THIRD DIVISION. (Continued.) (continued 13)

§ 211.13. In common with the Irvingites, who recognised in them their own diabolic caricature, the Mormons restored the apostolic and prophetic office, insisted upon the continuance of the gift of tongues and miracles, expected the speedy advent of the Lord, reintroduced the payment of tithes, etc. But what distinguished them from all Christian sects was the proclamation of polygamy as a religious duty, on the plea that only those women who had been “sealed” to a Latter-day Saint would share in the blessedness of life eternal. This was probably first introduced by Young in consequence of a new “divine revelation,” but down to 1852 kept secret and denied before “the Gentiles.” The ambiguous book of Mormon was set meanwhile more and more in the background, and the teachings and prophecies of their prophet brought more and more to the front. “The Voice of Warning to all Nations” of the zealous proselyte Parly Pratt, formerly a Campbellite preacher, exercised a great influence in spreading the sect. But the most gifted of them all was Orson Pratt, Rigdon’s successor in the apostolate. To him mainly is ascribed the construction of its later, highly fantastic religious system which, consisting of elements gathered from Neo-platonism, gnosticism, and other forms of theosophical mysticism, embraces all the mysteries of time and eternity. Its fundamental ideas are these: There are gods without number; all are polygamists and their wives are sharers of their glory and bliss. They are the fathers of human souls who here on earth ripen for their heavenly destiny. Jesus is the first born son of the highest god by his first wife; he was married on earth to Mary Magdalene, the sisters Martha and Mary and other women. Those saints who here fulfil their destiny become after death gods, while they are arranged according to their merit in various ranks and with prospect of promotion to higher places. At the end of this world’s course, Jesus will come again, and, enthroned in the temple of Salt Lake City, exercise judgment against all “Gentiles” and apostates, etc.―The constitution of the Mormon State is essentially theocratic. At the head stood the president, Brigham Young, as prophet, patriarch, and priest-king, in whose hands are all the threads of the spiritual as well as secular administration. A high council alongside of him, consisting of seventy members, as also the prophets and apostles, bishops and elders, and generally the whole richly organized hierarchy, are only the pliable instruments of his all-commanding will. Every one on entering the society surrenders his whole property, and after that contributes a tenth of his yearly income and personal labour to the common purse of the community. Soon numerous missionaries were sent forth who crossed the Atlantic, and attained great success, especially in Scotland, England and Scandinavia, but also in North-West Germany and in Switzerland. On removing the misunderstanding that prevailed about their social and political condition, and supplying the penniless out of the rich immigration fund with the means to make the journey, they persuaded great crowds of their new converts to accompany them to Utah.

§ 211.14. In 1849 the Mormons had asked Congress for the apportioning of the district colonized by them as an independent and autonomous “State” in the union, but were granted, in 1850, only the constitution of a “territory” under the central government at Washington, and the appointment of their patriarch, Young, as its governor. Accustomed to absolute rule, in two years he drove out all the other officers appointed by the union. He was then deprived of office, but the new governor, Col. Sefton, appointed in 1854, with the small armament supplied him could not maintain his position and voluntarily retired. When afterwards in 1858 Governor Cumming, appointed by president Buchanan, entered Utah with a strong military force, Young armed for a decisive struggle. A compromise, however, was effected. A complete amnesty was granted to the saints, the soldiers of the union entered peacefully into the Salt-Lake City, and Young assumed tolerably friendly relations with the governor, who, nevertheless, by the erection of a fort commanding the city made the position safe for himself and his troops. On the outbreak of the war of Secession in 1861 the troops of the union were for the most part withdrawn. But all the more energetically did the central government at the close of the war in 1865 resolve upon the complete subjugation of the rebel saints, having learnt that since 1852 numerous murders had taken place in the territory, and that the disappearance of whole caravans of colonists was not due to attacks of Indians, who would have scalped their victims, but to a secret Mormon fraternity called Danites (Judges xviii.), brothers of Gideon (Judges vi. ff.) or Angels of Destruction, which, obedient to the slightest hint from the prophet, had undertaken to avenge by bloody terrorism any sign of resistance to his authority, to arrest any tendency to apostasy, and to guard against the introduction of any foreign element. The Union Pacific Railway opened in 1869 deprived the “Kingdom of God” of its most powerful protection, its geographical isolation, while the rich silver mines discovered at the same time in Utah, peopled city and country with immense flocks of “Gentiles.” The nemesis, which brought the Mormon bishop Lee, twenty years after the deed, under the lash of the high court of justiciary as involved in the horrible massacre of a large party of emigrants at Mountain Meadows in 1857, would probably have also befallen the prophet himself as the main instigator of this and many other crimes had he not by a sudden death two months later, in his seventy-fifth year, escaped the jurisdiction of any earthly tribunal (died 1877). A successor was not chosen, but supreme authority is in the hands of the college of twelve apostles with the elder John Taylor at their head.―Repeated attempts made since 1874 by the United States authorities by penal enactments to root out polygamy among the Mormons have always failed, because its actual existence could never be legally proved. The witness called could or would say nothing, since the “sealing” was always secretly performed, and the women concerned denied that a marriage had been entered into with the accused, or if one confessed herself his married wife she refused to give any evidence about his domestic relations.―Recently a split has occurred among the Mormons. By far the larger party is that of the “Salt Lake Mormons,” which holds firmly by polygamy and all the other institutions introduced by Young and since his time. The other party is that of the Kirtland, or Old Mormons, headed by the son of their founder, Jos. Smith, who had been passed over on account of his youth, which repudiates all these as unsupported novelties and restores the true Mormonism of the founder. The Old Mormons not only oppose polygamy, but also all more recently introduced doctrines. They are called Kirtland Mormons from the first temple built by their founder at Kirtland in 1814, which having fallen into ruins, was restored by Geo. Smith, jun., and became the centre of the Old Mormon denomination. In April 1885 they held there their first synod, attended by 200 deputies.572

§ 211.15. The Taepings in China.―Hung-sen-tsenen, born in 1813 in the province of Shan-Tung, was destined for the learned profession but failed in his examination at Canton. There he first, in 1833, came into contact with Protestant missionaries, whose misunderstood words awakened in him the belief that he was called to perform great things. At the same time he there got possession of some Christian Chinese tracts. Failing in his examination a second time in 1837, he fell into a dangerous illness and had a series of visions in which an old man with a golden beard appeared, handing to him the insignia of imperial rank, and commanding him to root out the demons. After his recovery he became an elementary teacher. A relative called Li visited him in 1843. The Christian tracts were again sought out and carefully studied. Sen now recognised in the old man of his visions the God of the Christians and in himself the younger brother of Jesus. The two baptized one another and won over two young relatives to their views. Expelled from their offices, they went in 1844 to the province of Kiang Se as pencil and ink sellers, preached diligently the new doctrine and founded numerous small congregations of their sect. The American missionaries at Canton heard of the success of their preaching, and Sen accepted an invitation to join them in 1847. The missionary Roberts had a great esteem for him and intended to baptize him, when in consequence of stories spread about him their relations became strained. Sen now returned in 1848 to his companions in Kiang Se, who had diligently and successfully continued their preaching. In 1850 they began to attract attention by the violent destruction of idols. When now all the remnants of a pirate band joined them as converts, they were in common with these persecuted by the government and proclaimed rebels. The expulsion of the hated Mantshu dynasty, which two hundred years before had displaced the Ming dynasty, and the overthrow of idolatry were now their main endeavour, and in 1857 they organized under Sen a regular rebellion for the setting up of a Taeping dynasty, i.e., of universal peace. The Taeping army advanced unhindered, all Mantschu soldiers who fell into its hands were massacred, and of the inhabitants of the provinces conquered, only those were spared who joined their ranks. In March, 1853, they stormed the second capital of the empire, Nankin, the old residence of the Ming dynasty. There Sen fixed his residence and styled himself Tien-Wang, the Divine Prince. He assigned to ten subordinate princes the government of the conquered provinces, almost the half of the immense empire. Thousands of bibles were circulated; the ten commandments proclaimed as the foundation of law, many writings, prayers and poems composed for the instruction of the people, and these with the bible made subjects of examination for entrance to the learned order. An Arian theory of the trinity was set forth; the Father is the one personal God, whose likeness in bodily human form Sen strictly forbade, destroying the Catholic images as well as the Chinese idols. Jesus is the first-born son of God, yet not himself God, sent by the Father into the world in order to enlighten it by his doctrine and to redeem it by his atoning sufferings. Sen, the younger brother of Jesus, was sent into the world to spread the doctrine of Jesus and to expel the demons, the Mantschu dynasty. Reception takes place through baptism. The Lord’s Supper was unknown to them. Bloody and bloodless offerings were still tolerated. The use of wine and tobacco was forbidden; the use of opium and trafficking in it were punished with death. But polygamy was sanctioned. Saturday, according to the Old Testament, was their holy day. Their service consisted only of prayer, singing and religious instruction; but also written prayers were presented to God by burning.

§ 211.16. Sen himself had no more visions after 1837. But other ecstatic prophets arose, the eastern prince Yang and the western prince Siao. The revelations of the latter were comparatively sober, but those of the former were in the highest degree blasphemously fanatical. He declared himself the Paraclete promised by Jesus, and taught that God himself, as well as Jesus, had a wife with sons and daughters. He was at the same time a brave and successful general, and the mass of the Taepings were enthusiastically attached to him. Sen humbly yielded to the extravagances of this fanatic, even when Yang sentenced him to receive forty lashes. Sen’s overthrow was already resolved upon in Yang’s secret council, when Sen took courage and gave the northern prince secret orders to murder Yang and his followers in one night. This was done, and Sen was weak enough to allow the executioner of his secret order to be publicly put to death so as to appease the excited populace. But he thus again in 1856 became master of the situation.―One of the oldest apostles of Sen, his near relative Hung Yin, had been turned off at Hong Kong. He there attached himself to the Basel missionary, Hamberg, who in 1852 baptized him and made him his native helper. In hope of winning his cousin to the true Christian faith, he travelled in 1854 to Nankin, which however he did not reach till January, 1859. Sen received him gladly and made him his war minister. But his efforts to introduce a purer Christianity among the Taepings were unsuccessful, for he tried the slippery way of accommodation, and under pressure from Sen set up for himself a harem. In October, 1860, on Sen’s repeated invitation, his former teacher, the missionary Roberts of Nankin, arrived and was immediately made minister for foreign affairs. The Shanghai missionaries, several of whom visited Nankin, had interesting interviews with Yin in 1860, but not with the emperor, as they refused to go on their knees before him. They were encouraged by Yin to hope for a future much needed purifying of Taeping Christianity. Yang’s revelations, however, held their ground after as well as before, and were increased by further absurdities. To such crass fanaticism was now added the inhuman cruelty with which they massacred the vanquished and wasted the conquered cities and districts. Had the European powers ranged themselves in a friendly and peaceful attitude alongside of the Taepings, China might now have been a Christian empire. Instead of this the English, on account of the extreme opposition of the Taepings to the opium traffic, took up a hostile position toward them, while they were also in disfavour with the French, who had been denounced by them as idolaters on account of their Romish image worship. Down to the beginning of 1862, however, Yin’s influence had prevented any hostile proceedings against the Europeans in spite of many provocations given. But after that the Taepings refused them any quarter. Roberts fled by night to save his life. Against disciplined European troops the rebels could not hold their ground. One city after another was taken from them, and at last, in July 1864, their capital Nankin. Sen was found poisoned in his burning palace.573

§ 211.17. The Spiritualists.―The shoemaker’s apprentice, Andrew Jackson Davis of Poughkeepsie on the Hudson, in his nineteenth year fell into a magnetic sleep and composed his first work, “The Principles of Nature, Her Divine Revelations and a Voice to Mankind,” in 1845. He declared its utterances to be spiritual revelations from the other world. But his later writings composed in working hours made the same claim, especially the five volume work, “Great Harmonia, being a Philosophical Revelation of the Natural, Spiritual, and Celestial Universe,” 1850 ff. Both went through numerous editions and were translated into German. The great spiritual manifestation promised in the first work was not long delayed. In a house bought by the family of Fox in Hydesville in New York State a spectral knocking was often heard. Through the intercourse which the two youngest daughters, aged nine and twelve years, had with the ghosts, the skeleton of a murdered five years’ old child of a pedlar was discovered buried in the cellar, and when the family soon thereafter left the house, the ghosts went with them and continued their communications by table turning, table rapping, table writing, etc. The thing now became epidemic. Hundreds and thousands of male and female mediums arose and held an extremely lively and varied intercourse with innumerable departed ones of earlier and later times. The believers soon numbered millions, including highly educated persons of all ranks, even such exact chemists as Mapes and Hare. An abundant literature in books and journals, as well as Sunday services, frequent camp-meetings and annual congresses formed a propaganda for the alleged spiritualism, which soon found its way across the ocean and won enthusiastic adherents for all confessions in all European countries, especially in London, Paris, Brussels, St. Petersburg, Vienna, Dresden, Leipzig, etc. They now broke up into two parties called respectively Spiritualists and Spiritists. The former put in the foreground physical experiments with astonishing results and miraculous effects; the latter, with the Frenchman Allan Kardec (Rivail) as their leader, give prominence to the teaching of spirits by direct communication. The former in reference to the origin of the human soul held by the theory of traducianism; the latter to that of pre-existence in connection with a doctrine of re-incarnation of spirits by reason of growing purity and perfection. The latter see in Christ the incarnation of a spirit of the highest order; the former merely the purest and most perfect type of human nature. But neither admit the real central truth of Christianity, the reconciliation of sinful humanity with God in Christ. Both evaporate the resurrection into a mere spectral spirit manifestation; and the disclosures and utterances of the spirits with both are equally trivial, silly, and vain.―In England the famous palæontologist and collaborateur of Darwin, Alfr. Russel Wallace, and the no less celebrated physicist Wm. Crookes, are apologists of spiritualism. The latter declared in 1879 that to the three well-known conditions of matter, solid, fluid and gaseous, should be added a fourth, “radiant,” and that there is the borderland where force and matter meet. And in Germany the acute Leipzig astrophysicist Fr. Zöllner, after a whole series of spiritualistic séances conducted by the American medium Slade in 1877 and 1878 had been carefully scrutinized and tested by himself and several of his most accomplished scientific colleagues, was convinced of the existence and reality of higher “four dimension” space in the spirit world, to which by reason of its fourth dimension the power belonged of passing through earthly bodily matter. The philosophers I. H. Fichte of Stuttgart and Ulrici of Halle have admitted the reality of spiritualistic communications and allege them as proofs of immortality. Among German theologians Luthardt of Leipzig regards it all as the work of demons who take advantage for their own ends of the moral-religious dissolution of the modern world and its consequent nerve shaking that prevails, just as in the ancient world in the beginnings of Christianity. Zöckler of Greifswald finds an analogy between it and the demoniacal possession of New Testament times; so too Martensen in his “Jacob Boehme,” and on the Catholic side W. Schneider; while Splittgerber refers most of the manifestations in question to a merely subjective origin in “the right side of the human soul life,” but puts the materialization of spirits in the category of delusive jugglery. Spiritualism has scarcely rallied from the obloquy cast upon it by the unmasking of the tricks of the famous medium Miss Florence Cook in London in 1880 and of the distinguished spirit materialiser Bastian by the Grand-duke John of Austria in 1884.574

§ 211.18. To the domain of unquestionable illusion belongs also the spiritualistic movement of Indian Theosophism or Occultism. The American Col. Olcott of New York had already moved for twenty-two years in spiritualist circles when in 1874 he met with Madame Blavatsky, widow of a Russian general who had been governor of Erivan in Armenia. She professed to have been from her eighth year in communication with spirits, then to have had secret intercourse with the Mahatmas, i.e. spirits of old Indian penitents, during a seven years’ residence on the Himalayas. She now promised to introduce the colonel to them. Olcott and Blavatsky founded at New York in 1875 a society for research in the department of the mystic sciences, travelled in 1878 to Further India and Ceylon, and settled finally in Madras, whence by word and writing they proclaimed through the whole land theosophism or occultism as the religion of the future, which, consisting in a medley of Hinduism and Buddhism, enriched by spiritualistic revelations of Mahatmas, vouched for by spiritualistic signs and miracles and conformed to the most recent philosophical and scientific researches in America and Europe, aimed at heaping contempt upon Christianity and finally driving it from the field. As fanatical opponents of Christian missions in India they were strongly supported by the Brahman and Buddhist hierarchy, and soon obtained for the theosophical society founded by them not only numerous adherents from among the natives, but also many Englishman befooled by their spiritualistic swindle. As apostle and literary pioneer of the new religion appeared an Anglo-Indian called Sinnett. In spring, 1884, Madame Blavatsky and Col. Olcott went on a propagandist tour to Europe, where, in England, France, Austria, and Hungary, they won many converts, while Col. Olcott at Elberfeld and Madame Blavatsky at Odessa founded branches of their theosophical society.―But meanwhile in India affairs assumed a threatening aspect. Blavatsky on her departure had entrusted the keys of her dwelling and her mysterious cabinet with its various panels, falling doors, etc., to Mr. and Mrs. Coulomb, who had been hitherto her assistants in all her juggleries. Madame Coulomb, however, quarrelled with the board of theosophists at Madras, and revenged herself by placing in the hands of the Scottish mission letters addressed by Blavatsky to herself and her husband which supplied evidence that all her spiritualistic manifestations were only common tricks. In addition she gave public exhibitions in which she demonstrated to the spectators ad oculos the spiritual manifestations of the Mahatmas, and subsequently published an “Account of My Acquaintanceship with Madame Blavatsky, 1872-1884,” with discoveries of her earlier rogueries. Meanwhile the swindler had herself in December, 1884, returned to Madras in company with several believers gathered up in England, among others a young English clergyman, Leadbeater, who some days previously in Ceylon had formally adopted Buddhism. The theosophists now demanded that the reputed cheat and deceiver should be brought before a civil court. The president, however, declared that the investigations and judgment of a profane court of law could not be accepted to the mysteries of occultism, but promised a careful examination by a commission appointed by himself, and Blavatsky thought it advisable “for the restoration of her health in a cooler climate” to make off from the scene of conflict.575

§ 212. Antichristian Socialism and Communism.

While the antichristian spirit of the age breaks out in various theoretical forms in our literature, there also abound social and communistic movements of a practical kind. Socialism and communism both aim at a thorough-going reform of the rights of property and possession in strict proportion to the labour spent thereon. They are, however, distinguished in this, that while communism declares war against all private property and demands absolute community of goods, socialism, at least in its older and nobler forms, proceeding from the idea of precise correspondence between capital and labour, seeks to have expression given to this in fact. From the older socialism, which endeavoured to reach its end in a peaceful way within the existing lines of civil order, a later social democracy is to be distinguished by its decidedly politico-revolutionary character and tendency to attach itself more to communism. This modern socialism thinks to open the way to the realization of its hare-brained ideas by the confusion and overthrow of existing law and order.

§ 212.1. The Beginnings of Modern Communism.―As early as 1796 Babeuf published in Paris a communistic manifesto which maintained the thesis that natural law gives all men an equal right to the enjoyment of all goods. His ideas were subsequently systematized and developed by Fourier, Proudhon, Cabet, and Louis Blanc in France, and by Weibling and Stirner in Germany. In a treatise of 1840 Proudhon answered the question, Qu’est-ce que la propriété? in words which afterwards became proverbial, and formed the motto of communism: La propriété c’est le vol. But the mere negation of property affords no permanent standing ground. All altars must be thrown down; all religion rooted out as the plague of humanity; the family and marriage, as the fountain of all selfishness, must be abolished; all existing governments must be overthrown; all Europe must be turned into one great social democracy. A secret communistic propaganda spread over all western Europe, had its head centres in Belgium and Switzerland, crossed the Alps and the Pyrenees, as well as the Channel, and found a congenial soil even in Russia.

§ 212.2. St. Simonism.―The Count St. Simon of Paris, reduced to poverty by speculation, proposed by means of a thorough organization of industry to found a new and happy state of things in which there would be pure enjoyment without poverty and care. An attempted suicide, which led however to his death in 1825, made him in the eyes of his disciples a saviour of the world. The July revolution of 1830 gave to the new universal religion, which reinstated the flesh in its long lost rights and sought to assign to each individual the place in the commonwealth for which he was fitted, some advantage. “Father” Enfantin, whom his followers honoured as the highest revelation of deity, contended with pompous phrases and in fantastic style for the emancipation of woman and against the unnatural institution of marriage. But St. Simonism soon excited public ridicule, was pronounced immoral by the courts of justice, and the remnants of its votaries fled from the scorn of the people and the vengeance of the law to Egypt, where they soon disappeared.

§ 212.3. Owenists and Icarians.―The Scotch mill-owner Rob. Owen went in 1829 to America, in order there, unhindered by religious prejudices, clerical opposition, and police interference, to work out on a large scale his socialistic schemes for improving the world, which in a small way he believed he had proved already among his Scotch mill-operatives. He bought for this purpose from the Württemberger Rapp the colony of Harmony (§ 211, 6); but wanting the necessary capital for the socialistic commonwealth there established, and failing to realize his expectations, discontent, disorder, and opposition got the upper hand, and in 1826 Owen was obliged to abandon all his property. He now returned to England, and addressed himself in treatises, tracts, and lectures to the working classes of the whole land, in order to win them over to his ideas. A vast brotherhood for mutual benefit and for the enjoyment of their joint earnings was to put an end to earth’s misery, which the positive religions had not lessened but only increased. In 1836, in the great industrial cities socialist unions with nearly half a million members were formed, with their head centre and annual congress at Birmingham. The practical schemes of Owen, however, had no success in England, and his societies no permanency. He died in 1858.―Still more disastrous was the fate of the Icarian Colony, founded in Texas in 1848 by the Frenchman Stephen Cabet, author of “Voyage en Icarie, Roman philos. et social,” 1840, as an attempt to realize his communistic-philanthropic ideas on the other side of the Atlantic. The colonists soon found their sanguine hopes bitterly disappointed, and hurled against their leader reproaches and threats. Some ex-Icarians accused him in 1849 before the Paris police-court as a swindler, and he was condemned to two years’ imprisonment and five years’ loss of civil privileges. Cabet now hastened to France, and on appeal obtained reversion of his sentence in 1851. Returning to America, he founded a new Icarian colony at Nauvoo in Illinois. But there, too, everything went wrong, and a revolt of the colonists obliged him to flee. He died in 1856.576

§ 212.4. The International Working-Men’s Association.―Local and national working-men’s unions with a socialistic organization had for a long time existed in England, France, and Germany. The idea of a union embracing the whole world was first broached at the great London Exhibition in 1862, and at a conference in London on September 28th, 1864, at which all industrial countries of Europe were represented, it assumed a practical shape by the founding of a universal international working-men’s association. Its constitution was strictly centralistic. A directing committee in London, Carl Marx of Treves, formerly Privatdocent of philosophy at Bonn, standing at its head as dictator, represented the supreme legislative and governing authority, while alongside of it a general standing council held the administrative and executive power. The latter was divided into eight sections, English, American, French, German, Belgian, Dutch, Italian, and Spanish, and annual international congresses at Geneva, Lausanne, Brussels, Basel, and the Hague gave opportunity for general consultation on matters of common interest. Reception as members was granted by the giving of a diploma after six months’ trial, and involved unconditional obedience to the statutes and ordinances of the central authorities and the payment of an annual fee. The number of members, not, however, exclusively drawn from the working classes, is said to have reached two and a half millions. The society adopted the current socialistic and communistic ideas and tendencies. The religious principle of the association was therefore: atheism and materialism; the political: absolute democracy; the social: equal rights of labour and profit, with abolition of private property, hereditary rights, marriage, and family; and as means for realizing this programme, unaccomplishable by peaceable methods, revolution and rebellion, fire and sword, poison, petroleum and dynamite. Such means have been used already in various ways by the international throughout the Romance countries; but specially in the brief Reign of Terror of the Paris Commune, March and April, 1871, in the relatively no less violent attempted revolt at Alcoy in Southern Spain in July, 1873. But meanwhile differences appeared within the society, which were formulated at the Hague Congress in 1872, and led to splits, which greatly lessened its unity, influence, and power to do mischief, so that this congress may perhaps be regarded as the first beginning of its end.577

§ 212.5. German Social Democracy.―Ferd. Lassalle, son of a rich Jewish merchant of Breslau, after a full course of study in philosophy and law, began in 1848 to take a lively part in the advanced movements of the age, and when he found among the liberal citizens no favour for his socialistic ideas turned exclusively to the working classes. In answer to the question as to what was to be done, by the central committee of a working-men’s congress at Leipzig, he wrought out in 1863 with great subtlety in an open letter the fundamental idea of his universal redemption. All plans of self-help to relieve the distress of working men hitherto proposed (specially that of Schulze-Delitzsch) break down over the “iron economic law of wages,” in consequence of which under the dominion of capital and the large employers of labour wages are always with fatalistic necessity reduced to the point indispensable for supplying a working man’s family with the absolute necessaries of life. The working classes, however, have the right according to the law of nature to a full equivalent for their labour, but in order to reach this they must be their own undertakers, and where self-help is only a vain illusion, state help must afford the means. By insisting on the right to universal suffrage the working classes have obtained a decided majority in the legislative assemblies, and there secured a government of the future in accordance with their needs. On these principles the Universal German Society of Working Men was constituted, with Lassalle as its president, which position he held till his death in a duel in 1864. Long internal disputes and personal recriminations led to a split at the Eisenach Congress in 1869. The malcontents founded an independent “Social Democratic Working-Men’s Union,” under the leadership of Bebel and Liebknecht, which, particularly successful in Saxony, Brunswick, and South Germany, represents itself as the German branch of the “International Working-Men’s Association.” It adhered indeed generally to Lassalle’s programme, but objected to the extravagant adulation claimed for Lassalle by their opponents, the proper disciples of Lassalle, who had Hasenclaver as their leader and Berlin as their headquarters, substituted a federal for a centralistic organization, and instead of a great centralised government in the future desired rather a federal republic embracing all Europe. But both declared equally in favour of revolution; they vied with one another in bitter hatred of everything bearing the name of religion; and wrought out with equal enthusiasm their communistic schemes for the future. At the Gotha Congress of 1875 a reconciliation of parties was effected. The social-democratic agitation thus received a new impulse and assumed threatening proportions. Yet it required such extraordinary occurrences as the twice attempted assassination of the aged emperor, by Hodel on May 11th, and Nobiling on June 2nd, 1878, to rouse the government to legislative action. On the basis of a law passed in October, 1878, for two and a half years (but in May, 1880, continued for other three and a half years, and in May, 1884, and again in April, 1886, on each occasion extended to other two years), 200 socialist societies throughout the German empire were suppressed, sixty-four revolutionary journals, circulated in hundreds of thousands and with millions of readers, and about 800 other seditious writings, were forbidden. But that the social-democratic organization and agitation was not thereby destroyed is proved by the fact that in August, 1880, in an uninhabited Swiss castle lent for the purpose, in Canton Zürich, a congress was held, attended by fifty-six German socialists, with greetings by letter from sympathisers in all European countries, which among other things passed the resolution unanimously, no longer as had been agreed upon at Gotha, to seek their ends by lawful methods, as by the law of the socialists impossible, but by the way of revolution.―On the other hand, the German Imperial Chancellor Prince Bismarck in the Reichstag, 1884, fully admitted the “right of the worker to work,” as well as the duty of the state to ameliorate the condition of working men as far as possible, and in three propositions: “Work for the healthy workman, hospital attendance to the sick, and maintenance to the invalided,” granted all that is asked for by a healthy social policy.

§ 212.6. Russian Nihilism.―In Russia, too, notwithstanding a strictly exercised censorship, the philosophico-scientific gospel of materialism and atheism found entrance through the writings of Moleschott, Feuerbach, Büchner, Darwin, etc. (§ 174, 3), especially among the students. In 1860, Nihilism, springing from this seed, first assumed the character of a philosophical and literary movement. It sought the overthrow of all religious institutions. Then came the women’s question, claiming emancipation for the wife. The example of the Paris Commune of 1871 contributed largely to the development of Nihilistic idealism, its political revolutionary socialism. The Nihilist propaganda, like an epidemic, now seized upon the academic youth, male and female, was spread in aristocratic families by tutors and governesses, won secret disciples among civil servants as well as officers of the army and navy, and was enthusiastically supported by ladies in the most cultured and exalted ranks. In order to spread its views among the people, young men and women disguised in peasant’s dress went out among the peasants and artisans, lived and wrought like them, and preached their gospel to them in their hours of rest. But their efforts failed through the antipathy and apathy of the lower orders, and the energetic interference of the government by imprisonment and banishment thinned the ranks of the propagandists. But all the more closely did those left bind themselves together under their central leaders as the “Society for Country and Freedom,” and strove with redoubled eagerness to spread revolutionary principles by secretly printing their proclamations and other incendiary productions, and scattering them in the streets and houses. On January 24th, 1878, the female Nihilist Vera Sassulitsch from personal revenge dangerously wounded with a revolver General Trepoff, the dreaded head of the St. Petersburg police. Although she openly avowed the deed before the court and gloried in it, she was amid the acclamations of the public acquitted. This was the hour when Nihilism exercised its fellest terrorism. The fair, peaceful phrase, “To work, fight, suffer, and die for the people,” was silenced; it was now, sword and fire, dagger and revolver, dynamite and mines for all oppressors of the people, but above all for the agents of the police, for their spies, for all informers and apostates. An “executive committee,” unknown to most of the conspirators themselves, issued the death sentence; the lot determined the executioner, who himself suffered death if he failed to accomplish it. What was now aimed at was the assassination of higher state officials; then the sacred person of the emperor. Three bold attempts at assassination miscarried; the revolver shot of Solowjews on April 14th, 1879; the mine on the railway near Moscow that exploded too late on November 30th, 1879; the horrible attempt to blow up the Winter Palace with the emperor and his family on February 17th, 1880; but the fourth, a dynamite bomb thrown between the feet of the emperor on March 13th, 1881, destroyed the life of this noble and humane monarch, who in 1861-1863 had freed his people from the yoke of serfdom. As for years nothing more had been heard of Nihilist attempts, it was hoped that the government had succeeded in putting down this diabolical rebellion, but in 1887 the news spread that an equally horrible attempt had been planned for the sixth anniversary of the assassination of Alexander II., but fortunately timely precautions were taken against it.

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES.

FIRST CENTURY.

A.D.

14-37. The Emperor Tiberius, § 22, 1.

41-54. The Emperor Claudius, § 22, 1.

44. Execution of James the Elder, § 16.

51. The Council at Jerusalem, § 18, 1.

54-68. The Emperor Nero, § 23, 1.

61. Paul’s Arrival at Rome, § 15.

63. Stoning of James the Just, § 16, 3.

64. Persecution of Christians in Rome, § 22, 1.

66-70. Jewish War, § 16.

81-96. The Emperor Domitian, § 22, 1.

SECOND CENTURY.

98-117. The Emperor Trajan, § 22, 2.

115. (?) Ignatius of Antioch, Martyr, § 22, 2.

117-138. The Emperor Hadrian, § 22, 2.

Basilides, Valentinus, § 22, 2, 4.

132-135. Revolt of Barcochba [Bar-Cochba], § 25.

Abt. 150. Celsus, § 23, 3.

Marcion, § 27, 11.

138-161. The Emperor Antoninus Pius, § 22, 2.

155. Paschal Controversy between Polycarp and Amicetus [Anicetus], § 37, 2.

161-180. The Emperor Marcus Aurelius, § 22, 3.

165. Justin Martyr, § 30, 9.

166. (155?) Martyrdom of Polycarp, § 22, 3.

172. (156?) Montanus appears as a Prophet, § 40, 1.

177. Persecution of Christians at Lyons and Vienne, § 22, 3.

178. Irenæus made Bishop of Lyons, § 31, 2.

180-192. The Emperor Commodus, § 22, 3.

196. Paschal Controversy between Victor and Polycrates, § 37, 2.

THIRD CENTURY.

202. Tertullian becomes Montanist, § 40, 2.

Pantænus dies, § 31, 4.

220. Clement of Alexandria dies, § 31, 4.

235. Settlement of the Schism of Hippolytus, § 41, 1.

235-238. The Emperor Maximinus Thrax, § 22, 4.

243. Ammonius Saccus [Saccas] dies, § 25, 2.

244. Arabian Synod against Beryllus, § 33, 7.

249-251. The Emperor Decius, § 22, 5.

250. The Schism of Felicissimus, § 41, 2.

251. The Novatian Schism, § 41, 3.

253-260. The Emperor Valerian, § 22, 5.

254. Origen dies, § 31, 5.

255-256. Controversy about Heretics’ Baptism, § 35, 5.

258. Cyprian dies, § 31, 11.

260-268. The Emperor Gallienus.

The Toleration Edict, § 22, 5.

262. Synod at Rome against Sabellius and Dionysius of Alexandria, § 33, 7.

269. Third Synod of Antioch against Paul of Samosata, § 33, 8.

276. Mani dies, § 29, 1.

284-305. The Emperor Diocletian, § 22, 6.

FOURTH CENTURY.

303. Beginning of Diocletian Persecution, § 22, 6.

306. Synod of Elvira, § 38, 3; 45, 2.

Meletian Schism in Egypt, § 41, 4.

Constantius Chlorus dies, § 22, 7.

311. Galerius dies, § 22, 6.

312. Constantine’s Expedition against Maxentius, § 22, 7.

Donatist Schism in Africa, § 63, 1.

313. Edict of Milan, § 22, 7.

318. Arius is Accused, § 50, 1.

323-337. Constantine the Great, Sole Ruler, § 42, 2.

325. First Œcumenical Council at Nicæa, § 50, 1.

330-415. Meletian Schism at Antioch, § 50, 8.

335. Synod at Tyre, § 50, 2.

336. Athanasius Exiled. Arius dies, § 50, 2.

341. Council at Antioch, § 50, 2.

343. Persecution of Christians under Shapur [Sapor] II., § 64, 2.

344. Synod at Sardica, § 46, 3; 50, 2.

346. Council at Milan against Photinus, § 50, 2.

348. Ulfilas, Bishop of the Goths, § 76, 1.

350-361. Constantius, Sole Ruler, § 42, 2.

351. First Council at Sirmium against Marcellus, § 50, 2.

357. Second Council at Sirmium, Homoians, § 50, 3.

358. Third Council at Sirmium, § 50, 3.

359. Synods at Seleucia and Rimini, § 50, 3.

361-363. Emperor Julian the Apostate, § 42, 3.

362. Synod at Alexandria against Athanasius, § 50, 4.

366-384. Damasus I., Bishop of Rome, § 46, 4.

368. Hilary of Poitiers dies, § 47, 14.

373. Athanasius dies, § 47, 3.

379. Basil the Great dies, § 47, 4.

379-395. Theodosius the Great, Emperor, § 42, 4.

380. Synod at Saragossa, § 54, 2.

381. Second Œcumenical Council at Constantinople, § 50, 4.

Ulfilas dies, § 76, 1.

384-398. Siricius, Bishop of Rome, § 46, 4.

385. Priscillian beheaded at Treves, § 54, 2.

390. Gregory Nazianzen dies, § 47, 4.

391. Destruction of the Serapeion at Alexandria, § 42, 6.

393. Council at Hippo Rhegius, § 59, 1.

397. Ambrose dies, § 47, 15.

399. Rufinus Condemned at Rome as an Origenist, § 51, 2.

400. Martin of Tours dies, § 47, 15.

FIFTH CENTURY.

402-417. Innocent I. of Rome, § 46, 5.

403. Synodus ad Quercum, § 51, 3.

Epiphanius dies, § 47, 10.

407. Chrysostom dies, § 47, 8.

408-450. Theodosius II. in the East, § 52, 3.

411. Collatio cum Donatistis, § 63, 1.

412. Synod at Carthage against Cœlestius, § 53, 4.

415. Synods at Jerusalem and Diospolis against Pelagius, § 53, 4.

416. Synods at Mileve and Carthage against Pelagius, § 53, 4.

418. General Assembly at Carthage, § 53, 4.

Roman Schism of Eulalius and Bonifacius, § 46, 6.

420. Jerome dies, § 47, 16.

Persecution of Christians under Behram [Bahram] V., § 64, 2.

422-432. Cœlestine I., Bishop of Rome, § 46, 6.

428. Nestorius is made Patriarch of Constantinople, § 52, 3.

429. Theodore of Mopsuestia dies, § 47, 9.

The Vandals in North Africa, § 76, 3.

430. Cyril’s Anathemas, § 52, 3.

Augustine dies, § 47, 18.

431. Third Œcumenical Council at Ephesus, § 52, 3.

432. St. Patrick in Ireland, § 77, 1.

John Cassianus dies, § 47, 21.

440-461. Leo I., the Great, § 46, 7; 47, 22.

444. Cyril of Alexandria dies, § 47, 6.

Dioscurus succeeds Cyril, § 52, 4.

445. Rescript of Valentinian III., § 46, 7.

448. Eutyches excommunicated at Constantinople, § 52, 4.

449. Robber Synod at Ephesus, § 52, 4.

Attack of Angles and Saxons upon Britain, § 77, 4.

451. Fourth Œcumenical Synod at Chalcedon, § 52, 4.

457. Theodoret dies, § 47, 9.

475. Semipelagian Synods at Arles and Lyons, § 53, 5.

476. Overthrow of the West Roman Empire, § 46, 8; 76, 6.

Monophysite Encyclical of Basiliscus, § 52, 5.

482. Henoticon of the Emperor Zeno, § 52, 5.

Severinus dies, § 76, 6.

484-519. The Thirty-five Years’ Schism between the East and West, § 52, 5.

492-496. Gelasius I., Bishop of Rome, § 46, 8; 47, 22.

496. Battle of Zülpich. Clovis baptized, § 76, 9.

SIXTH CENTURY.

502. Synodus Palmaris, § 46, 8.

517. Council at Epaon, § 76, 5.

527-565. Justinian I., Emperor, § 46, 9; 52, 6.

529. Synods at Oranges and Valence, § 53, 5.

Monastic Rule of Benedict of Nursia, § 85.

Suppression of the University of Athens, § 42, 4.

533. The Theopaschite Controversy, § 52, 6.

Overthrow of the Vandal Empire, § 76, 3.

544. Condemnation of the “Three Chapters,” § 52, 6.

553. Fifth Œcumenical Council at Constantinople, § 52, 6.

554. Overthrow of the Ostrogoth Empire in Italy, § 76, 7.

563. Council at Braga, § 54, 2.

St. Columba among the Picts and Scots. § 77, 2.

567. Founding of the Exarchate of Ravenna, § 46, 9.

568. The Longobards under Alboin in Italy, § 76, 8.

589. Council at Toledo under Reccared, § 76, 2.

Columbanus and Gallus in the Vosges Country, § 77, 7.

590-604. Gregory I., the Great, § 46, 10; 47, 22.

595. Gregory of Tours dies, § 90, 2.

596. Augustine goes as Missionary to the Anglo-Saxons, § 77, 4.

597. St. Columba dies, § 77, 2.

Ethelbert baptized, § 77, 4.

SEVENTH CENTURY.

606. Emperor Phocas recognises the Roman Primacy, § 46, 10.

611-641. Heraclius, Emperor, § 52, 8.

615. Columbanus dies, § 77, 7.

622. Hejira, § 65.

625-638. Honorius I., Pope, § 46, 11.

636. Isidore of Seville dies, § 90, 2.

637. Omar conquers Jerusalem, § 65.

638. Monothelite Ecthesis of Heraclius, § 52, 8.

640. Omar conquers Egypt, § 65.

642-668. Constans II., Emperor, § 52, 8.

646. St. Gallus dies, § 78, 1.

648. The Typus of Constans II., § 52, 8.

649-653. Martin I., Pope, § 46, 11.

649. First Lateran Council under Martin I., § 52, 8.

652. Emmeran at Regensburg, § 78, 2.

657. Constantine of Mananalis, § 71, 1.

662. Maximus Confessor, dies, § 47, 13.

664. Synod at Streoneshalch (Syn. Pharensis), § 77, 6.

668-685. Constantinus Pogonnatus, § 52, 8; 71, 1.

677. Wilfrid among the Frisians, § 78, 3.

678-682. Agatho, Pope, § 46, 11.

680. Sixth Œcumenical Council at Constantinople (Trullanum I.), § 52, 8.

690. Wilibrord among the Frisians, § 78, 3.

692. Concilium Quinisextum (Trullanum II.), § 63, 2.

696. Rupert in Bavaria (Salzburg), § 78, 2.

EIGHTH CENTURY.

711. The Saracens conquer Spain, § 81.

715-731. Pope Gregory II., § 66, 1; 78, 4.

716. Winifrid goes to the Frisians, § 78, 4.

717-741. Leo III., the Isaurian, Emperor, § 66, 1.

718. Winifrid in Rome, § 78, 4.

722. Winifrid in Thuringia and Hesse, § 78, 4.

723. Winifrid a second time at Rome, consecrated Bishop, etc., § 78, 4.

724. Destruction of the Wonder-working Oak at Geismar, § 78, 4.

726. Leo’s First Edict against Image Worship, § 66, 1.

730. Leo’s Second Edict against Image Worship, § 66, 1.

731. Gregory III., Pope, § 66, 1; 78, 4; 82, 1.

732. Boniface, Archbishop and Apostolic Vicar, § 78, 4.

Battle at Poitiers, § 81.

Separation of Illyria from the Roman See by Leo the Isaurian, § 66, 1.

735. The Venerable Bede dies, § 90, 2.

739. Wilibrord dies, § 78, 3.

741. Charles Martel dies, § 78, 5.

Gregory III. dies. Leo the Isaurian dies.

741-752. Pope Zacharias, § 78, 5, 7; 82, 1.

741-775. Constantinus Copronymus, Emperor, § 66, 2.

742. Concilium Germanicum, § 78, 5.

743. Synod at Liptinä, § 78, 5; 86, 2.

744. Synod at Soissons, § 78, 5.

745. Boniface, Archbishop of Mainz, § 78, 5.

752. Childeric III. deposed, Pepin the Short, King, § 78, 5; 82, 1.

754. Iconoclastic Council at Constantinople, § 66, 2.

Pepin’s donation to the Chair of St. Peter, § 82, 1.

755. Boniface dies, § 78, 7.

Abt. 760. Rule of St. Chrodegang of Metz, § 84, 4.

767. Synod at Gentilliacum, § 91, 2; 92, 1.

768-814. Charlemagne, § 82, 2, 4; 90, 1, etc.

772-795. Pope Hadrian I., § 82, 2.

772. Destruction of Eresburg, § 78, 9.

774. Charlemagne’s donation to the Chair of St. Peter, § 82, 2.

785. Wittekind and Alboin are baptized, § 78, 9.

787. Seventh Œcumenical Council at Nicæa, § 66, 3.

Founding of Cloister and Cathedral Schools, § 90, 1.

790. Libri Carolini, § 92, 1.

792. Synod at Regensburg, § 91, 1.

794. General Synod at Frankfort, § 91, 1; 92, 1.

795-816. Leo III., Pope, § 82, 3.

799. Alcuin’s disputation with Felix at Aachen, § 91, 1.

800. Leo III. crowns Charlemagne, § 82, 3.

NINTH CENTURY.

804. End of the Saxon War, § 78, 9.

Alcuin dies, § 90, 3.

809. Council at Aachen, on the Filioque, § 91, 2.

813-820. Leo the Armenian, Emperor, § 66, 4.

814-840. Louis the Pious, § 82, 4.

817. Reformation of Monasticism by Benedict of Aniane, § 85, 2.

820-829. Michael Balbus, Emperor, § 66, 4.

825. Synod at Paris against Image Worship, § 92, 1.

826. Theodorus Studita dies, § 66, 4.

Ansgar in Denmark, § 80, 1.

827. Establishment of Saracen Sovereignty in Sicily, § 81.

829-842. Theophilus, Emperor, § 66, 4.

833. Founding of the Archbishopric of Hamburg, § 80, 1.

835. Synod at Didenhofen, § 82, 4.

839. Claudius of Turin dies. Agobard of Lyons dies, § 90, 4.

840-877. Charles the Bald, § 90, 1.

842. Feast of Orthodoxy, § 66, 4.

Theodora recommends the out-rooting of the Paulicians, § 71, 1.

843. Compact of Verdun, § 82, 5.

844. Eucharist Controversy of Paschasius Radbertus, § 91, 3.

845-882. Hincmar of Rheims, § 83, 2; 90, 5.

847. Archbishopric of Hamburg-Bremen, § 80, 1.

848. Synod of Mainz against Gottschalk, § 91, 5.

850-859. Persecution of Christians in Spain, § 81, 1.

851-852. The Decretals of the Pseudo-Isidore, § 87, 2, 3.

853. Synod of Quiersy. Capitula Carisiaca, § 91, 5.

855. Synod at Valence in favour of Gottschalk, § 91, 5.

856. Rabanus Maurus dies, § 90, 4.

858-867. Pope Nicholas I., § 82, 7.

858. Photius, Patriarch of Constantinople, § 67, 1.

859. Synod of Savonnières, § 91, 5.

861. Methodius goes to the Bulgarians, § 73, 3.

863. Cyril and Methodius go to Moravia, § 79, 2.

865. Ansgar dies, § 80, 1.

866. Encyclical of Photius, § 67, 1.

867-886. Basil the Macedonian, Emperor, § 67, 1.

867-872. Hadrian II., Pope, § 82, 7.

869. Eighth Œcumenical Council of the Latins at Constantinople § 67, 1.

870. Treaty of Mersen, § 82, 5.

871. Basil the Macedonian puts down the Paulicians, § 71, 1.

Borziwoi and Ludmilla baptized, § 79, 3.

871-901. Alfred the Great, § 90, 9.

875. John VIII. crowns Charles the Bald Emperor, § 82, 8.

879. Eighth Œcumenical Council of the Greeks at Constantinople, § 67, 1.

886-911. Leo the Philosopher, Emperor, § 67, 2.

891. Photius dies, § 67, 1.

TENTH CENTURY.

910. Abbot Berno founds Clugny, § 98, 1.

911. The German Carolingians die out, § 82, 8.

911-918. Conrad I., King of the Germans. § 96, 1.

914-928. Pope John X., § 96, 1.

919-936. Henry I., King of the Germans, § 96, 1.

934. Henry I. enforced toleration of Christianity in Denmark, § 93, 2.

936-973. Otto I., Emperor, § 96, 1.

942. Odo of Clugny founds the Clugniac Congregation, § 98, 1.

950. Gylas of Hungary baptized, § 93, 8.

955. Olga baptized in Constantinople, § 73, 4.

960. Atto of Vercelli dies, § 100, 2.

962. Founding of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation, § 96, 1.

963. Synod at Rome deposes John XII., § 96, 1.

966. Miecislaw of Poland baptized, § 93, 7.

968. Founding of Archbishopric of Magdeburg, § 93, 9.

970. Migration of Paulicians to Thrace, § 71, 1.

973-983. Otto II., Emperor, § 96, 2.

974. Ratherius of Verona dies, § 100, 2.

983-1002. Otto III., Emperor, § 96, 2, 3.

983. Mistewoi destroys all Christian establishments among the Wends, § 93, 9.

987. Hugh Capet is made King of France, § 96, 2.

988. Wladimir Christianizes Russia, § 73, 4.

992-1025. Boleslaw Chrobry of Poland, § 93, 7.

996-999. Pope Gregory V., § 96, 2.

997-1038. Stephen the Saint, § 93, 8.

997. Adalbert of Prague, Apostle of Prussia, dies, § 93, 13.

999-1003. Pope Sylvester II., § 96, 3.

1000. Olaf Tryggvason dies, § 93, 4.

Christianity introduced into Iceland and Greenland, § 93, 5.

Stephen of Hungary secures the throne, § 93, 8.

ELEVENTH CENTURY.

1002-1024. Henry II., Emperor, § 96, 4.

1008. Olaf Skautkoning of Sweden baptized, § 93, 3.

1009. Bruno martyred, § 93, 13.

1012-1024. Pope Benedict VIII., § 96, 4.

1014-1036. Canute the Great, § 93, 2.

1018. Romuald founds the Camaldulensian Congregation, § 98, 1.

1024-1039. Conrad II., Emperor, § 96, 4.

1030. Olaf the Thick of Norway dies, § 93, 4.

1031. Overthrow of the Ommaides in Spain, § 95, 2.

1039-1056. Henry II., Emperor, § 96, 4, 5.

1041. Treuga Dei, § 105, 1.

1046. Synod at Sutri, § 96, 4.

1049-1054. Pope Leo IX., § 96, 5.

1050. Synods at Rome and Vercelli against Berengar, § 101, 2.

1053. Epistle of Michael Cærularius, § 67, 3.

1054. Excommunication of Greek Church by Papal Legates, § 67, 3.

1056-1106. Henry IV., Emperor, § 96, 6-11.

1059. Pope Nicholas II. assigns the choice of Pope to the College of Cardinals, § 96, 6.

1060. Robert Guiscard founds the Norman Sovereignty in Italy, § 95, 1.

1066. Murder of Gottschalk, King of the Wends, § 93, 9.

1073-1085. Pope Gregory VII., § 96, 7-9.

1075. Gregory’s third Investiture Enactment, § 96, 7.

1077. Henry IV. as a Penitent at Canossa, § 96, 8.

1079. Berengar subscribes at Rome the doctrine of Transubstantiation, § 101, 2.

1086. Bruno of Cologne founds the Carthusian Order, § 98, 2.

1088-1099. Pope Urban II., § 96, 10.

1095. Synod at Clermont, § 94.

1096. First Crusade. Godfrey of Boulogne, § 94, 1.

1098. Synod at Bari. Anselm of Canterbury, § 67, 4.

Robert of Citeaux founds the Cistercian Order, § 98, 1.

1099. Conquest of Jerusalem, § 94, 1.

1099-1118. Pope Paschalis II., § 96, 11.

TWELFTH CENTURY.

1106-1125. Henry V., Emperor, § 96, 11.

1106. Michael Psellus dies, § 68, 5.

1109. Anselm of Canterbury dies, § 101, 1, 3.

1113. Bernard, Abbot of Clairvaux, § 98, 1; 102, 3.

1118. Founding of the Order of Knights Templar.

Knights of St. John, § 98, 7.

Basil, head of Bogomili, sent to the stake, § 71, 4.

1119-1124. Calixtus II., Pope, § 96, 11.

1121. Norbert founds the Præmonstratensian Order, § 98, 2.

1122. Concordat of Worms, § 96, 11.

1123. Ninth Œcumenical Council (First Lateran), § 96, 11.

1124. First Missionary Journey of Otto of Bamberg, § 93, 10.

1126. Peter of Bruys burnt, § 108, 7.

1128. Second Missionary Journey of Otto of Bamberg, § 93, 10.

1130-1143. Pope Innocent II., § 96, 13.

1135. Rupert of Deutz dies, § 102, 8.

1139. Tenth Œcumenical Council (Second Lateran), § 96, 13.

1141. Synod at Sens condemns Abælard’s writings, § 102, 2.

Hugo St. Victor dies, § 102, 4.

1142. Abælard dies, § 102, 2.

1143. Founding of the Roman Commune, § 96, 13.

1145-1153. Pope Eugenius III., § 96, 13.

1146. Fall of Edessa, § 94, 2.

1147. Second Crusade. Conrad III. Louis VII., § 94, 2.

1149. Henry of Lausanne dies, § 108, 7.

1150. Decretum Gratiani, § 99, 5.

1152-1190. Frederick I., Barbarossa, § 96, 14.

1153. Bernard of Clairvaux dies, § 102, 3.

1154. Vicelin [Vicelinus] dies, § 93, 9.

1154-1159. Hadrian IV., Pope, § 96, 14.

1155. Arnold of Brescia put to death, § 96, 14.

1156. Peter the Venerable dies, § 98, 1.

Founding of Carmelite Order, § 98, 3.

1157. Introduction of Christianity into Finland, § 93, 11.

1159-1181. Pope Alexander III., § 96, 15, 16.

1164. Peter the Lombard dies, § 102, 5.

Council of Clarendon, § 96, 16.

1167. Council at Toulouse (Cathari), § 108, 2.

1168. Christianity of the Island of Rügen, § 93, 10.

1169. Gerhoch of Reichersberg dies, § 102, 6, 7.

1170. Thomas Becket murdered, § 96, 16.

Founding of the Waldensian sect, § 108, 10.

1176. Battle of Legnano, § 96, 15.

1179. Eleventh Œcumenical Council (Third Lateran), § 96, 15.

1180. John of Salisbury dies, § 102, 9.

1182. Maronites are attached to Rome, § 73, 3.

1184. Meinhart in Livonia, § 93, 12.

1187. Saladin conquers Jerusalem, § 94, 3.

1189. Third Crusade. Frederick Barbarossa, § 94, 3.

1190-1197. Henry VI., Emperor, § 96, 16.

1190. Founding of Order of Teutonic Knights, § 98, 8.

1194. Eustathius of Thessalonica dies, § 68, 5.

1198-1216. Pope Innocent III., § 96, 17, 18.

THIRTEENTH CENTURY.

1202. Joachim of Floris dies, § 108, 5.

Founding of Order of the Brothers of the Sword, § 93, 12.

Genghis Khan destroys Kingdom of Prester John, § 72, 1.

1204-1261. Latin Empire in Constantinople, § 94, 4.

1207. Stephen Langton, Archbishop of Canterbury, § 96, 18.

1208. Peter of Castelnau slain, § 109, 1.

1209-1229. Albigensian Crusade, § 109, 1.

1209. Council of Paris against Sect of Amalrich of Bena, § 108, 4.

1212. Battle at Tolosa, § 95, 2.

1213. John Lackland receives England as a Papal Fief, § 96, 18.

1215-1250. Frederick II., Emperor, § 96, 17, 19, 20.

1215. Twelfth Œcumenical Council (Fourth Lateran), § 96, 18.

1216. Confirmation of the Dominican Order, § 98, 5.

1216-1227. Pope Honorius III., § 96, 19.

1217. Fourth Crusade. Andrew II. of Hungary, § 94, 4.

1223. Confirmation of Franciscan Order, § 98, 3.

1226. Francis of Assisi dies, § 98, 3.

1226-1270. Louis IX., the Saint, § 94, 6; 93, 15.

1227-1241. Pope Gregory IX., § 96, 19.

1228. Fifth Crusade. Frederick II., § 94, 5.

Settlement of the Teutonic Knights in Prussia, § 93, 13.

1229. Synod at Toulouse, § 109, 2.

1231. St. Elizabeth dies, § 105, 3.

1232. Inquisition Tribunal set up, § 109, 2.

1233. Conrad of Marburg slain, § 109, 3.

1234. Crusade against Stedingers, § 109, 3.

1237. Union of the Order of Sword with that of Teutonic Knights, § 98, 8.

1243-1254. Pope Innocent IV., § 96, 20.

1245. Thirteenth Œcumenical Council (first of Lyons), § 96, 20.

Alexander of Hales died, § 103, 4.

1248. Foundation stone of Cathedral of Cologne laid, § 104, 13.

Sixth Crusade, Louis IX., § 94, 6.

1253. Robert Grosseteste dies, § 103, 1.

1254. Condemnation of the “Introductorius in evangelium æternum,” § 108, 5.

1260. First Flagellant Campaign in Perugia, § 107, 1.

1260-1282. Michael Paläologus, Emperor, § 67, 4.

1261-1264. Urban IV., Pope, § 96, 20.

1262. Arsenian Schism, § 70, 1.

1268. Conradin on the Scaffold. § 96, 20.

1269. Pragmatic Sanction of Louis IX., § 96, 21.

1270. Seventh Crusade, Louis IX., § 94, 6.

1271-1276. Pope Gregory X., § 96, 21.

1272. Italian Mission to the Mongols. Marco Polo, § 93, 15.

David of Augsburg dies, § 103, 10.

Bertholdt [Berthold] of Regensburg dies, § 104, 1.

1273-1291. Rudolph of Hapsburg, Emperor, § 96, 21, 22.

1274. Fourteenth Œcumenical Council (second of Lyons), § 96, 21.

Thomas Aquinas dies, § 103, 6.

Bonaventura dies, § 103, 4.

1275. Strassburg Minster, § 104, 13.

1280. Albert the Great dies, § 103, 5.

1282. Sicilian Vespers, § 96, 22.

1283. Prussia subdued, § 93, 13.

1286. Barhabraeus [Barhebræus] dies, § 72, 2.

1291. Fall of Acre, § 94, 6.

John of Montecorvino among the Mongols, § 93, 16.

1294. Roger Bacon dies, § 103, 8.

1294-1303. Boniface VIII., Pope, § 110, 1.

1296. Bull Clericis laicos, § 110, 1.

1300. First Roman Jubilee, § 117.

Lollards at Antwerp, § 116, 2.

Gerhard Segarelli burnt, § 108, 8.

FOURTEENTH CENTURY.

1302. Bull Unam Sanctam, § 110, 1.

1305-1314. Pope Clement V., § 110, 2.

1307. Dolcino burnt, § 108, 4.

1308. Duns Scotus dies, § 113, 1.

1309-1377. Residence of Popes at Avignon, § 110, 2-4.

1311-1312. Fifteenth Œcumenical Council at Vienne, § 110, 2.

Suppression of Templar Order, § 112, 7.

1314-1347. Louis the Bavarian, Emperor, § 110, 3, 4.

1315. Raimund Lullus dies, § 93, 16; 103, 5.

1316-1334. Pope John XXII., § 110, 3; 112, 2.

1321. Dante dies, § 115, 10.

1322. Split in the Franciscan Order, § 112, 2.

1327. Meister Eckhart dies, § 114, 1.

1334-1342. Pope Benedict XII., § 110, 4.

1335. Bishop Hemming in Lapland, § 93, 11.

1338. Electoral Union at Rhense, § 110, 5.

1339. Union negotiations at Avignon. Barlaam, § 67, 5.

1340. Nicholas of Lyra dies, § 113, 7.

1341-1351. Hesychast Controversy in Constantinople, § 69, 1.

1342-1352. Pope Clement VI., § 110, 4.

1346-1378. Charles IV., Emperor, § 110, 4.

1347. Rienzi, § 110, 4.

Emperor Louis dies, § 110, 4.

1348. Founding of University of Prague, § 119, 3.

1348-1350. Black Death. Flagellant Campaign, § 116, 3.

1349. Thomas Bradwardine dies, § 113, 2.

1352-1362. Pope Innocent VI., § 110, 4.

1356. Charles IV. issues the Golden Bull, § 110, 4.

1360. Wiclif against the Begging Friars, § 119, 1.

1361. John Tauler dies, § 114, 2.

1362-1370. Pope Urban V., § 110, 4.

1366. Henry Suso dies, § 114, 5.

1367-1370. Urban V. in Rome, § 110, 4.

1369. John Paläologus passes over to the Latin Church, § 67, 5.

1370-1378. Pope Gregory XI., § 110, 4.

1374. Dancers, § 116, 3.

1377. Return of the Curia to Rome, § 110, 4.

1378-1417. Papal Schism, § 110, 6.

1380. Catharine of Siena dies, § 112, 4.

1384. Wiclif dies, § 119, 1.

Gerhard Groot dies, § 112, 9.

1386. Introduction of Christianity into Lithuania, § 93, 14.

1400. Florentius Radewin dies, § 112, 9.

FIFTEENTH CENTURY.

1402. Hus becomes Preacher in the Bethlehem Chapel, § 119, 3.

1409. Œcumenical Council at Pisa, § 110, 6.578

Withdrawal of the Germans from Prague, § 119, 3.

1410-1415. John XXIII., Pope, § 110, 7.

1410-1437. Sigismund, Emperor, § 110, 7, 8.

1412. Traffic in Indulgences in Bohemia, § 119, 4.

1413. Papal Ban against Hus, § 119, 4.

1414-1418. Sixteenth Œcumenical Council at Constance, § 110, 6; 119, 5.

1415. Hus obtains the crown of martyrdom, § 119, 5.

1416. Jerome of Prague martyred, § 119, 5.

1417-1431. Pope Martin V., § 110, 7.

1420. Calixtines and Taborites, § 119, 7.

1423. General Councils at Pavia and Siena, § 110, 7.

1424. Ziska dies, § 119, 7.

1425. Peter D’Ailly dies, § 118, 3.

1429. Gerson dies, § 118, 3.

1431-1447. Pope Eugenius IV., § 110, 7.

1431-1449. Seventeenth Œcumenical Council at Basel, § 110, 8; 119, 5-7.

1433. Basel Compacts, § 119, 7.

1434. Overthrow of Hussites at Böhmischbrod, § 119, 7.

1438. Papal Counter-Council at Ferrara, § 110, 8.

Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges, § 110, 9.

1439. Council at Florence, § 67, 6.

1448. Concordat of Vienna, § 110, 9.

1453. Fall of Constantinople, § 67, 6.

1457. Laurentius Valla dies, § 120, 1.

1458-1464. Pope Pius II., § 110, 11.

1459. Congress of Princes at Mantua, § 110, 10.

1464-1471. Pope Paul II., § 110, 11.

1467. Convention of Bohemian Brethren at Lhota, § 119, 8.

1471. Thomas à Kempis dies, § 114, 5.

1471-1484. Sixtus IV., Pope, § 110, 11.

1483. Luther born on November 10th, § 122, 1.

Spanish Inquisition, § 117, 1.

Close of Corpus juris canonici, § 99, 5.

1484-1492. Innocent VIII., Pope, § 110, 11.

1484. Zwingli born January 1st, § 130, 1.

Bull Summis desiderantes, § 117, 4.

1485. Rudolph Agricola dies, § 120, 3.

1489. John Wessel dies, § 119, 10.

1492-1503. Alexander VI., Pope, § 110, 12.

1492. Fall of Granada, § 95, 2.

1493-1519. Maximilian I., Emperor, § 110, 13.

1497. Melanchthon born, § 122, 5.

1498. Savonarola sent to the stake, § 119, 11.

SIXTEENTH CENTURY.

1502. Founding of University of Wittenberg, § 122, 1.

1508-1513. Pope Julius II., § 110, 13.

1506. Rebuilding of St. Peter’s at Rome, § 115, 13.

1508. Luther becomes Professor at Wittenberg, § 122, 1.

1509. Calvin born on July 10th, § 138, 2.

1509-1547. Henry VIII. of England, § 139, 4.

1511. Luther’s journey to Rome, § 122, 1.

Council at Pisa, § 110, 13.

1512. Luther made Doctor of the Holy Scriptures and Preacher, § 112, 1.

1512-1517. Fifth Lateran Council, § 110, 13, 14.

1513-1521. Pope Leo X., § 110, 14.

1514. Reuchlin’s contest with the Dominicans, § 120, 4.

1516. Epistolæ Obscur. virorum, § 120, 5.

Erasmus edits the New Testament, § 120, 6.

Zwingli preaches at Mariä Einsiedeln, § 130, 1.

1517. Luther’s Theses, October 31st, § 122, 2.

1518. Luther at Heidelberg and before Cajetan at Augsburg, § 122, 3.

Melanchthon Professor at Wittenberg, § 122, 5.

1519. Miltitz, § 122, 3.

Disputation at Leipzig, § 122, 4.

Zwingli in Zürich, § 130, 1.

Olaf and Laurence Peterson in Sweden, § 139, 1.

1519-1556. Emperor Charles V., § 123, 5.

1520. Bull of Excommunication against Luther, § 123, 2.

Christian II. in Denmark, § 139, 2.

1521. Luther at Worms, § 123, 7.

Melanchthon’s Loci, § 124, 1.

Beginning of Reformation in Riga, § 139, 3.

1521-1522. The Wartburg Exile, § 123, 8.

1522. The Prophets of Zwickau in Wittenberg, § 124, 1.

Reuchlin dies, § 120, 4.

1522-1523. Pope Hadrian VI., § 126, 1.

1523. Thomas Münzer in Allstädt, § 124, 4.

Luther’s contest with Henry VIII., § 125, 3.

First Martyrs, Voes and Esch, § 128, 1.

Sickingen’s defeat, § 124, 2.

1523-1534. Pope Clement VII., § 149, 1.

1524. Staupitz dies, § 112, 2.

Carlstadt in Orlamünde, § 124, 3.

Erasmus against Luther, § 125, 2.

Diet of Nuremberg, § 126, 2.

Regensburg League, § 126, 3.

Hans Tausen in Denmark, § 139, 2.

Founding of Theatine Order, § 149, 7.

1525. Eucharist Controversy, § 131, 1.

Luther’s Marriage, § 129.

Albert of Prussia, Hereditary Duke, § 126, 4.

Founding of the Capuchin Order, § 149, 7.

1525-1532. John the Constant, Elector of Saxony, § 124, 5.

1526. Synod at Hamburg, § 127, 2.

Torgau League, § 126, 5.

Diet at Spires, § 126, 6.

Disputation at Baden, § 130, 6.

1527. Diet at Odense, § 139, 2;

and at Westeräs, § 139, 1.

1528. The Pack incident, § 132, 1.

Disputation at Bern, § 130, 7.

1529. Church Visitation of Saxony, § 127, 1.

Diet at Spires, § 132, 3.

Marburg Conference, § 132, 4.

First Peace of Cappel, § 130, 9.

1530. Diet at Augsburg. Conf. Augustana, June 25th, § 132, 6, 7.

1531. Schmalcald League, § 133, 1.

Zwingli dies. Second Peace of Cappel, § 130, 10.

1532-1547. John Frederick the Magnanimous, Elector of Saxony, § 133, 2.

1532. Religious Peace of Nuremberg, § 133, 2.

Farel at Geneva, § 138, 1.

Henry VIII. renounces authority of the Pope, § 139, 4.

1534. Luther’s complete Bible Translation, § 129, 1.

Reformation in Württemberg, § 133, 3.

1534-1535. Anabaptist Troubles in Münster, § 133, 6.

1534-1549. Pope Paul III., § 149, 2.

1535. Vergerius in Wittenberg, § 134, 1.

Calvin’s Institutio rel. Christ., § 138, 5.

1536. Erasmus dies, § 120, 6.

Wittenberg Concord, § 133, 8.

Calvin in Geneva, § 138, 2.

Diet at Copenhagen, § 139, 2.

Menno Simons baptized, § 147, 1.

1537. Schmalcald Articles, § 134, 1.

Antinomian Controversy, § 141, 1.

1538. Nuremberg League, § 134, 2.

Calvin Expelled from Geneva, § 138, 3.

1539. Outbreak at Frankfort, § 134, 3.

Reformation in Albertine Saxony, § 134, 4.

Joachim II. reforms Brandenburg, § 134, 5.

Diet at Odense, § 139, 2.

1540. The Society of Jesus, § 149, 8.

Double Marriage of the Landgrave, § 135, 1.

Religious Conferences at Spires, Hagenau, and Worms, § 135, 2.

1541. Carlstadt dies, § 124, 3.

Interim of Regensburg, § 135, 3.

Naumburg Episcopate, § 135, 5.

Calvin returns to Geneva, § 138, 3, 4.

1542. Reformation in Brunswick, § 135, 6.

National Assembly at Bonn, § 135, 7.

Francis Xavier in the East Indies, § 150, 1.

Roman Inquisition, § 139, 23.

1544. Diet at Spires, Peace of Crespy, Wittenberg Reformation, § 135, 9.

Diet at Westeräs, § 139, 1.

1545. Synod at Erdöd, § 139, 20.

1545-1547. Nineteenth Œcumenical Council at Trent, § 136, 4; 149, 2.

1546. Regensburg Conference: Murder of John Diaz, § 135, 10.

Luther dies, February 18th, § 135, 11.

Reformation in the Palatinate, § 135, 6.

1546-1547. Schmalcald War, § 136.

1547-1553. Edward VI. of England, § 139, 5.

1547. Hermann of Cologne resigns, § 136, 2.

1548-1572. Sigismund Augustus, of Poland, § 139, 18.

1548. Interim of Augsburg, § 136, 5.

Adiaphorist Controversy, § 141, 5.

Priests of the Oratory, § 149, 7.

1549. Consensus Tigurinus, § 138, 7.

Andrew Osiander at Königsburg, § 141, 2.

Jesuit Mission in Brazil, § 150, 3.

The first Jesuits in Germany (Ingolstadt), § 151, 2.

1550-1555. Pope Julius III., § 136, 8.

1550. Brothers of Mercy, § 149, 7.

1551. Resumption of Tridentine Council, § 136, 8; 149, 2.

1552. Compact of Passau, § 137, 3.

Outbreak of Crypto-Calvinist Controversy, § 141, 9.

Francis Xavier dies, § 150, 1.

1553-1558. Mary the Catholic of England, § 139, 5.

1553. Elector Maurice dies, § 137, 4.

Servetus burnt, § 148, 2.

1554. Consensus Pastorum Genevensium, § 138, 7.

John Frederick the Magnanimous dies, § 137, 3.

1555. Religious Peace of Augsburg, § 137, 5.

Outbreak of Synergist Controversies, § 141, 7.

1555-1598. Philip II. of Spain, § 139, 21.

1556-1564. Ferdinand I, Emperor, § 137, 8.

1556. Loyola dies, § 149, 8.

1557. National Assembly at Clausenburg and Confessio Hungarica, § 139, 20.

1558. Frankfort Recess, § 141, 11.

1558-1603. Elizabeth of England, § 139, 6.

1559. Gustavus Vasa’s Mission to the Lapps, § 142, 7.

Confessio Gallicana, § 139, 14.

The English Act of Uniformity, § 139, 6.

1560-1565. Pope Pius IV., § 149, 2.

1560. Confessio Scotica, § 139, 9.

John a Lasco dies, § 139, 18.

Calvinizing of the Palatinate, § 144, 1.

Melanchthon dies, § 141, 10.

1561. Gotthard Kettler, Duke of Courland, § 139, 3.

Religious Conference at Poissy, § 139, 14.

Mary Stuart in Scotland, § 139, 10.

Princes’ Diet at Naumburg, § 141, 11.

1562-1563. Resumption and Close of Tridentine Council, § 149, 2.

1562. Confessio Belgica, § 139, 12.

The XXXIX. Articles of the English Church, § 139, 6.

Calvinizing of Bremen, § 144, 2.

Heidelberg Catechism, § 144, 1.

Lælius Socinus dies, § 148, 4.

1564. Calvin dies, § 138, 4.

Professio fidei Tridentinæ, § 149, 14.

Cassander’s Union Proposals, § 137, 8.

Maulbronn Convention, § 144, 1.

1564-1576. Emperor Maximilian II., § 137, 8.

1566. Catechasimo Romanus, § 149, 10.

Confessio Helvetica posterior, § 138, 7.

The League of “the Beggars,” § 139, 12.

1567. The writings of Michael Baius condemned, § 149, 13.

1570. General Synod at Sendomir, § 139, 13.

Peace of St. Germains, § 139, 15.

1572-1585. Pope Gregory XIII., § 149, 3.

1572. John Knox dies, § 139, 11.

Bloody Marriage of Paris, August 24th, § 139, 16.

1573. Pax dissidentium in Poland, § 139, 18.

1574. Maulbronn Convention, § 141, 12.

Restoration of Catholicism in Eichsfelde, § 151, 1.

1575. Confessio Bohemica, § 139, 19.

1576. Book of Torgau, § 141, 12.

Pacification of Ghent, § 139, 12.

1576-1612. Rudolph II., Emperor, § 137, 8.

1577. The Formula of Concord, § 141, 12.

Restoration of Catholicism in Fulda, § 151, 1.

1578. The Jesuit Possevin in Sweden, § 151, 3.

1579. The Union of Utrecht, § 139, 12.

1580. Book of Concord, § 141, 12.

1582. Second Attempt at Reformation in Cologne, § 137, 6.

Matthew Ricci in China, § 150, 1.

Reform of Calendar, § 149, 3.

1585-1590. Pope Sixtus V., § 149, 3.

1587. Mary Stuart on the Scaffold, § 139, 10.

1588. Louis Molina, § 149, 13.

1589-1610. Henry IV. of France, § 139, 17.

1589. Patriarchate at Moscow, § 73, 4.

1592. Saxon Articles of Visitation, § 141, 13.

1593. Assembly of Representatives at Upsala, § 139, 1.

1595. Synod at Thorn, § 139, 18.

1596. Synod at Brest, § 151, 3.

1597. Calvinizing the Principality of Anhalt, § 144, 3.

Congregatio de auxiliis, § 149, 13.

1598. Edict of Nantes, § 139, 17.

1600. Giordano Bruno at the Stake, § 146, 3.

SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.

1604. Faustus Socinus dies, § 148, 4.

1605. Landgrave Maurice calvinizes Hesse Cassel, § 154, 1.

Gunpowder Plot, § 153, 6.

1606. The Treaty of Vienna, § 139, 10.

Interdict on the Republic of Venice, § 156, 2.

1608. Founding the Jesuit State of Paraguay, § 156, 10.

1609. The Royal Letter, § 139, 19.

1610-1643. Louis XIII. of France, § 153, 3.

1610. Remonstrants and Counter-Remonstrants, § 160, 2.

1611. Pères de l’Oratoire, § 156, 7.

1612-1619. Matthias, Emperor, § 153, 1.

1613. Elector John Sigismund of Brandenburg goes over to Reformed Church, § 154, 3.

George Calixtus in Helmstädt [Helmstadt], § 159, 2.

1614. Confessio Marchica, § 154, 3.

1616. Leonard Hutter dies, § 159, 4.

1618. Monks of St. Maur in France, § 156, 7.

1618-1648. The Thirty Years’ War, § 153, 2.

1618-1619. Synod of Dort, § 161, 2.

1619-1637. Ferdinand II., Emperor, § 153, 2.

1620. The Valteline Massacre, § 153, 3.

The Pilgrim Fathers, § 143, 2.

1621. John Arndt dies, § 160, 1.

1622. Francis de Sales dies, § 157, 1.

Congregatio de propaganda fide, § 156, 9.

1624. End of Controversy over κένωσις and κρύψις, § 159, 1.

Jac. Böhme dies, § 160, 2.

1628. Adam Schall in China, § 156, 12.

1629. Edict of Restitution, § 153, 2.

1631. Religious Conference at Leipzig, § 154, 4.

1632. Gustavus Adolphus falls at Lützen, § 153, 2.

1637. John Gerhard dies, § 159, 4.

Rooting out of Christianity in Japan, § 156, 11.

1638. Overthrow of Racovian Seminary, § 148, 4.

Cyril Lucar strangled, § 152, 2.

Scottish Covenant, § 155, 1.

1641. Irish Massacre, § 153, 5.

1642. Condemnation of the “Augustinus” of Jansen, § 157, 5.

1643-1715. Louis XIV. of France, § 153, 2; 157, 2, 3, 5.

1643. Orthodox Confession of Peter Mogilas, § 152, 3.

Opening of Westminster Assembly, § 155, 1.

1645. Hugo Grotius dies, § 153, 7.

Religious Conference at Thorn, § 153, 7.

Peace of Linz, § 153, 3.

1645-1742. Accommodation Controversy, § 156, 12.

1647. George Fox appears as Leader of the Quakers, § 163, 4.

1648. Peace of Westphalia, § 153, 2.

Close of Westminster Assembly, § 155, 1.

1649. Execution of Charles I. of England, § 155, 1.

1650. Descartes dies, § 164, 1.

1652. Liturgical Reform of the Patriarch Nikon, § 163, 10.

1653. Innocent X. condemns the Five Propositions of Jansen, § 157, 5.

Barebones’ Parliament, § 155, 2.

1654. Christina of Sweden becomes a Catholic, § 153, 1.

John Val. Andreä dies, § 160, 1.

1655. The Bloody Easter in Piedmont, § 153, 5.

Consensus repetitus fidei vere Lutheranæ, § 159, 2.

1656. George Calixtus dies, § 159, 2.

Pascal’s Lettres Provinciales, § 157, 5.

1658. Outbreak of Cocceian Controversies, § 161, 5.

1660. Vincent de Paul dies, § 156, 8.

Restoration of Royalty and Episcopacy in England, § 155, 3.

1661. Religious Conference at Cassel, § 154, 4.

1664. Founding of Order of Trappists, § 156, 8.

1669. Cocceius dies, § 161, 3.

1670. The Labadists in Herford, § 163, 7.

1673. The Test Act, § 153, 6.

1675. Formula consensus Helvetici, § 161, 2.

Spener’s Pia Desideria, § 159, 3.

1676. Paul Gerhardt dies, § 154, 4.

Voetius dies, § 161, 3.

1677. Spinoza dies, § 164, 1.

1682. Quatuor propositiones Cleri Gallicani, § 156, 1.

Founding of Pennsylvania, § 163, 4.

1685. Revocation of Edict of Nantes and Expulsion of Waldensians from Piedmont, § 153, 4, 5.

1686. Spener at Dresden and Collegia philobiblica in Leipzig, § 159, 3.

Abraham Calov dies, § 159, 4.

1687. Michael Molinos forced to Abjure, § 157, 2.

1689. English Act of Toleration, § 155, 3.

Return of banished Waldensians, § 153, 5.

1690. The Pietists Expelled from Leipzig, § 159, 3.

1691. Spener in Berlin, § 159, 3.

1694. Founding of University of Halle, § 159, 3.

1697. Frederick Augustus the Strong of Saxony becomes Catholic, § 153, 1.

1699. Propositions of Fénelon Condemned, § 157, 3.

EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.

1701. Thomas of Tournon in the East Indies, § 156, 12.

1702. Löscher’s “Unschuldige Nachrichten,” § 167, 1.

Buttlar Fanatical Excesses, § 170, 4.

1703. Collegium caritativum at Berlin, § 169, 1.

Peter Codde deposed, § 165, 8.

1704. Bossuet dies, § 153, 7; 157, 3.

1705. Spener dies, § 159, 3.

1706. Founding of Lutheran Mission at Tranquebar, § 167, 9.

1707. The Praying Children at Silesia, § 167, 8.

1709. Port Royal suppressed, § 157, 5.

1712. Richard Simon dies, § 158, 1.

Mechitarist Congregation, § 165, 2.

1713. The Constitution Unigenitus, § 165, 7.

1717-1774. Louis XV. of France, § 165, 5.

1715. Fénelon dies, § 157, 3.

1716. Leibnitz dies, § 164, 2.

1717. French Appellants, § 165, 7.

Madame Guyon dies, § 157, 3.

Gottfried Arnold dies, § 160, 2.

Inspired Communities in the Cevennes, § 170, 2.

1721. Holy Synod of St. Petersburg, § 166.

Hans Egede goes as Missionary to Greenland, § 167, 9.

1722. Founding of Herrnhut, § 168, 2.

1727. A. H. Francke dies, § 167, 8.

Thomas of Westen dies, § 160, 7.

Founding of the Society of United Brethren, § 168, 2.

1728. Callenberg’s Institute for Conversion of Jews, § 167, 9.

1729. Buddeus dies, § 168, 2.

Methodist Society formed, § 169, 4.

1731. Emigration of Evangelicals of Salzburg, § 165, 4.

1740-1786. Frederick II. of Prussia, § 171, 4.

1741. Moravian Special Covenant with the Lord Jesus, § 168, 4.

1750. Sebastian Bach dies, § 167, 7.

End of Jesuit State of Paraguay, § 165, 3.

1751. Semler, Professor in Halle, § 171, 6.

1752. Bengel dies, § 167, 4.

1754. Christ. v. Wolff dies, § 167, 3.

Winckelmann becomes a Roman Catholic, § 165, 6.

1755. Mosheim dies, § 167, 3.

1758-1769. Pope Clement XIII., § 165, 9.

1759. Banishment of Jesuits from Portugal, § 165, 9.

1760. Zinzendorf dies, § 168, 3.

1762. Judicial Murder of Jean Calas, § 165, 5.

1765. Universal German Library, § 171, 4.

1769-1774. Pope Clement XIV., § 165, 9.

1772. Swedenborg dies, § 170, 5.

1773. Suppression of Jesuit Order, § 165, 9.

1774. Wolfenbüttel Fragments, § 171, 6.

1775-1799. Pius VI., Pope, § 165, 9, 10.

1775. C. A. Crusius dies, § 167, 3.

1776. Founding of the Order of the Illuminati, § 165, 13.

1778. Voltaire and Rousseau die, § 165, 14.

1780-1790. Joseph II., sole ruler, § 165, 10.

1781. Joseph’s Edict of Toleration, § 165, 10.

1782. Pope Pius VI. in Vienna, § 165, 10.

1786. Congress at Ems and Synod at Pistoja, § 165, 10.

1787. Edict of Versailles, § 165, 4.

1788. The Religious Edict of Wöllner, § 171, 5.

1789. French Revolution, § 165, 15.

1791. Wesley dies, § 169, 5.

Semler dies, § 171, 6.

1793. Execution of Louis XVI. and his Queen. Abolition of Christian reckoning of time and of the Christian religion in France. Temple de la Raison, § 165, 15.

1794. Le peuple français reconnait l’Etre suprème et l’immortalité de l’âme, § 165, 15.

1795. Founding of London Missionary Society, § 172, 5.

1799. Schleiermacher’s “Reden über die Religion,” § 182, 1.

1800. Stolberg becomes a Roman Catholic, § 165, 6.

NINETEENTH CENTURY.

1800-1823. Pope Pius VII., § 185, 1.

1801. French Concordat, § 203, 1.

1803. Recess of Imperial Deputies, § 192, 1.

1804. Founding of British and Foreign Bible Society, § 183, 4.

Kant dies, § 171, 10.

1806. End of Catholic German Empire, § 192.

1809. Napoleon under Ban; the Pope Imprisoned, § 185, 1.

1810. Founding of American Missionary Society at Boston, § 184, 1.

Schleiermacher professor at Berlin, § 182, 1.

1811. French National Council, § 185, 1.

1814. Vienna Congress. Restoration of the Pope, § 185, 1.

Restoration of the Jesuits, § 186, 1.

1815. The Holy Alliance, § 173.

1816. Mission Seminary at Basel, § 184, 1.

1817. The Theses of Harms, § 176, 1.

Union Interpellation of Frederick William III., § 177, 1.

1822. Introduction of the Prussian Service Book, § 176, 1.

Lyons Association for Spreading the Faith, § 186, 7.

1823-1829. Pope Leo XII., § 185, 1.

1825. Book of Mormon, § 211, 12.

1827. Hengstenberg’s Evangel. Kirchenzeitung, § 176, 1.

1829. English Catholic Emancipation Bill, § 202, 9.

Founding of Barmen Missionary Institute, § 184, 1.

1829-1830. Pope Pius VIII., § 185, 1.

1830. July Revolution, § 203, 2.

Halle Controversy, § 176, 1.

Abbé Chatel in Paris, § 187, 6.

1831-1846. Gregory XVI., Pope, § 185, 1.

1831. Hegel dies, § 174, 1.

1833. Beginning of Puseyite Agitation, § 203, 2.

1834. Conflict at Hönigern, § 177, 2.

Schleiermacher dies, § 182, 1.

1835. Strauss’ first Life of Jesus, § 182, 6.

Condemnation of Hermesianism, § 193, 1.

Edward Irving dies, § 211, 10.

Persecution of Christians in Madagascar, § 184, 3.

1836. Founding of Dresden Missionary Institute, § 184, 1.

1837. Emigrants of Zillerthal, § 198, 1.

Beginning of Troubles at Cologne, § 193, 1.

1838. Archbishop Dunin of Posen, § 193, 1.

Rescript of Altenburg, § 194, 2.

J. A. Möhler dies, § 191, 4.

English Tithes’ Bill, § 202, 9.

1839. Call of Dr. Strauss to Zürich, § 199, 4.

Bavarian order to give Adoration, § 195, 2.

Synod at Polozk, § 206, 2.

1810-1861. Frederick William IV. of Prussia, § 193.

1841. Schelling at Berlin, § 174, 1.

Constitution of Lutherans separated from National Church of Prussia, § 177, 2.

Founding of Evangelical Bishopric of Jerusalem, § 184, 8.

Founding of Gustavus Adolphus Association, § 178, 1.

1843. Disruption and Founding of the Free Church of Scotland, § 202, 7.

1844. German-Catholic Church, § 187, 1.

Wislicenus’ “Ob Schrift, ob Geist?” § 176, 1.

1845. Founding Free Church of Vaud, § 199, 2.

1845-1846. Conversions in Livonia, § 206, 3.

1846-1878. Pope Pius IX., § 185, 2-4.

1846. Founding of Evangelical Alliance in London, § 178, 3.

Fruitless Prussian General Synod in Berlin, § 193, 3.

1847. Prussian Patent of Toleration, § 193, 3.

War of Swiss Sonderbund, § 199, 1.

1848. Revolution of February and March, § 192, 4.

Founding of Evangel. Kirchentag, § 178, 4.

Founding of Catholic “Pius Association,” § 186, 3.

Bishops’ Congress of Würzburg, § 192, 4.

1849. Roman Republic, § 185, 2.

First Congress for Home Missions, § 183.

1850. Institution of Berlin “Oberkirchenrat,” § 193, 4.

Return of Pope to Rome, § 185, 2.

English Ecclesiastical Titles Bill, § 202, 11.

1851. Memorial of Upper Rhine Bishops, § 196, 1.

Taeping Rebellion in China, § 211, 15.

1852. Conference at Eisenach, § 178, 2.

1852-1870. Napoleon III., Emperor of the French, § 203, 3, 5.

1853. The Kirchentag at Berlin acknowledges the Augustana, § 178, 4.

Missionary Institute at Hermannsburg, § 185, 1.

New Organization of the Catholic Hierarchy in Holland, § 200, 4.

1855. Sardinian Law about Monasteries, § 204, 1.

Austrian Concordat, § 198, 2.

1857. The Evangelical Alliance in Berlin, § 178, 3.

1858. Disturbances in Baden about Service Book, § 196, 3.

The Mother of God at Lourdes, § 188, 7.

1859. Franco-Austrian War in Italy, § 204, 2.

1860. Persecution of Syrian Christians, § 207, 2.

Abrogation of Baden Concordat, § 196, 2.

1861. The Austrian Patent, § 198, 3.

Introduction of a Constitutional Church Order into Baden, § 196, 3.

Radama II. in Madagascar, § 184, 3.

Schism among Separatist Lutherans in Prussia, § 177, 3.

1862. Hanoverian Catechism Scandal, § 194, 3.

Renan’s Life of Jesus, § 182, 8.

Württemberg Ecclesiastical Law, § 196, 6.

1863. Congress of Catholic Scholars at Munich, § 191, 10.

1864. Encyclical and Syllabus, § 185, 2.

Strauss’ and Schenkel’s Life of Jesus, § 182, 8, 17.

1865. The first Protestantentag at Eisenach, § 180, 1.

1866. Founding of the North German League.

1867. St. Peter’s Centenary Festival at Rome, § 185, 2.

1869. Irish Church Bill, § 202, 10.

Opening of Vatican Council, § 189, 2.

1870. Proclamation of Doctrine of Infallibility, July 18th, § 189, 3.

Revocation of the Austrian Concordat. § 198, 2.

Overthrow of the Church States, § 185, 3.

1871. Founding of the new German Empire, January 18th, § 197.

The first Old Catholic Congress at Munich, § 190, 1.

“The Kanzelparagraph,” § 197, 4.

First Lutheran National Synod in the kingdom of Saxony, § 194, 1.

1872. Dr. Falk, Prussian Minister of Worship, § 193, 5.

The Prussian School Inspection Law, § 199, 3.

The Roman Disputation, § 175, 3.

The German Jesuit Law, § 197, 4.

Epidemic of Manifestations of the Mother of God in Alsace-Lorraine, § 188, 6.

1873. The four Prussian Ecclesiastical Laws, § 197, 5.

Mermillod and Lachat Deposed from office, § 199, 2, 3.

Constitution of Old Catholic Church in German Empire, § 190, 1.

1874. The Austrian Ecclesiastical Laws, § 198, 6.

Union Conference at Bonn, § 175, 6.

1875. The Encyclical Quod numquam and the Embargo Act, § 197, 8.

Berlin Extraordinary General Synod, § 193, 5.

Pearsall Smith, § 211, 1.

1876. Marpinger Mother-of-God trick, § 188, 7.

The Dutch University Law, § 202, 2.

1878. Leo XIII. ascends the Papal chair, § 185, 5.

Organization of a Catholic Hierarchy in Scotland, § 202, 11.

Congress of Berlin, § 207, 5.

Amnesty to the recalcitrant Clergy of the Jura, § 199, 3.

First appearance of the Salvation Army, § 205, 2.

1879. The Belgian Liberal Education Act, § 200, 6.

1880. Abolition of the “Kulturexamen” in Baden, § 197, 14.

French Decree of March, § 203, 6.

1881. Robertson Smith’s Heresy Case, § 202, 8.

1882. The Confessional Lutheran Conflict with the Ritschlian School, § 182, 21.

1883. The Luther Jubilee, § 175, 10.

1884. The Belgian Clerical Education Act, § 200, 6.

Conclusion of the “Kulturkampf” in Switzerland, § 199, 2, 3.

1887. Prussian and Hessian Governments conclude Peace with Papal Curia, § 197, 13, 15.

Founding of Evangelical Bund, § 178, 5.