7
Jubulpur 0·76 62·8 0·47 66·8 0·51 77·2 0·18 86·2 0·71 91·6 9·10 87·4
Nagpur 0·55 69·2 0·27 74·2 0·61 83·1 0·34 90·8 0·80 94·9 8·74 87·9
10 Bombay 0·13 75·1 0·01 75·5 0·03 79·6 0·01 82·7 0·94 85·2 19·37 83·3
11 Hyderabad 0·09 71·0 0·04 76·8 0·75 83·6 0·67 88·7 1·15 90·4 4·85 83·7
Poona 0·06 70·0 0·04 74·2 0·05 80·7 0·54 85·5 1·65 85·3 4·73 80·6
Belgaum 0·06 70·3 0·02 74·0 0·35 78·9 1·72 81·8 2·62 80·5 6·59 74·3
Bellary 0·13 76·0 0·04 79·5 0·22 86·1 0·58 90·4 1·70 89·8 1·85 85·1
Bangalore 0·19 67·9 0·11 72·0 0·54 77·3 1·15 81·2 4·02 80·1 3·45 75·6
Trichinopoly 0·26 77·0 0·90 80·0 0·55 85·1 1·53 89·2 3·04 89·7 1·62 88·3
12 Cochin (West Coast) 0·59 80·0 0·62 81·2 2·44 83·7 4·37 84·7 13·30 83·2 28·41 79·5
Madras (East Coast) 0·89 76·0 0·28 77·2 0·39 80·6 0·62 85·1 2·12 89·3 2·11 89·3
13 Rangoon 0·17 76·3 0·34 78·9 0·28 83·6 1·83 87·0 9·42 84·9 17·51 81·3
14 Mandalay 0·08 69·7 0·07 74·8 0·21 82·4 1·37 89·4 5·56 89·0 6·21 86·5
No. Station July August September October November December
Rain- fall Mean Tem- pera- ture Rain- fall Mean Tem- pera- ture Rain- fall Mean Tem- pera- ture Rain- fall Mean Tem- pera- ture Rain- fall Mean Tem- pera- ture Rain- fall Mean Tem- pera- ture
1 Simla 17·55 65·0° 17·98 63·5° 6·56 62·4° 1·22 56·8° 0·54 49·7° 0·74 45·8°
2 Peshawar (N.) 1·79 99·0 2·70 88·4 0·64 82·8 0·11 72·9 0·57 60·6 0·34 53·0
Lahore (Mid.) 6·67 89·5 5·83 87·4 2·49 84·9 0·26 76·6 0·10 63·7 0·38 56·1
Multan (S.) 2·94 93·1 1·58 91·1 0·42 88·5 0·00 70·9 0·10 67·8 0·20 58·6
3 Meerut 9·54 86·3 10·59 84·5 5·74 83·2 0·42 76·4 0·08 65·3 0·32 58·6
Agra 11·50 86·6 7·67 84·5 4·91 84·3 0·47 80·4 0·05 60·5 0·19 62·1
Allahabad 12·33 85·4 11·10 84·1 6·05 83·8 1·83 78·8 0·17 68·2 0·32 61·2
Benares 10·74 85·5 11·83 84·3 6·59 84·2 2·30 79·3 0·36 68·7 0·24 61·4
Jhansi 12·60 84·5 12·50 82·6 6·80 83·1 0·70 80·5 0·12 70·4 0·13 64·3
4 Patna 11·75 85·1 11·30 84·4 7·40 84·7 3·25 80·5 0·17 70·7 0·13 62·6
Hazaribagh 14·16 79·0 13·11 78·3 8·76 78·3 3·41 75·0 0·20 67·2 0·22 66·9
5 Calcutta 12·46 83·2 12·95 82·6 9·33 82·6 4·39 80·5 0·66 72·9 0·24 66·1
Dhubri 16·17 83·1 13·76 82·3 13·35 81·4 3·50 79·0 0·26 71·8 0·10 65·3
Sibsagar 17·10 84·5 16·19 83·8 12·22 82·6 4·84 78·0 0·98 69·1 0·57 61·1
6 Jaipur 9·37 84·4 10·07 85·0 4·40 82·7 0·30 78·9 0·24 68·8 0·08 62·8
7 Kurrachi 3·47 86·1 1·55 83·8 0·54 83·6 0·00 82·2 0·09 75·0 0·16 69·0
8 Deesa 10·99 84·4 7·60 81·8 4·83 83·1 0·35 81·5 0·16 75·6 0·06 68·6
9 Khandwa 8·82 81·0 7·14 79·8 7·56 80·2 1·73 78·0 0·31 70·4 0·56 65·3
Jubulpur 20·80 80·1 16·12 79·3 8·77 79·9 2·07 75·6 0·50 66·6 0·38 60·6
Nagpur 14·73 80·9 10·25 81·0 10·13 81·2 2·95 78·9 0·90 71·8 0·64 66·8
10 Bombay 27·17 80·7 11·43 80·3 11·81 80·2 2·47 81·8 0·66 79·7 0·09 76·8
11 Hyderabad 6·90 78·6 8·17 78·4 5·99 78·4 3·08 77·3 1·76 72·5 0·27 69·1
Poona 6·87 76·3 3·22 75·7 5·21 76·3 4·80 77·5 1·31 72·4 0·26 68·6
Belgaum 15·37 71·2 8·74 71·2 4·64 71·9 6·39 73·7 2·11 71·6 0·13 69·6
Bellary 1·93 82·6 2·58 82·1 4·09 81·7 4·29 80·1 2·13 76·0 0·14 73·0
Bangalore 4·59 73·7 5·80 73·6 4·72 73·5 7·15 72·9 3·59 70·3 0·55 68·1
Trichinopoly 1·50 87·1 4·67 86·2 3·21 85·4 7·49 82·4 5·37 79·1 2·55 76·7
12 Cochin (West Coast) 21·51 78·6 13·31 78·7 9·38 79·2 14·01 80·1 6·77 80·6 1·81 80·3
Madras (East Coast) 3·87 87·0 4·56 85·5 4·69 85·2 11·00 82·1 13·21 78·7 5·28 76·7
13 Rangoon 21·68 80·3 18·19 80·3 16·04 80·7 6·74 81·4 2·98 80·1 0·09 77·5
14 Mandalay 3·17 86·1 3·88 85·3 6·54 84·8 5·08 83·1 1·28 76·9 0·28 70·5
No. Station Remarks
1 Simla Hill station, with practically temperate climate. Not malarious.
2 Peshawar (N.) Punjab Stations.—Intensely hot in summer, quite cold in winter; rainfall scanty. Malaria rife from August to November; sometimes of a very virulent type.
Lahore (Mid.)
Multan (S.)
3 Meerut North-West Provinces.—Hot and dry from April to mid-June; then to September moderate rain; cool with bright sun, November to March. Malarious from August to November, but seldom of a severe type.
Agra
Allahabad
Benares
Jhansi
4 Patna Upper Bengal.—Intermediate in climate and salubrity between N.W.P. and Lower Bengal.
Hazaribagh
5 Calcutta Lower Bengal and Assam.—Moist, except for a few weeks in March and April; heavy and prolonged rains, but seldom with intense heat. Malaria prolonged, and often of a severe type.
Dhubri
Sibsagar
6 Jaipur Rajputana.—Closely resembles the Southern Punjab.
7 Kurrachi Seaport of Sind.—Waterless and desert; but climate modified by proximity to sea. Exceptionally little malaria previously to the introduction of a regular water supply.
8 Deesa Gujarat.—Scanty rainfall, July, August; heat of prolonged drought modified by proximity to sea. Malaria moderate, more or less throughout the year, with two maxima—in February and October respectively.
9 Khandwa Central India.—Prolonged dry season, intensely hot in May and June; rainfall moderate. Malaria autumnal, prolonged far into cold weather, but seldom particularly virulent.
Jubulpur
Nagpur
10 Bombay Considerable rainfall, almost confined to three months. Not very malarious.
11 Hyderabad Southern plateau.—Scanty rainfall, but no great annual variation of temperature; intense heat of central region modified by sea breeze as ghauts are approached. Malaria worst in August, prolonged far into cool season, but rarely of virulent type.
Poona
Belgaum
Bellary
Bangalore
Trichinopoly
12 Cochin (West Coast) Southern littoral.—Climate uniform and moist. No marked malaria-free season, but disease seldom specially severe.
Madras (East Coast)
13 Rangoon Lower Burmah.—Resembles Indian Southern littoral in climate, but disease often of severe type.
14 Mandalay Climate resembles that of Southern Indian plateau. Malaria from June to December, worst in August; disease often of virulent type.
In the third zone, that of Bengal, the cold weather is short, but even in Calcutta there are two months during which ordinary European clothing becomes desirable. There is a short hot weather, relieved by a rainy period, the “chota barsât,” about Easter, but the heat never approaches that of the western part of the continental triangle. The rainfall is extremely heavy towards the east, as in Assam, so that extensive floods are common, and malaria necessarily very common and often serious.
In the northern part of the peninsular triangle we find the same tendency to dryness in the west and moisture in the east, Khathiawar and Surat having but moderate rainfalls, while that of Orissa is very heavy; but in neither is either the fierce heat or bracing cold weather of the northern triangle to be met with.
Between the two lie the “Central” Provinces, which, apart from some favoured spots, such as Saugor and Chindwara, which have an elevation of over 2,000 feet, undoubtedly possess one of the vilest climates in India, or in the world. The hot, dry weather is severe and prolonged, and towards the burst of the monsoon is combined with a moist atmosphere without any alleviation of the heat. The writer has personally verified in the Nerbudah valley a temperature of 105° F. (40·6° C.) at 4.30 a.m. in the open, the observation being taken carefully with a swung Kew thermometer.
The so-called cold weather lasts barely two months, and the only time of the year that by any stretch of politeness can be said to be pleasant, is that of the rains, which probably rather by force of contrast than by virtue of any real superiority to the same season elsewhere, includes days when the air seems really refreshing.
The entire coast and the greater part of the surface of the southern portion of the peninsula have a warm, equable climate with a considerable rainfall. Portions of Haidrababad and Mysore, in the plateau of the Deccan, approach continental conditions, being somewhat dry and arid, and occasionally visited by droughts, but the climate of the greater part of the country is profoundly influenced by its proximity to the great oceans that wash its coasts. In this inland plateau the distribution of the rainfall has the further peculiarity of being much later than elsewhere, the rainiest month in Mysore being not July, as in most other localities throughout India, but November: this corresponds to the second rainy season, the first rainy season being represented by a somewhat smaller maximum in August. There is no very marked difference between the climates of the eastern and western coasts, though as will be seen on comparing the figures for Chochin and Madras in the subjoined table, the monthly rainfall is somewhat differently distributed.
Colombo. Lat. 6° 50′ N.; Long. 80° 0′ E. Observatory a few Feet above Sea-level.
Months Mean Monthly Maxima Mean Monthly Minima Relative Humidity Mean Monthly Rainfall
F. C. F. C. Ins. Mm.
January 89·8 32·1 72·6 22·6 80 3·72 94·6
February 91·9 33·2 74·4 23·5 75 0·63 16·0
March 94·0 34·4 75·7 24·3 73 3·71 94·1
April 90·0 33·2 76·2 24·5 83 9·73 247·5
May 89·8 32·1 78·7 25·9 86 16·0 406·4
June 87·4 30·7 78·5 25·8 84 7·83 199·3
July 86·3 30·2 76·5 24·7 84 6·77 171·5
August 87·2 30·7 77·3 25·2 83 7·35 186·7
September 86·9 30·5 76·5 24·7 83 4·00 101·6
October 89·1 31·8 75·4 24·1 82 9·47 241·0
November 88·4 31·3 74·3 23·4 80 9·25 234·9
December 85·5 29·7 73·1 22·9 82 5·20 132·1
These climatic conditions are naturally found in their most typical form on the island of Ceylon, the climatic data of which are epitomised in the above table for the capital of the island, Colombo, which is situated on the western coast.
The total rainfall is about 88 ins. (2,237 mm.), and the mean annual temperature 80° F. (26·7 C.).
The bursting of the south-west monsoon, which is one of the main factors in determining the sequence of seasons in India, takes place in Ceylon in the latter half of May, and gradually creeps northward, reaching Bombay early in June, and finding its way inland in the latter half of that month. Traditionally, the 15th June is the date for the advent of the rains in Northern India, but it is rarely that the hopes of the anxious denizens of the broiling plains are fulfilled by its appearance at so early a date, and the end of the month probably more nearly approaches the average. On rare occasions the rain may not come till the 15th July, and the last month of waiting in such years is always a time of much tedium and suffering, as the absence of precipitation does not prevent the air from becoming saturated with moisture, which, combined with unabated high temperature, renders the lives of all subjected to it barely tolerable.
India is fortunately well provided with hill-stations, Bombay being the only presidency which is badly off in this respect. There the two or three health resorts reach an elevation of no more than from 4,000 to 5,000 ft., and are practically utilised only during the hot, dry season preceding the burst of the monsoon. Once the rains are established the health-seeker has to leave these stations for Poona, a large station on the summit of the western ghauts, where, thanks to the pleasant sea-breeze, the climate during the rains, if rather too warm for choice, is on the whole very pleasant.
Madras possesses excellent sanatoria in the Nihilgerris, the principal hill-station of Ootacamand, at an elevation of over 6,000 ft., being in many respects the best of the Indian hill-stations. Owing to its southerly position it enjoys an admirable climate all the year round, and unlike the Himalayan stations, which are perched on steep spurs and peaks, is situated on a wide, rolling table-land, so that it is possible to drive about in ordinary carriages, and even to follow the hounds, though, it must be confessed, the hunting is much more like that to be got with the Dartmoor hounds than in “the Shires.”
Temperature Table of Indian Stations Expressed in Metric System.
Place Eleva- tion, Metres Mean Annual Temper- ature Coldest Month Warmest Month
Name Temper- ature Name Temper- ature
Bengal - Darjeeling 2,107 12·2 Jan. 5·0 July 17·2
Calcutta 6 25·4 Dec.-Jan. 18·4 May 29·5
Saugor Dl 7 25·7 Dec. 19·2 May 29·5
Dacca 6 25·4 Jan. 18·9 July 28·4
Chittagong 26 24·9 Jan. 19·1 May 27·8
Assam - Sibsagar 101 19·1 Jan. 14·3 July 28·3
Goalpara 118 23·6 Jan. 17·2 July 27·2
Silchar 31 22·4 Jan. 14·3 July 28·4
Oussa and Central Provinces - False Point 4 25·4 Dec. 19·2 June 28·9
Kutták 24 26·7 Dec. 20·4 May 30·9
Jubulpur 404 24·1 Dec. 15·7 May 32·7
Pachmari 1,070 20·9 Dec. 13·7 May 29·3
Nagpur 312 26·2 Dec. 19·3 May 34·4
Sironcha 122 27·6 Dec. 20·6 May 35·0
Punjab - Peshawar 420 21·7 Jan. 10·8 June 32·8
Lahore 150 22·8 Jan. 12·2 June 33·3
Multán 130 23·9 Jan. 13·3 June 34·7
United Provinces - Meerut 100 22·8 Jan. 57·4 June 32·8
Jhánsi 200 23·3 Jan. 63·3 June 34·2
Western Presidency - Bombay 11 26·4 Jan. 22·8 May 29·3
Poona 561 24·3 Jan. 20·2 April 29·2
Sholapur 485 26·1 Jan. 21·4 May 31·8
Secunderabád 544 25·7 Jan. 20·8 May 31·8
Eastern Presidency - Vizagapatám 9 28·2 Jan. 24·0 May 31·1
Belgaum 769 22·4 Jan. 20·6 April 35·9
Bellary 450 26·9 Jan. 22·5 April 31·8
Madras 7 27·7 Jan. 24·2 May-June 30·7
Trichinopoly 78 28·1 Jan. 24·6 April 31·2
Mercára 1,152 19·8 Jan. 18·4 April 22·7
Wellington 1,890 16·2 Jan. 12·8 May 18·8
Dodabetta Peak 2,633 11·2 Jan. 9·7 May 13·8
Agustia Peak 1,890 14·3 Jan. 12·2 April 16·3
Tevandrum 4 25·5 Jan. 24·5 April 27·0
The Northern, or sub-tropical, triangle possesses a large number of elevated health stations, varying from 5,000 to 9,000 ft., from Darjeeling, north of Calcutta, to Thandiani, near Peshawar. All of these afford an excellent refuge from the extreme heat of the plains, but the eastern stations have so heavy a rainfall as to make them barely tenable during the rains, although Assam possesses, in Shillong, a delightful health resort, not unlike Ootacamand in miniature, where the rainfall is comparatively moderate and it is possible to drive about the station, if one is not too particular as to the size and magnificence of one’s equipage. With this exception, however, it is better, provided the choice be an open one, to resort to one of the western Himalayan stations, as in the others the period of the rains is somewhat trying even to adults, and is especially badly borne by children.
The principal data of the climates of the regions described above may be gathered in detail from an inspection of the table on pages 56, 57, as the places therein mentioned include one or more towns in each of the regions into which we have, for purposes of description, divided the Indian peninsula. Owing to the size of page it is impossible to adhere to our general plan of tabulating the facts in both the English and Continental scales, and in place of duplicating the table according to the metric nomenclature, it has been thought better to reproduce a table of the same character from Hann’s “Klimatologie,” as by this course the facts are expressed from a different point of view, and it enables us to some extent to supplement the original list with the data of a number of additional places.
Lastly, the table on next page, from Blanford, is reproduced, as it illustrates well the remarkable differences of climate in the matter of annual ranges of temperature that are to be found within the confines of the Indian peninsula.
The Bay of Bengal naturally has a climate which generally resembles that of the surrounding coasts. During the south-west monsoon the winds are strong, and there is generally a heavy sea running, but throughout the period of north-easterly winds, from October to May, a calm sea with moderate breezes will as a rule be met with, the pleasant weather being interrupted only by occasional cyclonic storms during the first half of the period. Short spells of rather bad weather due to disturbances of this sort will be met with in every year, and it is rare for a season to pass without rather heavy weather, but the really serious storms, which meet the popular notions of what a “cyclone” should be, are fortunately rather rare. Of these dangerous disturbances, the greatest number occur in October, but they are not unknown even in the period of the south-west monsoon. Out of 111 noticeable revolving storms “in the Bay” that have occurred in 139 years, Blanford states that the monthly distribution has been as follows:—
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apl. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
2 0 2 9 21 10 3 4 6 31 18 9
Table of Mean and Absolute Extreme Temperatures in Certain Indian Stations.
Place Annual Range of Temperature Mean Maximum Temperature Mean Minimum Temperature Absolute Maximum Temperature Absolute Minimum Temperature
F. C. F. C. F. C. F. C. F. C.
Leh 94 52·2 90 32·2 -4 -20·0 93 33·9 -17 -27·2
Quetta 84 46·6 99 37·2 15 -9·4 103 39·4 11 -11·8
Simla 63 35·0 88 31·1 25 -3·9 94·5 34·7 20 -6·8
Peshawar 86 47·8 115 46·1 29 -1·7 119 48·3 24·5 -4·1
Multan 80 44·5 114 45·6 30 1·1 118 47·8 29·1 -1·7
Lahore 83 46·1 117 47·2 30 1·1 120 49·0 30 -1·2
Jacobabad 86 47·8 118 47·8 32 0·0 121 49·4 29 -1·6
Kurrachi 62 34·5 107 41·7 45 7·2 117·5 47·5 41 5·0
Mount Abu 57 31·7 96 35·6 39 3·9 101 38·3 32·6 0·4
Deesa 72 40·0 112 44·4 40 4·4 118·5 48·1 34·2 1·2
Agra 76 42·3 116 46·7 40 4·4 120·5 49·2 36·4 2·4
Calcutta 54 30·0 102 38·9 48 8·9 105·5 40·8 45 7·2
Sibsagar 57 31·6 99 37·2 42 5·6 102 38·9 40 4·4
Nagpur 69 38·3 115 46·1 46 7·8 117·5 47·5 43·2 6·2
Bombay 34 18·9 95 35·0 61 16·1 100 37·9 53·2 11·8
Sholapur 63 35·0 110 43·3 47 8·3 112 44·4 42·9 6·0
Darjeeling 48 26·7 78 25·6 30 -1·1 84 29·0 26·0 -3·3
Madras 48 26·6 108 42·2 60 15·6 113 45·0 57·5 14·2
Wellington 43 23·9 80 26·7 37 2·8 81 27·2 34·2 1·2
Colombo 25 13·9 93 33·9 68 20·0 95·5 35·4 65·8 18·8
Newera Eliya 42 23·3 77 25·0 35 1·7 79 26·1 0·0 0·0
Akyab 45 25·0 96 35·6 51 10·6 99 37·3 47·4 8·5
Rangoon 46 25·6 104 40·0 58 14·4 106·5 41·5 55·8 13·2
Port Blair 26 14·4 95 35·0 69 20·6 96·5 35·8 65·8 18·8
It will be noted that there is a second maximum in May, so that one of the most important factors in determining these storms is obviously the change of the monsoon. Their influence rarely reaches far inland, so that one rarely hears of serious damage being inflicted much further inland than Calcutta, and even there, the havoc seldom goes beyond the uprooting of a few trees and the unroofing of crazy native huts. At sea these storms are no light danger, but it is to be doubted if they ever approach the terrific visitations that are to be met with in the West Indies.
The Indo-Malay Peninsula.
—The climate of the coast of Arakan and Lower Burmah generally resembles that of the other side of the Bay of Bengal, but has a much heavier rainfall, as may be seen from an inspection of the following table of four ports situated on the west coast of the peninsula with that of Madras.
Table showing Comparison of Rainfall on West and East Coasts, Bay of Bengal.
Madras (West Coast of Bay) Port Blair Island (nearer Burmah) Akyab (East Coast of Bay to North) Moulmein (East Coast of Bay, middle) Selangor (East Coast of Bay to South)
Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm.
January 0·98 28 0·91 23 0·13 3 0 0 7·37 187
February 0·33 8 1·30 33 0·19 5 0·08 2 6·03 153
March 0·39 10 0·39 10 0·54 13 0·13 3 7·84 199
April 0·59 15 2·40 61 1·63 41 2·76 70 10·04 255
May 2·20 56 15·08 404 12·21 310 19·68 500 10·72 272
June 2·09 53 17·08 455 51·63 1,311 38·38 975 3·04 77
July 3·78 96 16·54 419 50·98 1,295 43·98 1,115 3·98 101
August 4·42 112 15·20 386 38·57 980 43·0 1,092 7·68 195
September 4·68 119 19·65 498 22·98 584 30·32 770 7·18 182
October 10·08 274 11·80 300 12·40 315 8·39 218 11·17 283
November 13·70 348 9·49 241 3·89 99 1·49 38 11·01 280
December 5·13 130 5·33 135 6·59 15 0·13 3 9·77 248
Year 49·12 1,246 116·73 2,965 195·72 4,971 188·32 4,781 101·30 2,573
The more even distribution and the appearance of two maxima as the Equator is approached are also well shown in this table, which further shows that the north-east coast of the Bay of Bengal includes some of the rainiest places on the face of the globe.
Although the Burmese coast has so moist a climate, the greater part of the moisture pouring in from the sea is precipitated on the rather high range of hills that extends along the entire length of this peninsula, at no great distance from the coast; so that as we ascend the Irrawaddy, the rainfall steadily diminishes, until in the far inland regions of Upper Burmah we get a climate reproducing, in many respects, that of north-western India, though of course to a much less marked degree. This change from extreme moisture to moderate dryness may be followed by comparing the three following climatic tables of stations in Burmah.
Climatic Table of Burmese Stations.
Month Rangoon, near Coast. Lat. 16° 30′ N. Mandalay, Inland. Lat. 22° N. Bhamo, Chinese Frontier. Lat. 24° 20′ N.
Mean Monthly Maxima Mean Monthly Minima Mean Monthly Rainfall Mean Monthly Maxima Mean Monthly Minima Mean Monthly Rainfall Mean Monthly Maxima Mean Monthly Minima Mean Monthly Rainfall
January 89·1 64·2 0·11 84·1 56·0 0·06 77·2 48·5 0·71
February 92·8 65·9 0·23 89·9 60·1 0·08 82·2 53·1 0·39
March 96·6 71·1 0·16 97·7 67·9 0·21 89·0 60·1 0·69
April 98·6 76·2 1·74 102·3 77·8 1·19 93·9 67·6 1·65
May 91·9 77·3 11·73 99·0 79·0 5·26 93·7 72·7 6·15
June 86·5 76·5 18·30 95·0 78·5 5·71 90·5 74·9 13·35
July 85·3 75·8 21·37 94·2 78·4 3·26 87·8 75·1 19·17
August 85·1 75·7 19·65 93·3 77·6 4·16 88·1 75·4 16·40
September 85·7 75·9 15·89 92·8 76·9 6·21 90·1 74·5 8·79
October 87·7 75·6 7·12 91·8 74·8 4·54 88·5 69·6 3·47
November 87·6 72·3 2·52 86·7 67·2 1·67 81·8 59·2 0·93
December 87·3 67·3 0·07 82·3 59·3 0·28 76·3 50·7 0·44
Year 89·5 72·8 98·89 92·4 71·1 32·63 82·6 65·1 72·14
Conditions of space make it difficult here to express the data in both scales, accordingly the English scale only is given. The higher rainfall of Bhamo as compared with Mandalay is attributable to its proximity to the great range of hills which divide Burmah from China.
Straits Settlements.
—Singapore has, or had, a yacht club, “The Equatorial,” the course for whose regattas was supposed to be “the Line,” so that the climate of this colony is necessarily of the equatorial type. There is practically no seasonal change, as although the maxima of rainfall occur in March-April and December, the other months have also an amount of precipitation not far short of these specially rainy months. The annual range of temperature is under 18° F. (10° C), and though the climate is rather moist, excessive heat is never met with; the mean maximum of April, the warmest month, being but 89° F. The main climatic facts may be gathered from the subjoined table:—
Singapore. Lat. 1° 16′ N.; Long. 103° 53′ E. Observatory a few Feet above the Sea.
Month Mean Temperature Mean Maximum Temperature Mean Minimum Temperature Relative Humidity % Rainfall Number of Rainy Days
F. C. F. C. F. C. Ins. Mm.
January 78·2 25·7 85·6 29·8 71·7 22·0 79 10·30 261·6 16
February 79·0 26·1 87·1 30·6 71·6 21·9 79 6·18 156·3 9
March 79·9 26·6 88·0 31·1 73·3 23·0 80 8·41 213·7 14
April 81·2 27·3 89·0 31·7 74·8 23·7 79 8·39 213·5 15
May 82·7 28·2 88·9 31·6 76·4 24·6 79 5·58 141·3 13
June 80·9 27·1 86·7 30·4 75·6 24·3 81 6·37 161·7 16
July 81·7 27·6 87·5 30·8 75·4 24·1 76 7·74 196·6 13
August 80·8 27·0 86·3 30·2 74·9 23·8 78 6·83 173·0 14
September 80·5 26·9 86·9 30·5 74·2 23·5 77 5·83 148·2 12
October 80·4 26·8 87·1 30·7 74·1 23·4 79 8·61 218·8 17
November 79·3 26·3 86·1 30·1 73·6 23·2 82 9·24 234·5 18
December 77·4 25·2 83·2 28·5 73·5 23·1 89 10·84 275·5 17
Year 80·1 26·7 86·9 30·5 74·0 26·7 80 93·99 2387 174
Figures for 1896 Averages of 10 years
During January and February the wind is mainly from the north-east, but varies greatly, often veering round to the north-west. The south-west monsoon, known here as the “Java winds,” comes on about April and continues only to July, after which month, till November, the winds are again very variable, the most common directions being south-south-west, south-east, and west.
Considering its proximity to the Equator the climate is wonderfully pleasant, the nights being always cool enough to sleep at ease, and though there is generally a pleasant breeze, the island enjoys an almost complete immunity from storms.
Siam
, owing to its geographical position, is to some extent preserved from the heat, rain, and devastating cyclones common in adjoining countries, the high mountains with which it is almost completely surrounded, cutting it off from most of their effects. The coolest month is December, though the absolute minimum may occur at any time from November to February; and the hottest, April.
The lowest temperature recorded during ten years by Staff-Surg. J. Campbell, R.N., from whose observations these notes are compiled, was 57° F. (13·9° C), and the highest 97·5° F. (36·4° C). December is the driest, and September the moistest month of the year, and hail fell once in fifteen years. Droughts are rare. The south-west monsoon becomes weak in September. Early in October northerly breezes set in, varying at first to east and west of north, and by November the north-east monsoon is established, to reach its strongest in December, and then gradually failing till early in March, when the “Kiti” breezes—south to south-south-west—usher in the monsoon. From May to August the winds are sometimes boisterous. The above remarks apply to Lower Siam and to Bangkok in particular, for which the table below, compiled from Campbell’s figures, gives the main climatic data.
Bangkok. Lat. 13° 58′ N.; Long. 100° 34′ W. Near Sea-level.
Month Mean Temperature Mean Maximum Temperature Mean Minimum Temperature Relative Humidity Rainfall Number of Rainy days
F. C. F. C. F. C. Ins. Mm.
January 76·1 24·5 87·7 30·9 69·4 20·7 75 0·09 2·4 2
February 79·1 26·2 88·6 31·5 74·1 23·4 78 0·56 14·2 7
March 82·5 28·1 93·0 33·9 74·5 23·6 74 0·83 21·4 1
April 83·4 28·5 94·1 34·5 79·0 26·1 75 2·42 51·1 10
May 82·3 27·9 89·7 32·0 76·8 24·8 78 10·54 268·0 20
June 82·3 27·9 89·4 31·8 78·1 25·7 78 7·72 195·7 16
July 81·4 27·4 88·1 31·2 76·2 24·5 78 8·02 204·0 26
August 81·4 27·4 89·0 31·7 76·2 24·5 79 5·65 143·5 17
September 80·3 26·8 88·6 31·5 76·7 24·8 82 11·30 287·0 22
October 80·1 26·7 87·3 30·7 75·1 24·0 82 7·46 189·3 14
November 76·8 24·9 83·7 28·8 70·3 21·3 77 2·36 59·8 6
December 74·8 23·8 81·6 27·6 63·3 17·4 74 0·09 2·4 2
Year 80·1 26·6 88·4 31·3 74·1 23·4 77 67·04 1703 143
Some authorities make the rainfall of Bangkok considerably less, but Campbell’s observations extended over several years and may perhaps be preferred. The delta of the Menam River is annually flooded between June and November, and the spring levels are close to the surface all the year round. North of the delta of the Menam is the Korat Plateau, some 700 feet above the sea-level, a wilderness of shadeless bush, interspersed with salt marshes. One of the main drawbacks of the country is the scarcity of potable water, the supplies both in the Menam delta and on the Korat being almost always brackish and a nearly certain cause of digestive disturbance for Europeans, who thus have to rely greatly on aerated waters imported from the Straits.
Upper Siam, on the other hand, enjoys a dry climate with cool nights, but speaking generally the climate is an exceptionally trying one for European residents.
Cochin China
has a moist, hot climate. During the dry season, which lasts from November to April, the temperature varies from 95° F. during the day to 63° F. at night (35° to 17° C.), whereas during the rains, which last from May to October, the range of variation is only between 86° and 68° F. (30° to 20° C.); the relative humidity at this season reaching 89 per cent. Further north, in Tongking, the range of temperature is wider, from 99° to 18° F. (36° to -7° C.). The rainfall is much heavier than in Siam; Saigon, lat. 10° 47′ N., receiving its maximum of 17·7 ins. (423 mm.) in September and a total rainfall of 74 ins. (1,873 mm.); while at Hue, lat. 16° 33′ N., the wettest month is October, with 26·15 ins. (664 mm.), and a total of 102 ins. (2,592 mm.). Further north, at Hai-fong, in lat. 20° 57′ N., the most rainy month is August, with 14·8 ins. (374 mm.). July falls but little short of this, but the total is less than that of the other two stations, amounting to no more than 64 ins. (1,627 mm.).
The change to the north-east monsoon in November is not unfrequently marked by sudden and devastating storms. The climate has a very bad reputation, malaria, dysentery of a peculiarly deadly type, and diseases due to internal worms, being very common, especially during the rainy season.
China.
—Owing to the backward state of the country, there is singularly little information of a definite character available with respect to the enormous Chinese Empire, the entire southern half of which comes within the scope of the tropical climatologist. In the south, regular observations are carried on in the British colony of Hong Kong, and in the north at Zi-ka-Wei, near Shanghai, an admirably conducted observatory is conducted by the Jesuit missionaries, who so often enrol themselves as the pioneers of science.
Speaking generally, however, whether in the case of littoral or continental climates, those of China appear to compare favourably with localities of the same latitude in India and the Indo-Malay peninsula.
The following are the figures for the island of Hong Kong for the year 1901, as I am unable to discover any collated statistics.
Hong Kong. Lat. 22° 12′ N., Long. 114° 13′ E. Near Sea-level.
Month Monthly Maxima Monthly Minima Relative Humidity Monthly Rainfall
F. C. F. C. Ins. Mm.
January 68·5 20·3 62·5 16·9 83 0·68 17·4
February 59·5 13·3 50·5 10·3 48 0·76 19·3
March 67·9 19·9 60·4 15·7 77 1·27 32·1
April 75·4 24·1 69·1 20·7 89 9·03 229·9
May 81·8 27·7 73·7 23·2 85 14·10 358·1
June 85·9 29·9 78·2 25·7 80 2·33 59·7
July 87·0 30·6 78·5 25·8 81 5·58 141·0
August 85·7 29·8 76·9 24·9 84 14·00 355·6
September 86·0 30·0 76·4 24·6 76 3·89 99·1
October 82·6 28·2 73·6 23·2 68 2·50 63·5
November 75·4 24·1 64·9 18·2 64 0·77 19·5
December 66·9 19·3 57·5 14·2 66 0·83 21·2
In the Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps, vol. i., No. 1, Major S. F. Clark writes: “The climate of Hong Kong varies in the different places. At the Peak, 1,500 feet above the sea, it is always bearable in summer, and is quite crisp in winter, an occasional film of ice being sometimes visible in the mornings. In fact, if one had not to descend to the lower levels for work, it would be no hardship to live at the Peak, where the fog is really the main trouble. Children do well up there, but get very white down below.
“In the city the summer is very trying. From May to September, both inclusive, the sun is strong—reaching 94° or so in July and August—and the humidity of the air is practically at saturation point. With the breeze cut off by the Peak the situation is thus by no means pleasant, and cases of heat apoplexy always occur at this time. The temperature averages 86° to 88° during these months, and the nights also are stiflingly hot. By the help of punkahs, electric fans, rickshaws and chairs, the work of the colony goes on. The summer is also the rainy and typhoon season, and these visitations luckily cool the air for some days. The rain is very heavy at times, but of late years droughts have prevailed. For the other seven months the climate is not unpleasant, and in December, January and February, is quite cold, without reaching freezing point. The humidity of the air, however, is always considerable. This dampness of the air, especially foggy weather at the Peak, is very destructive to clothing, books, &c., and tin-lined boxes are essential. Ladies’ garments require much care to preserve them from destruction.”
It is, however, fortunately possible for most people to live at “the Peak,” between which and the town there is frequent communication by means of cable tram.
Considering that Hong Kong lies well to the south of Calcutta, it must be confessed that the climate is wonderfully good, and one cannot but think that Major Clark would wish himself back in Hong Kong were he to negotiate an exchange to almost any station in the plains of India.
On the mainland, at Canton, the climate is much less uniform, the north-east wind of the cold season rendering the nights singularly cold for so southerly a position.
The China seas are visited by revolving storms of a most violent character, known locally as typhoons, but as in those of the Bay of Bengal, their more serious effects do not appear to extend far inland.
The Island of Formosa, with a mean annual temperature of 74·6° F. (23·7° C.), has a typically marine climate, the difference between the coldest and hottest months, February and June, being but from 67·7° F. (19·8° C.) to 81° F. (27·1° C.), or only 13·5° F. (7·3° C.). The south-west monsoon bursts towards the end of May, and the rainfall, especially in the north of the island, is very heavy and evenly distributed, though there is a distinct dry, winter season in the south, as may be seen by the contrast of the rainfall of the following two Formosan stations—Kilung, in lat. 25° 8′ N., and Takao Anping, in 22° 47′ N. (Hann).
Rainfall in the Island of Formosa.
Jan. Feb. Mar. April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
Kilung - Ins. 17·53 14·98 14·98 8·68 10·74 9·33 7·72 7·53 16·53 9·84 11·61 11·63
Mm. 445 379 379 220 273 237 196 191 420 249 294 294
Takao - Ins. 6·67 0·58 1·64 2·48 9·45 13·58 14·65 14·63 4·69 1·54 0·49 1·08
Mm. 17 13 41 63 240 345 372 370 119 39 12 27
The total annual rainfall is 122 ins. (3,581 mm.) for Kilung, and 65·25 ins. (1,658 mm.) for Takao Anping.
Further north, the monsoon bursts somewhat later, very much in the same way as it does in India; but here, again, the climate is much cooler than would be met with west of the Malay Peninsula in the same latitudes.
Zi-ka-Wei. Lat. 31° 12′ N.; Time 8 Hrs. 5 Mins. 43 Secs. East of Greenwich. Elevation of Observatory, 22 Feet above the Sea.
Month Mean Monthly Temperature Maximum Temperatures Minimum Temperatures Relative Humidity Rainfall Number of Rainy Days
F. C. F. C. F. C. Ins. Mm.
January 37·0 2·8 60·0 15·6 20·0 -6·7 78 2·03 51·8 10
February 39·4 4·0 61·9 16·6 23·8 -4·9 79 2·44 62·0 11
March 46·0 7·8 74·1 23·4 29·0 -1·7 77 3·29 83·6 13
April 56·5 13·6 84·0 28·9 36·9 2·7 77 3·49 88·8 13
May 65·5 18·6 88·5 31·4 46·4 8·0 76 3·64 92·0 13
June 73·4 23·0 95·0 34·9 57·3 14·1 79 6·78 172·0 14
July 80·6 27·0 98·5 36·9 67·5 19·7 80 4·74 120·1 11
August 80·1 26·8 97·4 36·3 67·0 19·4 80 6·08 154·6 11
September 72·8 22·7 92·0 33·3 56·6 13·7 79 4·89 124·3 12
October 63·2 17·3 83·5 28·6 41·4 5·2 76 3·23 82·0 10
November 52·0 11·1 73·4 23·0 29·9 -1·2 76 1·94 49·2 8
December 41·7 5·5 65·0 18·3 21·8 -5·7 76 1·15 29·2 7
Year 59·0 15·0 99·4 27·3 20·0 -6·7 78 43·68 1109·1 131
The above table, which is drawn up from the observations of several years, shows, apart from the remarkably low temperatures, an amount of both diurnal and annual variation that is very remarkable in a place so close to the sea. Strictly speaking, indeed, it should not come in the category of hot climates at all, but in the absence of other accurate material it is valuable for the purpose of showing how soon tropical temperatures are left behind as we proceed northward along the Pacific coast of Asia.
The Malay Archipelago.
—Consists of a number of large islands situated on either side of the Equator, and generally too close to it to enjoy the benefits of a well-developed monsoon.
Batavia. Lat. 6° 11′ S.; Long. 106° 53′ E.
Month Mean Temperature Absolute Maxima Absolute Minima Relative Humidity Mean Monthly Rainfall Number of Rainy Days
F. C. F. C. F. C. Ins. Mm.
January 77·6 25·4 91·5 33·1 68·4 20·4 87·1 13·75 350 22·5
February 77·6 25·4 90·5 32·5 69·1 20·7 87·5 12·56 319 20·7
March 78·5 25·8 90·6 32·6 70·3 21·2 85·9 7·53 191 17·4
April 79·4 26·3 90·5 32·5 70·3 21·2 85 4·78 121 14·1
May 79·5 26·4 91·1 32·9 70·3 21·2 83·0 3·48 88 9·2
June 79·4 26·3 90·5 32·5 68·6 20·4 83·1 3·64 92 9·1
July 78·5 25·8 90·0 32·2 67·0 19·4 80·8 2·53 64 6·9
August 78·9 26·0 92·4 33·4 67·0 19·4 77·7 1·49 38 8·0
September 79·5 26·4 94·0 34·4 66·0 18·9 77·5 2·74 69 7·3
October 79·7 26·8 95·0 35·0 69·0 20·6 79·0 4·19 106 10·0
November 79·1 26·2 96·0 35·6 68·2 20·2 82·0 5·08 127 13·7
December 78·2 25·7 92·5 33·6 70·0 21·1 84·8 9·03 229 19·0
Year 78·9 26·0 96·0 35·6 68·2 20·2 82·8 70·71 1,796 154·9
South of lat. 10°-12°, a north-west monsoon, developing in October or November, takes the place of the south-west monsoon appearing in May in northern latitudes, and when we are sufficiently far from the Equator to be clear of the zone of calms and variable winds, it is the development of this wind that determines the appearance of the rainy season.
This, however, does not so much affect the Malay Archipelago, as nearly the whole of it is within the zone of double annual rainy seasons, and the winds on which they depend to temper the tropical heat are mainly land and sea breezes of necessarily very variable direction.
The Dutch have long had a first-class observatory established at Batavia, the capital of Java, and their results being thus of the first value may be very well taken as a type of the weather conditions of the islands to the south of the Equator, while the table already furnished of Singapore will serve sufficiently to illustrate the northern portion of the Archipelago.
A mild, equable, damp climate, not so hot as would be met with at a corresponding distance north of the line, never cool, and equally free from excessive heat, but very enervating; and unfortunately the health records of these islands are by no means satisfactory.
From January to early April the winds are usually from the north-west, and from May to October north-east, the remaining two months of the year being characterised by winds of very variable direction.
The two following tables will give some idea of the temperature and rainfall of a few sites in this Archipelago, arranged progressively in their order north and south of the Equator.
As examples of places in this archipelago which chance to have a special interest for English-speaking people on both sides of the Atlantic, I give below fuller data of the climates of Manila in America’s new acquisition of the Philippines, based on from 16 to 34 years of Spanish records; and of Port Moresley, in the newly established British colony in New Guinea, which naturally cannot as yet do more than furnish a single year’s experience:—
Manila. Lat. 14° 36′ N.; Long. 120° 58′ E. Near Sea-level.
Month Mean Monthly Temperature Absolute Monthly Maxima Absolute Monthly Minima Relative Humidity Mean Monthly Rainfall
F. C. F. C. F. C. Ins. Mm.
January 77·0 25·0 93·0 33·9 62·1 16·7 77·7 1·19 29·4
February 77·7 25·4 95·7 35·4 61·0 16·1 74·1 0·41 10·3
March 80·4 26·8 95·9 35·5 63·3 17·4 71·7 0·74 18·8
April 82·9 28·2 99·0 37·2 66·0 18·9 70·9 1·14 29·1
May 83·3 28·5 100·0 37·8 71·1 21·7 76·9 4·20 106·7
June 82·0 27·8 97·0 36·1 70·9 21·6 81·5 9·62 244·1
July 80·8 27·1 94·8 34·9 70·0 21·1 84·9 14·57 369·3
August 80·8 27·1 94·3 34·5 69·1 20·6 84·4 13·87 351·8
September 80·4 26·8 93·7 34·3 70·5 21·4 85·6 14·93 378·9
October 80·4 26·8 94·8 34·8 68·7 20·4 82·6 7·54 191·6
November 79·0 26·1 92·1 33·4 64·9 18·2 81·6 5·13 129·7
December 77·4 25·2 91·9 33·2 60·3 15·7 80·7 2·13 53·5
Year 77·0 26·8 100 37·8 60·3 15·7 97·4 75·46 1,916·6
Table of Temperatures in Malay Archipelago.
Place Island Latitude Mean Annual Temperature Coldest Month Hottest Month Difference
Name Temperature Name Temperature
F. C. F. C. F. C. F. C.
Bayombong Lugon 16° 29′ N. 76·1 24·8 December 70·8 21·6 May 80·0 26·7 9·2 5·1
C. Boliano „ 16° 23′ N. 77·5 25·3 „ 73·6 23·2 „ 81·3 27·4 7·5 4·2
Manila „ 14° 35′ N. 79·5 26·4 January 76·1 24·5 „ 82·9 28·2 6·6 3·7
Malion „ 18° 9′ N. 77·6 25·4 „ 74·2 23·4 „ 81·6 27·6 7·5 4·2
Iloilo Sebu 10° 42′ N. 79·8 26·6 „ 77·1 25·1 „ 82·4 28·0 5·2 2·9
Carlotta Negros 10° 25′ N. 77·5 25·3 December 75·5 24·2 „ 80·6 27·0 5·1 2·8
Bohol Bohol 9° 30′ N. 78·6 25·9 February 76·2 24·5 June 80·6 27·0 4·5 2·5
Sandakan Borneo 5° 49′ N. 80·5 26·9 Dec.-Jan. 79·0 26·1 Apl.-May 81·9 27·7 2·9 1·6
Papar „ 6° 49′ N. 77·6 25·4 „„ 76·1 24·5 June 79·3 26·3 3·2 1·8
Padang Sumatra 0° 56′ S. 79·8 26·6 November 79·1 26·2 May 81·0 27·2 1·8 1·0
Palembang „ 2° 50′ S. 80·6 27·0 January 79·8 26·6 „ 81·4 27·4 1·4 0·8
Baryermassing „ 3° 34′ S. 79·9 27·1 December 80·0 26·7 „ 81·9 27·7 1·8 1·0
Amboina Seram 3° 41′ S. 79·3 26·3 July 77·4 25·2 February 81·0 27·2 3·6 2·0
Lahat Sumatra 3° 48′ S. 78·9 26·0 January 79·1 26·2 April 81·2 27·3 2·3 1·3
North Coast New Guinea 4° 54′ S. 79·0 26·1 August 77·5 25·3 March 79·8 26·6 2·8 1·3
Batavia Java 6° 11′ S. 78·6 25·9 January 77·5 25·3 May-Oct. 79·5 26·4 1·9 1·1
Buitenzorg „ 6° 37′ S. 77·0 25·0 February 78·0 25·5 Sept. 77·7 25·5 1·8 1·0
Banjoewangie „ 8° 17′ S. 79·9 26·7 July 78·9 26·0 April 81·2 27·3 2·3 1·3
South coast New Guinea 9° 28′ S. 80·5 26·9 August 77·5 25·3 December 82·6 28·2 5·2 2·9
The remarkable uniformity of these climates, albeit with a slightly more distinct tendency to variation as one recedes from the Equator, are well illustrated in these tables, as also is the dependence of season on purely local conditions in these latitudes.
Table showing Monthly Rainfall of Localities in the Malay Archipelago.
Place Singkel, S. W. coast, Sumatra Kota Raja, N. coast, Sumatra Sarawak, N. coast, Borneo Sandakan, British N. Borneo Menado, N. Peninsula, Celebes Ternata, Small Island off Jilolo Benkulen, S. W. coast, Sumatra Bangawanji, Java Kupang, N. coast of Timor
Latitude 2° 11′ N. 5° 32′ N. 1° 28′ N. 5° 49′ N. 1° 30′ N. 0° 47′ N. 3° 47′ S. 8° 13′ S. 10° 10′ S.
Longitude 97° 45′ E. 95° 20′ E. 110° 8′ E. 118° 12′ E. 124° 50′ E. 127° 23′ E. 102° 15′ E. 114° 23′ E. 123° 34′ E.
Month Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm.
January 11·23 285 5·98 151 27·17 690 21·43 544 18·78 478 7·83 199 12·40 315 7·57 192 16·15 423
February 10·68 271 3·13 79 23·67 601 10·33 262 13·27 337 7·98 201 9·83 249 7·57 192 15·03 404
March 14·64 372 3·32 84 10·14 257 7·53 192 10·67 271 6·30 160 11·34 288 5·38 138 7·60 193
April 15·97 406 4·58 116 10·04 255 4·37 111 8·08 205 10·33 262 10·35 263 4·08 104 2·38 60
May 14·45 367 5·55 141 9·09 231 5·32 135 6·58 167 8·89 226 10·33 262 4·97 126 1·85 47
June 13·18 335 3·28 82 8·73 222 8·32 211 7·08 179 8·89 226 9·15 233 4·62 117 0·38 10
July 11·46 291 4·38 111 4·78 121 9·62 244 4·93 125 5·38 137 7·13 181 3·03 77 0·17 4
August 15·28 388 4·84 123 8·86 225 6·98 176 4·78 121 4·73 120 9·48 241 2·48 63 0·13 3
September 16·75 426 7·29 185 7·78 198 10·08 256 3·24 82 4·07 103 9·82 249 2·67 68 0·04 1
October 20·16 512 7·48 190 9·92 252 10·07 255 4·93 125 6·58 167 14·22 361 2·60 66 0·47 12
November 19·64 499 8·24 209 13·56 345 16·45 418 8·08 205 8·32 211 13·53 344 2·77 70 3·34 85
December 16·37 416 9·17 233 25·12 663 19·14 486 16·45 418 9·28 236 13·60 349 7·97 202 10·44 265
Year 179·62 4,562 67·08 1,704 159·45 4,050 129·73 3,296 106·82 2,713 88·51 2,248 131·30 3,335 55·12 1,415 59·34 1,507
Table showing Monthly Rainfall of Localities in the Malay Archipelago.
Place Singkel, S. W. coast, Sumatra Kota Raja, N. coast, Sumatra Sarawak, N. coast, Borneo Sandakan, British N. Borneo Menado, N. Peninsula, Celebes
Latitude 2° 11′ N. 5° 32′ N. 1° 28′ N. 5° 49′ N. 1° 30′ N.
Longitude 97° 45′ E. 95° 20′ E. 110° 8′ E. 118° 12′ E. 124° 50′ E.
Month Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm.
January 11·23 285 5·98 151 27·17 690 21·43 544 18·78 478
February 10·68 271 3·13 79 23·67 601 10·33 262 13·27 337
March 14·64 372 3·32 84 10·14 257 7·53 192 10·67 271
April 15·97 406 4·58 116 10·04 255 4·37 111 8·08 205
May 14·45 367 5·55 141 9·09 231 5·32 135 6·58 167
June 13·18 335 3·28 82 8·73 222 8·32 211 7·08 179
July 11·46 291 4·38 111 4·78 121 9·62 244 4·93 125
August 15·28 388 4·84 123 8·86 225 6·98 176 4·78 121
September 16·75 426 7·29 185 7·78 198 10·08 256 3·24 82
October 20·16 512 7·48 190 9·92 252 10·07 255 4·93 125
November 19·64 499 8·24 209 13·56 345 16·45 418 8·08 205
December 16·37 416 9·17 233 25·12 663 19·14 486 16·45 418
Year 179·62 4,562 67·08 1,704 159·45 4,050 129·73 3,296 106·82 2,713
Place Ternata, Small Island off Jilolo Benkulen, S. W. coast, Sumatra Bangawanji, Java Kupang, N. coast of Timor
Latitude 0° 47′ N. 3° 47′ S. 8° 13′ S. 10° 10′ S.
Longitude 127° 23′ E. 102° 15′ E. 114° 23′ E. 123° 34′ E.
Month Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm.
January 7·83 199 12·40 315 7·57 192 16·15 423
February 7·98 201 9·83 249 7·57 192 15·03 404
March 6·30 160 11·34 288 5·38 138 7·60 193
April 10·33 262 10·35 263 4·08 104 2·38 60
May 8·89 226 10·33 262 4·97 126 1·85 47
June 8·89 226 9·15 233 4·62 117 0·38 10
July 5·38 137 7·13 181 3·03 77 0·17 4
August 4·73 120 9·48 241 2·48 63 0·13 3
September 4·07 103 9·82 249 2·67 68 0·04 1
October 6·58 167 14·22 361 2·60 66 0·47 12
November 8·32 211 13·53 344 2·77 70 3·34 85
December 9·28 236 13·60 349 7·97 202 10·44 265
Year 88·51 2,248 131·30 3,335 55·12 1,415 59·34 1,507
The gradual development of a dry season as one proceeds southward from the Equator, as well as the gradual diminution of the rainfall that accompanies it, is very instructive.
Port Moresley, British New Guinea. S.E. Coast.
Month Mean Monthly Temperature Mean Maximum Temperature Mean Minimum Temperature Monthly Rainfall Direction of Wind
F. C. F. C. F. C. Ins. Mm.
January 89 31·7 91 32·8 75 23·9 11·68 296·7 N.W.
February 86 30·0 90 32·2 72 22·2 11·88 301·2 N.W.
March 86 30·0 90 32·2 74 23·3 10·15 257·8 N.W.
April 86 30·0 88 31·1 74 23·3 2·40 61·0 - N.W. & S.E.
May 86 30·0 87 30·6 72 22·2 2·96 73·0 S.E.
June 83 28·3 87 30·6 71 21·7 Wanting S.E.
July 82 27·8 83 28·3 68·5 20·3 5·94 151·0 S.E.
August 84 28·9 82 27·8 68 20·0 1·45 36·8 S.E.
September 85 29·4 86 30·0 71 21·7 0·12 2·7 S.E.
October 84 28·9 87 30·6 71 21·7 0·16 4·0 S.E.
November 88 31·1 88 31·1 71 21·7 0·60 15·2 S.E.
December 88 31·1 91 32·8 73 22·8 6·88 174·8 N.W.
The rainfall, therefore, appears to be from 56-60 ins., and the reporter remarks:—
“On the sea coast, the experience so far gained seems to prove that the climate of the western portion (of the island) is rainy. Port Moresley is apparently near the centre of a dry belt that extends 100-150 miles along the coast. Eastward of this the climate becomes more rainy as far as the East Cape. The north-east coast, as far as Cape Nelson, is drier, and beyond this again, more rainy—Mamlaro is a wet district. As far as known, the mountain region is more rainy. Thunder storms are more frequent and mist and drizzle also prevail on the high lands.”
Exploration in New Guinea is, however, a pursuit which requires the traveller to brave to an exceptional extent the dangers of poisonous snakes and other venomous vermin.
Capt. I. A. Lawson (“Wanderings in the Interior of New Guinea,” Chapman and Hall, London, 1875) describes an apparently undoubted case of death from scorpion sting in an adult, and states that large numbers of Papuans are killed by them. He saw several scorpions ten inches long. The patient became comatose. After about three hours, thin watery, almost colourless, blood began to flow from his ears, eyes and nose, which exhaled a horrible stench, and the man died. He measured one scorpion thirteen inches long, and a second exceeded ten inches.
Australia.
—The greater part, fortunately, of the island continent is typically “a white man’s country,” the temperature of latitudes south of the line being so much lower than those of the northern hemisphere that only the extreme northern part of the country comes within our limits.
One would expect, for example, Brisbane, lying in 27° 28′ S., to be very hot, but an inspection of the table below shows that it is only in the north of Queensland that one may expect to meet anything approaching a tropical climate.
Unfortunately the Queensland official statistics do not appear to have been collated, but the year chosen seems to be a fairly representative one. This deficiency is the more surprising as, in a country so often affected with destructive droughts, one would have expected that every effort would have been made to elucidate, by carefully drawn-up normal tables, the usual sequence of good and bad seasons.
Brisbane, Queensland.
Month Mean Temperature Mean Maximum Temperature Mean Minimum Temperature Relative Humidity Rainfall Number of Rainy Days
F. C. F. C. F. C. Ins. Mm.
January 72·2 22·3 80·9 27·1 63·4 17·4 66 1·40 35·6 10
February 76·7 24·8 86·2 30·1 67·2 19·5 64 0·75 19·1 4
March 79·7 26·5 88·9 31·6 70·4 21·3 62 1·38 35·0 10
April 78·4 25·7 87·0 30·6 69·8 21·0 66 2·67 67·4 7
May 74·3 23·5 84·2 29·0 64·4 18·0 61 0·63 16·0 2
June 69·7 20·9 80·5 26·9 58·9 14·9 64 0·17 4·3 7
July 64·7 18·2 75·9 24·3 53·5 11·9 68 0·47 11·9 3
August 63·0 17·2 75·1 24·0 50·8 10·4 69 0·06 1·5 2
September 60·4 15·7 71·1 21·8 49·7 9·8 70 0·55 14·0 9
October 60·4 15·7 71·5 21·9 49·3 9·6 67 0·98 24·9 10
November 67·0 19·4 76·9 24·9 57·1 14·0 71 1·30 33·0 7
December 68·9 20·5 78·6 25·9 59·2 15·1 64 3·25 82·5 9
Unfortunately, the greater part of the interior of the country is an almost waterless desert, the development of which, unless subterranean sources of water can be tapped, seems almost hopeless, and almost the whole west coast shares in this terrible disability, and would probably have remained as deserted as the interior but for the recent discoveries of its richness in gold. Even in the extreme north, at Port Darwin, the climate is by no means unendurable for a place within 121⁄2 degrees of the line, and the mean rainfall, 63·21 ins., is very moderate for a place so situated.
Port Darwin, Northern Territory.
Month Mean Temperature Absolute Maximum Absolute Minimum Rainfall Number of Rainy Days
F. C. F. C. F. C. Ins. Mm.
January 84·4 29·1 93·6 34·3 73·0 22·8 15·85 402·6 23
February 83·5 28·6 93·9 34·3 73·4 23·0 13·77 374·8 14
March 84·6 29·3 91·4 33·0 71·0 21·7 10·10 258·5 26
April 84·4 29·1 97·8 36·5 69·2 20·7 4·36 110·6 6
May 81·5 27·5 95·2 35·1 66·6 19·2 1·04 26·6 —
June 78·7 25·9 92·4 33·5 59·9 15·5 0·08 1·7 3
July 76·8 24·9 88·1 31·2 58·6 14·8 0·01 0·3 —
August 79·3 26·3 92·0 33·3 63·7 17·6 0·12 3·0 —
September 82·8 28·2 94·1 34·5 67·9 19·9 0·43 10·9 1
October 85·7 29·8 96·7 35·9 72·4 22·4 2·19 54·5 8
November 86·0 30·0 97·0 36·1 72·4 22·4 5·21 132·2 4
December 85·5 29·7 95·4 35·2 73·7 23·2 10·27 260·4 16
The climate of the tropical portion of Western Australia will be sufficiently indicated by the following table for Wyndham, in lat. 15° 27′ S.
Month Mean Monthly Maxima Mean Monthly Minima Mean Rainfall Monthly
F. C. F. C. Ins. Mm.
January 98·0 36·7 78·8 26·0 5·32 134·7
February 98·7 37·0 78·7 25·9 4·24 106·8
March 98·2 36·8 79·4 26·3 4·02 102·8
April 98·1 36·7 76·8 24·9 Nil
May 93·1 34·0 71·2 21·8 Nil
June 89·1 31·8 67·7 19·8 0·15 3·8
July 88·7 31·5 62·8 17·0 Nil
August 91·8 33·2 66·8 19·3 Nil
September 97·0 36·1 74·0 23·3 0·04 1·2
October 100·3 37·9 78·9 26·0 Nil
November 101·3 38·5 80·3 26·8 4·32 109·4
December 100·1 37·8 80·4 26·9 2·47 62·3
The total annual rainfall here only amounts to 20·54 ins. (521·8 mm.); and Freemantle, in lat. 32° S., on the coast, only receives 28·15 ins. (715 mm.); and Coolgardie, far in the interior, but 7·18 ins. (181·7 mm.); but the temperature records of neither of the two last-mentioned places quite entitles them to be considered in the light of hot countries.
From 20° to 25° south latitude the coast is even drier; Cossach, in latitude 20° 40′ S., receiving but 9·3 ins. (247 mm.), and Carnarvon, in latitude 24° 52′ S., but 7·83 ins. (199 mm.). In these localities the perceptible rainfall occurs in June and July. In the summer (January, February) some of these places are no doubt very hot, but the nights are nearly always fairly cool. In many of these places water is so scarce that a bath is a luxury scarcely attainable by any but the very rich, the precious fluid having to be eked out at what seems to us a fabulous price per gallon, or even pint. This difficulty is, however, being met in some places by enormous engineering works, and colonists may be met with who have a good deal to say in favour of these apparently inhospitable shores.
Pacific Islands.
—The pages of Stevenson and Ralf Bolderwood have so familiarised us with the delights of these favoured spots—where it is always summer, but rarely oppressively hot—that it is probable that the general public have a better idea of their climates than is the case with almost any other tropical region. Owing to their comparatively small economic importance, it is, however, impossible to do more than supply a pair of tables illustrative of the climate of a few of the better-known spots.
Table of Temperature of Pacific Islands.
Island or Place Latitude Warmest Month Coldest Month Difference
Name Mean Temperature Name Mean Temperature
F. C. F. C. F. C.
Kauai 22° 15′ N. August 76·4 24·6 January 66·5 19·2 9·9 5·5
Honolulu 21° 18′ N. August 77·5 25·3 January 69·5 20·8 7·5 4·4
Hilo 19° 40′ N. Aug.-Sept. 74·4 23·5 January 71·5 21·9 2·9 1·6
Jaluit 5° 55′ N. Jan.-Feb. 81·0 27·2 June 80·5 26·9 0·7 0·4
Apia 13° 49′ S. Feb.-Mar. 78·6 25·9 July 75·5 24·2 3·2 1·8
Papiti 17° 32′ S. March 78·5 25·8 July 73·5 23·1 4·8 2·7
Vanua Levu 16° 38′ S. December 80·5 26·9 July-Aug. 76·0 24·4 4·3 2·4
Levuka 17° 4′ S. December 79·5 26·4 July 74·5 23·6 5·2 2·9
Tana 19° 28′ S. March 79·7 26·6 July 69·0 20·6 10·8 6·0
Tongatabu 21° 8′ S. February 79·0 26·1 August 68·5 20·3 10·4 5·8
Noumea 22° 16′ S. February 80·0 26·7 August 68·0 20·0 11·4 6·7
Oparu 27° 36′ S. March 72·5 22·3 September 65·3 18·5 7·2 4·0
The places have also been selected so as to illustrate the changes in season we met with in passing from North to South, and indicate much the same sequence that has already been noticed in the case of the Malay Archipelago, but the temperatures are several degrees lower in the case of each corresponding latitude, so that, while the Malay Islands are stormy and trying, the Polynesian groups are amongst the most pleasant of the warm climates of the world. Except in the Marshall groups, and in some of the Fijis, the rainfall is moderate for localities situated so near the equator.
Table of Rainfall of Pacific Islands.
Month Honolulu, Hawaii Marshall Group Apia, Samoa Fiji, Qara Valu New Hebrides, Tongatabu New Caledonia, Noumea
Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm. Ins. Mm.
January 4·03 102 11·46 291 16·42 417 22·48 571 9·18 233 3·98 101
February 4·58 116 11·90 300 20·23 514 17·48 450 6·83 173 4·38 110
March 3·77 96 17·92 455 12·68 321 36·97 932 6·37 162 4·58 116
April 3·14 79 14·15 359 8·66 220 31·26 794 10·35 263 5·20 132
May 3·15 80 20·20 513 6·97 177 10·95 276 8·19 208 5·18 130
June 1·82 46 15·58 396 5·39 137 24·10 612 8·12 206 4·18 106
July 2·53 64 15·44 392 3·32 84 12·76 324 1·66 42 3·32 84
August 2·28 58 13·58 345 6·18 157 32·95 835 3·68 93 2·38 60
September 1·85 47 13·45 342 8·54 217 14·65 372 7·08 180 2·83 72
October 2·28 58 15·47 293 6·97 177 19·28 490 7·18 182 2·56 65
November 5·16 131 11·30 387 12·20 310 7·14 181 3·58 91 3·03 77
December 4·93 125 17·48 444 17·63 447 17·48 444 4·45 113 3·23 82
Year 39·45 1,002 177·87 4,517 125·15 3,178 247·85 6,281 76·62 1,946 44·68 1,135
Qara Valu has been selected as having the heaviest rainfall recorded in this part of the world, and it must not be imagined that such a chronic downpour is in any way typical of the Fiji Islands, most of which have a comparatively moderate rainfall; Bua with 98·35 ins. (2,497 mm.), and Lesuha with 97·15 ins. (2,465 mm.), being fairer examples; but there is the same tendency to a comparatively even distribution throughout the year.
These islands are, it is almost needless to remark, occasionally visited by terrible tornadoes, but are normally continuously under the influence of the trade winds, which here do not suffer from interruption, during the summer solstice, from disturbance due to the area of low pressure that originates from the superheating of land and water over Australia and the islands and confined seas that intervene between it and the Asiatic continent.
The American Continent.
—Like the islands of the Pacific, climatic data in America are characterised by lower levels than are met with in the great land masses of Europe, Asia, and Africa. As a result of this we find that, although we know that New York can produce a most discreditable array of cases of sunstroke in the height of summer, it is only the extreme southern portion of the United States that really merits the title to belong to the category of hot climates. There are doubtless to be met with fiercely hot places in Mexico, and malarious foci in the isthmus of Darien, which may rival anything to be met with in the old world, but speaking generally, climates are generally milder than those of corresponding places on this side of the “herring pond.”