MODERN TIMES (continued 5)

p. 88: According to later sources, one third of the tributary gifts was used in the Imperial ancestor temples, one third in the Imperial mausolea, but one third was used as gifts to guests of the Emperor.—The trade aspect of the tributes was first pointed but by E. Parker, later by O. Lattimore, recently by J.K. Fairbank.—The importance of Chang Ch'ien for East-West contacts was systematically studied by B. Laufer; his Sino-Iranica, Chicago 1919 is still a classic.

p. 89: The most important trait which points to foreign trade, is the occurrence of glass in Chinese tombs in Indo-China and of glass in China proper from the fifth century B.C. on; it is assumed that this glass was imported from the Near East, possibly from Egypt (O. Janse, N. Egami, Seligman).

p. 91: Large parts of the "Discussions" have been translated by Esson M. Gale, Discourses on Salt and Iron, Leiden 1931; the continuation of this translation is in Jour. Royal As. Society, North-China Branch 1934.—The history of eunuchs in China remains to be written. They were known since at least the seventh century B.C. The hypothesis has been made that this custom had its origin in Asia Minor and spread from there (R.F. Spencer in Ciba Symposia, vol. 8, No. 7, 1946 with references).

p. 92: The main source on Wang Mang is translated by C.B. Sargent, Wang Mang, a translation, Shanghai 1950 and H.H. Dubs, History of the Former Han Dynasty, vol, 3, Baltimore 1955.

p. 93: This evaluation of the "Old character school" is not generally accepted. A quite different view is represented by Tjan Tjoe Som and R.P. Kramers and others who regard the differences between the schools as of a philological and not a political kind. I follow here most strongly the Chinese school as represented by Ku Chieh-kang and his friends, and my own studies.

p. 93: Falsification of texts refers to changes in the Tso-chuan. My interpretation relies again upon Ku Chieh-kang, and Japanese astronomical studies (Ijima Tadao), but others, too, admit falsifications (H.H. Dubs); B. Karlgren and others regard the book as in its main body genuine. The other text mentioned here is the Chou-li which is certainly not written by Wang Mang (Jung-chai Hsü-pi 16), but heavily mis-used by him (in general see S. Uno).

p. 94: I am influenced here by some of H.H. Dubs's studies. For this and the following period, the work by H. Bielenstein, The Restoration of the Han Dynasty, Stockholm 1953 and 1959 is the best monograph.—The "equalization offices" and their influence upon modern United States has been studied by B. Bodde in the Far Eastern Quarterly, vol. 5, 1946.

p. 95: H. Bielenstein regards a great flood as one of the main reasons for the breakdown of Wang Mang's rule.

p. 98: For the understanding of Chinese military colonies in Central Asia as well as for the understanding of military organization, civil administration and business, the studies of Lao Kan on texts excavated in Central Asia and Kansu are of greatest importance.

p. 101: Mazdaistic elements in this rebellion have been mentioned mainly by H.H. Dubs. Zoroastrism (Zoroaster born 569 B.C.) and Mazdaism were eminently "political" religions from their very beginning on. Most scholars admit the presence of Mazdaism in China only from 519 on (Ishida Mikinosuke, O. Franke). Dubs's theory can be strengthened by astronomical material.—The basic religious text of this group, the "Book of the Great Peace" has been studied by W. Eichhorn Maspero and Ho Ch'ang-ch'ün.

p. 102: For the "church" I rely mainly upon H. Maspero and W. Eichhorn.

p. 103: I use here concepts developed by Cheng Chen-to and especially by Jung Chao-tsu.

p. 104: Wang Ch'ung's importance has recently been mentioned again by J. Needham.

p. 105: These "court poets" have their direct parallel in Western Asia. This trend, however, did not become typical in China.—On the general history of paper read A. Kroeber, Anthropology, New York 1948, p. 490f., and Dard Hunter, Paper Making, New York 1947 (2nd ed.).

Chapter Seven

p. 109: The main historical sources for this period have been translated by Achilles Fang, The Chronicle of the Three Kingdoms, Cambridge, Mass. 1952; the epic which describes this time is C.H. Brewitt-Taylor, San Kuo, or Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Shanghai 1925.

p. 112: For problems of migration and settlement in the South, we relied in part upon research by Ch'en Yüan and Wang Yi-t'ung.

p. 114: For the history of the Hsiung-nu I am relying mainly upon my own studies.

p. 117: This analysis of tribal structure is based mainly upon my own research; it differs in detail from the studies by E. Bacon, Obok, a Study of Social Structure in Eurasia, New York 1958, B. Vladimirtsov, O. Lattimore's Inner Asian Frontiers of China, New York 1951 (2nd edit.) and the studies by L.M.J. Schram, The Monguors of the Kansu-Tibetan Frontier, Philadelphia 1954 and 1957.

p. 118: The use of the word "Huns" does not imply that we identify the early or the late Hsiung-nu with the European Huns. This question is still very much under discussion (O. Maenchen, W. Haussig, W. Henning, and others).

p. 119: For the history of the early Hsien-pi states see the monograph by G. Schreiber, "The History of the Former Yen Dynasty", in Monomenta Serica, vol. 14 and 15 (1949-56). For all translations from Chinese Dynastic Histories of the period between 220 and 960 the Catalogue of Translations from the Chinese Dynastic Histories for the Period 220-960, by Hans H. Frankel, Berkeley 1957, is a reliable guide.

p. 125: For the description of conditions in Turkestan, especially in Tunhuang, I rely upon my own studies, but studies by A. von Gabein, L. Ligeti, J.R. Ware, O. Franke and Tsukamoto Zenryû have been used, too.

p. 133: These songs have first been studied by Hu Shih, later by Chinese folklorists.

p. 134: For problems of Chinese Buddhism see Arthur F. Wright, Buddhism in Chinese History, Stanford 1959, with further bibliography. I have used for this and later periods, in addition to my own sociological studies, R. Michihata, J. Gernet, and Tamai Korehiro.—It is interesting that the rise of landowning temples in India occurred at exactly the same time (R.S. Sharma in Journ. Econ. and Soc. Hist. Orient, vol. 1, 1958, p. 316). Perhaps even more interesting, but still unstudied, is the existence of Buddhist temples in India which owned land and villages which were donated by contributions from China.—For the use of foreign monks in Chinese bureaucracies, I have used M. Weber's theory as an interpretative tool.

p. 135: The important deities of Khotan Buddhism are Vai['s]ramana and Kubera, (research by P. Demiéville, R. Stein and others).—Where, how, and why Hinayana and Mahayana developed as separate sects, is not yet studied. Also, a sociological analysis of the different Buddhist sects in China has not even been attempted yet.

p. 136: Such public religious disputations were known also in India.

p. 137: Analysis of the tribal names has been made by L. Bazin.

pp. 138-9: The personality type which was the ideal of the Toba corresponded closely to the type described by G. Geesemann, Heroische Lebensform, Berlin 1943.

p. 142: The Toba occur in contemporary Western sources as Tabar, Tabgaç, Tafkaç and similar names. The ethnic name also occurs as a title (O. Pritsak, P. Pelliot, W. Haussig and others).—On the chün-t'ien system cf. the article by Wan Kuo-ting in E-tu Zen Sun, Chinese Social History, Washington 1956, p. 157-184. I also used Yoshimi Matsumoto and T'ang Ch'ang-ju.—Census fragments from Tunhuang have been published by L. Giles, Niida Noboru and other Japanese scholars.

p. 143: On slaves for the earlier time see M. Wilbur, Slavery in China during the Former Han Dynasty, Chicago 1943. For our period Wang Yi-t'ung and especially Niida Noboru and Ch'ü T'ung-tsu. I used for this discussion Niida, Ch'ü and Tamai Korehiro.—For the pu-ch'ü I used in addition Yang Chung-i, H. Maspero, E. Balazs, W. Eichhorn. Yang's article is translated in E-tu Zen Sun's book, Chinese Social History, pp. 142-56.—The question of slaves and their importance in Chinese society has always been given much attention by Chinese Communist authors. I believe that a clear distinction between slaves and serfs is very important.

p. 145: The political use of Buddhism has been asserted for Japan as well as for Korea and Tibet (H. Hoffmann, Quellen zur Geschichte der tibetischen Bon-Religion, Mainz 1950, p. 220 f.). A case could be made for Burma. In China, Buddhism was later again used as a tool by rulers (see below).

p. 146: The first text in which such problems of state versus church are mentioned is Mou Tz[)u] (P. Pelliot transl.). More recently, some of the problems have been studied by R. Michihata and E. Zürcher. Michihata also studied the temple slaves. Temple families were slightly different. They have been studied mainly by R. Michihata, J. Gernet and Wang Yi-t'ung. The information on T'an-yao is mainly in Wei-shu 114 (transl. J. Ware).—The best work on Yün-kang is now Seiichi Mizuno and Toshio Nagahiro, Yün-kang. The Buddhist Cave-Temples of the Fifth Century A.D. in North China, Kyoto 1951-6, thus far 16 volumes. For Chinese Buddhist art, the work by Tokiwa Daijô and Sekino Tadashi, Chinese Buddhist Monuments, Tokyo 1926-38, 5 volumes, is most profusely illustrated.—As a general reader for the whole of Chinese art, Alexander Soper and L. Sickman's The Art and Architecture of China, Baltimore 1956 may be consulted.

p, 147: Zenryû Tsukamoto has analysed one such popular, revolutionary Buddhist text from the fifth century A.D. I rely here for the whole chapter mainly upon my own research.

p. 150: On the Ephtalites (or Hephtalites) see R. Ghirshman and Enoki.—The carpet ceremony has been studied by P. Boodberg, and in a comparative way by L. Olschki, The Myth of Felt, Berkeley 1949.

p. 151: For Yang Chien and his time see now A.F. Wright, "The Formation of Sui Ideology" in John K. Fairbank, Chinese Thought and Institutions, Chicago 1957, pp. 71-104.

p. 153: The processes described here, have not yet been thoroughly analysed. A preliminary review of literature is given by H. Wiens, China's March towards the Tropics, Hamden 1954. I used Ch'en Yüan, Wang Yi-t'ung and my own research.

p. 154: It is interesting to compare such hunting parks with the "paradeisos" (Paradise) of the Near East and with the "Garden of Eden".—Most of the data on gardens and manors have been brought together and studied by Japanese scholars, especially by Kat[=o] Shigeru, some also by Ho Tzû-ch'üan.—The disappearance of "village commons" in China should be compared with the same process in Europe; both processes, however, developed quite differently. The origin of manors and their importance for the social structure of the Far East (China as well as Japan) is the subject of many studies in Japan and in modern China. This problem is connected with the general problem of feudalism East and West. The manor (chuang: Japanese shô) in later periods has been studied by Y. Sudô. H. Maspero also devotes attention to this problem. Much more research remains to be done.

p. 158: This popular rebellion by Sun En has been studied by W. Eichhorn.

p. 163: On foreign music in China see L.C. Goodrich and Ch'ü T'ung-tsu, H.G. Farmer, S. Kishibe and others.—Niida Noboru pointed out that musicians belonged to one of the lower social classes, but had special privileges because of their close relations to the rulers.

p. 164: Meditative or Ch'an (Japanese: Zen) Buddhism in this period has been studied by Hu Shih, but further analysis is necessary.—The philosophical trends of this period have been analysed by E. Balazs.—Mention should also be made of the aesthetic-philosophical conversation which was fashionable in the third century, but in other form still occurred in our period, the so-called "pure talk" (ch'ing-t'an) (E. Balazs, H. Wilhelm and others).

Chapter Eight

p. 167: For genealogies and rules of giving names, I use my own research and the study by W. Bauer.

p. 168: For Emperor Wen Ti, I rely mainly upon A.F. Wright's above-mentioned article, but also upon O. Franke.

p. 169: The relevant texts concerning the T'u-chüeh are available in French (E. Chavannes) and recently also in German translation (Liu Mau-tsai, Die chinesischen Nachrichten zur Geschichte der Ost-T[vu]rken, Wiesbaden 1958, 2 vol.).—The Tölös are called T'e-lo in Chinese sources; the T'u-yü-hun are called Aza in Central Asian sources (P. Pelliot, A. Minorsky, F.W. Thomas, L. Hambis, et al.). The most important text concerning the T'u-yü-hun had been translated by Th. D. Caroll, Account of the T'u-yü-hun in the History of the Chin Dynasty, Berkeley 1953.

p. 171: The transcription of names on this and on the other maps could not be adjusted to the transcription of the text for technical reasons.

p. 172: It is possible that I have underestimated the role of Li Yüan. I relied here mainly upon O. Franke and upon W. Bingham's The Founding of the T'ang Dynasty, Baltimore 1941.

p. 173: The best comprehensive study of T'ang economy in a Western language is still E. Balazs's work. I relied, however, strongly upon Wan Kuo-ting, Yang Chung-i, Kat[=o] Shigeru, J. Gernet, T. Naba, Niida Noboru, Yoshimi Matsumoto.

pp. 173-4: For the description of the administration I used my own studies and the work of R. des Rotours; for the military organization I used Kikuchi Hideo. A real study of Chinese army organization and strategy does not yet exist. The best detailed study, but for the Han period, is written by H. Maspero.

p. 174: For the first occurrence of the title tu-tu we used W. Eichhorn; in the form tutuq the title occurs since 646 in Central Asia (J. Hamilton).

p. 177: The name T'u-fan seems to be a transcription of Tüpöt which, in turn, became our Tibet. (J. Hamilton).—The Uighurs are the Hui-ho or Hui-hu of Chinese sources.

p. 179: On relations with Central Asia and the West see Ho Chien-min and Hsiang Ta, whose classical studies on Ch'ang-an city life have recently been strongly criticized by Chinese scholars.—Some authors (J.K. Rideout) point to the growing influence of eunuchs in this period.—The sources paint the pictures of the Empress Wu in very dark colours. A more detailed study of this period seems to be necessary.

p. 180: The best study of "family privileges" (yin) in general is by E.A. Kracke, Civil Service in Early Sung China, Cambridge, Mass. 1953.

p. 180-1: The economic importance of organized Buddhism has been studied by many authors, especially J. Gernet, Yang Lien-sheng, Ch'üan Han-sheng, K. Tamai and R. Michihata.

p. 182: The best comprehensive study on T'ang prose in English is still E.D. Edwards, Chinese Prose Literature of the T'ang Period, London 1937-8, 2 vol. On Li T'ai-po and Po Chü-i we have well-written books by A. Waley, The Poetry and Career of Li Po, London 1951 and The Life and Times of Po Chü-i, London 1950.—On the "free poem" (tz[)u]), which technically is not a free poem, see A. Hoffmann and Hu Shih. For the early Chinese theatre, the classical study is still Wang Kuo-wei's analysis, but there is an almost unbelievable number of studies constantly written in China and Japan, especially on the later theatre and drama.

p. 184: Conditions at the court of Hsüan Tsung and the life of Yang Kui-fei have been studied by Howard Levy and others, An Lu-shan's importance mainly by E.G. Pulleyblank, The Background of the Rebellion of An Lu-shan, London 1955.

p. 187: The tax reform of Yang Yen has been studied by K. Hino; the most important figures in T'ang economic history are Liu Yen (studied by Chü Ch'ing-yüan) and Lu Chih (754-805; studied by E. Balazs and others).

pp. 187-8: The conditions at the time of this persecution are well described by E.O. Reischauer, Ennin's Travels in T'ang China, New York 1955, on the basis of his Ennin's Diary. The Record of a Pilgrimage to China, New York 1955. The persecution of Buddhism has been analysed in its economic character by Niida Noboru and other Japanese scholars.—Metal statues had to be delivered to the Salt and Iron Office in order to be converted into cash; iron statues were collected by local offices for the production of agricultural implements; figures in gold, silver or other rare materials were to be handed over to the Finance Office. Figures made of stone, clay or wood were not affected (Michihata).

p. 189: It seems important to note that popular movements are often not led by simple farmers of members of the lower classes. There are other salt merchants and persons of similar status known as leaders.

p. 190: For the Sha-t'o, I am relying upon my own research. Tatars are the Ta-tan of the Chinese sources. The term is here used in a narrow sense.

Chapter Nine

p. 195: Many Chinese and Japanese authors have a new period begin with the early (Ch'ien Mu) or the late tenth century (T'ao Hsi-sheng, Li Chien-nung), while others prefer a cut already in the Middle of the T'ang Dynasty (Teng Ch'u-min, Naito Torajiro). For many Marxists, the period which we called "Modern Times" is at best a sub-period within a larger period which really started with what we called "Medieval China".

p. 196: For the change in the composition of the gentry, I am using my own research.—For clan rules, clan foundations, etc., I used D.C. Twitchett, J. Fischer, Hu Hsien-chin, Ch'ü T'ung-tsu, Niida Noboru and T. Makino. The best analysis of the clan rules is by Wang Hui-chen in D.S. Nivison, Confucianism in Action, Stanford 1959, p. 63-96.—I do not regard such marriage systems as "survivals" of ancient systems which have been studied by M. Granet and systematically analysed by C. Lévy-Strauss in his Les structures élémentaires de la parenté, Paris 1949, pp. 381-443. In some cases, the reasons for the establishment of such rules can still be recognized.—A detailed study of despotism in China still has to be written. K.A. Wittfogel's Oriental Despotism, New Haven 1957 does not go into the necessary detailed work.

p. 197: The problem of social mobility is now under study, after preliminary research by K.A. Wittfogel, E. Kracke, myself and others. E. Kracke, Ho Ping-ti, R.M. Marsh and I are now working on this topic.—For the craftsmen and artisans, much material has recently been collected by Chinese scholars. I have used mainly Li Chien-nung and articles in Li-shih yen-chiu 1955, No. 3 and in Mem. Inst. Orient. Cult. 1956.—On the origin of guilds see Kat[=o] Shigeru; a general study of guilds and their function has not yet been made (preliminary work by P. Maybon, H.B. Morse, J. St. Burgess, K.A. Wittfogel and others). Comparisons with Near-Eastern guilds on the one hand and with Japanese guilds on the other, are quite interesting but parallels should not be over-estimated. The tong of U.S. Chinatowns (tang in Mandarin) are late and organizations of businessmen only (S. Yokoyama and Laai Yi-faai). They are not the same as the hui-kuan.

p. 198: For the merchants I used Ch'ü T'ung-tsu, Sung Hsi and Wada Kiyoshi.—For trade, I used extensively Ch'üan Han-sheng and J. Kuwabara.—On labour legislation in early modern times I used Ko Ch'ang-chi and especially Li Chien-nung, also my own studies.—On strikes I used Kat[=o] Shigeru and modern Chinese authors.—The problem of "vagrants" has been taken up by Li Chien-nung who always refers to the original sources and to modern Chinese research.—The growth of cities, perhaps the most striking event in this period, has been studied for the earlier part of our period by Kat[=o] Shigeru. Li Chien-nung also deals extensively with investments in industry and agriculture. The problem as to whether China would have developed into an industrial society without outside stimulus is much discussed by Marxist authors in China.

p. 199: On money policy see Yang Lien-sheng, Kat[=o] Shigeru and others.

p. 200: The history of one of the Southern Dynasties has been translated by Ed. H. Schafer, The Empire of Min, Tokyo 1954; Schafer's annotations provide much detail for the cultural and economic conditions of the coastal area.—For tea and its history, I use my own research; for tea trade a study by K. Kawakami and an article in the Frontier Studies, vol. 3, 1943.—Salt consumption according to H.T. Fei, Earthbound China, 1945, p. 163.

p. 201: For salt I used largely my own research. For porcelain production Li Chien-nung and other modern articles.—On paper, the classical study is Th. F. Carter, The Invention of Printing in China, New York 1925 (a revised edition now published by L.C. Goodrich).

p. 202: For paper money in the early period, see Yang Lien-sheng, Money and Credit in China, Cambridge, Mass., 1952. Although the origin of paper money seems to be well established, it is interesting to note that already in the third century A.D. money made of paper was produced and was burned during funeral ceremonies to serve as financial help for the dead. This money was, however, in the form of coins.—On iron money see Yang Lien-sheng; I also used an article in Tung-fang tsa-chih, vol. 35, No. 10.

p. 203: For the Kitan (Chines: Ch'i-tan) and their history see K.A. Wittfogel and Feng Chia-sheng, History of Chinese Society. Liao, Philadelphia 1949.

p. 204: For these dynasties, I rely upon my own research.—Niida Noboru and Kat[=o] Shigeru have studied adoption laws; our specific case has in addition been studied by M. Kurihara. This system of adoptions is non-Chinese and has its parallels among Turkish tribes (A. Kollantz, Abdulkadir Inan, Osman Turan).

p. 207: For the persecution I used K. Tamai and my own research.

p. 211: This is based mainly upon my own research.—The remark on tax income is from Ch'üan Han-sheng.

p. 212: Fan Chung-yen has been studied recently by J. Fischer and D. Twitchett, but these notes on price policies are based upon my own work.—I regard the statement, that it was the gentry which prevented the growth of an industrial society—a statement which has often been made before—as preliminary, and believe that further research, especially in the growth of cities and urban institutions may lead to quite different explanations.—On estate management I relied on Y. Sudô's work.

p. 213: Research on place names such as mentioned here, has not yet been systematically done.—On i-chuang I relied upon the work by T. Makino and D. Twitchett.—This process of tax-evasion has been used by K.A. Wittfogel (1938) to construct a theory of a crisis cycle in China. I do not think that such far-reaching conclusions are warranted.

p. 214: This "law" was developed on the basis of Chinese materials from different periods as well as on materials from other parts of Asia.—In the study of tenancy, cases should be studied in which wealthier farmers rent additional land which gets cultivated by farm labourers. Such cases are well known from recent periods, but have not yet been studied in earlier periods. At the same time, the problem of farm labourers should be investigated. Such people were common in the Sung time. Research along these lines could further clarify the importance of the so-called "guest families" (k'o-hu) which were alluded to in these pages. They constituted often one third of the total population in the Sung period. The problem of migration and mobility might also be clarified by studying the k'o-hu.

p. 215: For Wang An-shih, the most comprehensive work is still H. Williamson's Wang An-shih, London 1935, 3 vol., but this work in no way exhausts the problems. We have so much personal data on Wang that a psychological study could be attempted; and we have since Williamson's time much deeper insight into the reforms and theories of Wang. I used, in addition to Williamson, O. Franke, and my own research.

p. 216: Based mainly upon Ch'ü T'ung-tsu.—For the social legislation see Hsü I-t'ang; for economic problems I used Ch'üan Han-sheng, Ts'en Chung-mien and Liu Ming-shu.—Most of these relief measures had their precursors in the T'ang period.

p. 217: It is interesting to note that later Buddhism gave up its "social gospel" in China. Buddhist circles in Asian countries at the present time attempt to revive this attitude.

p. 218: For slaughtering I used A. Hulsewé; for greeting R. Michihata; on law Ch'ü T'ung-tsu; on philosophy I adapted ideas from Chan Wing-sit.

p. 219: A comprehensive study of Chu Hsi is a great desideratum. Thus far, we have in English mainly the essays by Feng Yu-lan (transl. and annotated by D. Bodde) in the Harvard Journal of Asiat. Stud., vol. 7, 1942. T. Makino emphasized Chu's influence upon the Far East, J. Needham his interest in science.

p. 220: For Su Tung-p'o as general introduction see Lin Yutang, The Gay Genius. The Life and Times of Su Tung-p'o, New York 1947.—For painting, I am using concepts of A. Soper here.

p. 222: For this period the standard work is K.A. Wittfogel and Feng Chia-sheng, History of Chinese Society, Liao, Philadelphia 1949.—Po-hai had been in tributary relations with the dynasties of North China before its defeat, and resumed these from 932 on; there were even relations with one of the South Chinese states; in the same way, Kao-li continuously played one state against the other (M. Rogers et al.).

p. 223: On the Kara-Kitai see Appendix to Wittfogel-Feng.

p. 228: For the Hakka, I relied mainly upon Lo Hsiang-lin; for Chia Ssu-tao upon H. Franke.

p. 229: The Juchên (Jurchen) are also called Nü-chih and Nü-chen, but Juchên seems to be correct (Studia Serica, vol. 3, No. 2).

Chapter Ten

p. 233: I use here mainly Meng Ssu-liang, but also others, such as Chü Ch'ing-yüan and Li Chien-nung.—The early political developments are described by H.D. Martin, The Rise of Chingis Khan and his Conquest of North China, Baltimore 1950.

p. 236: I am alluding here to such Taoist sects as the Cheng-i-chiao (Sun K'o-k'uan and especially the study in Kita Aziya gakuh[=o], vol. 2).

pp. 236-7: For taxation and all other economic questions I have relied upon Wan Kuo-ting and especially upon H. Franke. The first part of the main economic text is translated and annotated by H.F. Schurmann, Economic Structure of the Yüan Dynasty, Cambridge, Mass., 1956.

p. 237: On migrations see T. Makino and others.—For the system of communications during the Mongol time and the privileges of merchants, I used P. Olbricht.

p. 238: For the popular rebellions of this time, I used a study in the Bull. Acad. Sinica, vol. 10, 1948, but also Meng Ssu-liang and others.

p. 239: On the White Lotus Society (Pai-lien-hui) see note to previous page and an article by Hagiwara Jumpei.

p. 240: H. Serruys, The Mongols in China during the Hung-wu Period, Bruges 1959, has studied in this book and in an article the fate of isolated Mongol groups in China after the breakdown of the dynasty.

pp. 241-2: The travel report of Ch'ang-ch'un has been translated by A. Waley, The Travels of an Alchemist, London 1931.

p. 242: Hsi-hsiang-chi has been translated by S.I. Hsiung. The Romance of the Western Chamber, London 1935. All important analytic literature on drama and theatre is written by Chinese and Japanese authors, especially by Yoshikawa Kôjirô.—For Bon and early Lamaism, I used H. Hoffmann.

p. 243: Lamaism in Mongolia disappeared later, however, and was reintroduced in the reformed form (Tsong-kha-pa, 1358-1419) in the sixteenth century. See R.J. Miller, Monasteries and Culture Change in Inner Mongolia, Wiesbaden 1959.

p. 245: Much more research is necessary to clarify Japanese-Chinese relations in this period, especially to determine the size of trade. Good material is in the article by S. Iwao. Important is also S. Sakuma and an article in Li-shih yen-chiu 1955, No. 3. For the loss of coins, I relied upon D. Brown.

p. 246: The necessity of transports of grain and salt was one of the reasons for the emergence of the Hsin-an and Hui-chou merchants. The importance of these developments is only partially known (studies mainly by H. Fujii and in Li-shih-yen-chiu 1955, No. 3). Data are also in an unpublished thesis by Ch. Mac Sherry, The Impairment of the Ming Tributary System, and in an article by Wang Ch'ung-wu.

p. 247: The tax system of the Ming has been studied among others by Liang Fang-chung. Yoshiyuki Suto analysed the methods of tax evasion in the periods before the reform. For the land grants, I used Wan Kuo-ting's data.

p. 248: Based mainly upon my own research. On the progress of agriculture wrote Li Chien-nung and also Kat[=o] Shigeru and others.

p. 250: I believe that further research would discover that the "agrarian revolution" was a key factor in the economic and social development of China. It probably led to another change in dietary habits; it certainly led to a greater labour input per person, i.e. a higher number of full working days per year than before. It may be—but only further research can try to show this—that the "agrarian revolution" turned China away from technology and industry.—On cotton and its importance see the studies by M. Amano, and some preliminary remarks by P. Pelliot.

pp. 250-1: Detailed study of Central Chinese urban centres in this time is a great desideratum. My remarks here have to be taken as very preliminary. Notice the special character of the industries mentioned!—The porcelain centre of Ching-tê-chen was inhabited by workers and merchants (70-80 per cent of population); there were more than 200 private kilns.—On indented labour see Li Chien-nung, H. Iwami and Y. Yamane.

p. 253: On pien-wen I used R. Michihata, and for this general discussion R. Irvin, The Evolution of a Chinese Novel, Cambridge, Mass., 1953, and studies by J. Jaworski and J. Pru[vs]ek. Many texts of pien-wen and related styles have been found in Tunhuang and have been recently republished by Chinese scholars.

p. 254: Shui-hu-chuan has been translated by Pearl Buck, All Men are Brothers. Parts of Hsi-yu-chi have been translated by A. Waley, Monkey, London 1946. San-kuo yen-i is translated by C.H. Brewitt-Taylor, San Kuo, or Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Shanghai 1925 (a new edition just published). A purged translation of Chin-p'ing-mei is published by Fr. Kuhn Chin P'ing Mei, New York 1940.

p. 255: Even the "murder story" was already known in Ming time. An example is R.H. van Gulik, Dee Gong An. Three Murder Cases solved by Judge Dee, Tokyo 1949.

p. 256: For a special group of block-prints see R.H. van Gulik, Erotic Colour Prints of the Ming Dynasty, Tokyo 1951. This book is also an excellent introduction into Chinese psychology.

p. 257: Here I use work done by David Chan.

p. 258: I use here the research of J.J.L. Duyvendak; the reasons for the end of such enterprises, as given here, may not exhaust the problem. It may not be without relevance that Cheng came from a Muslim family. His father was a pilgrim (Bull. Chin. Studies, vol. 3, pp. 131-70). Further research is desirable.—Concerning folk-tales, I use my own research. The main Buddhist tales are the Jataka stories. They are still used by Burmese Buddhists in the same context.

p. 260: The Oirat (Uyrat, Ojrot, Ölöt) were a confederation of four tribal groups: Khosud, Dzungar, Dörbet and Turgut.

p. 261: I regard this analysis of Ming political history as unsatisfactory, but to my knowledge no large-scale analysis has been made.—For Wang Yang-ming I use mainly my own research.

p. 262: For the coastal salt-merchants I used Lo Hsiang-lin's work.

p. 263: On the rifles I used P. Pelliot. There is a large literature on the use of explosives and the invention of cannons, especially L.C. Goodrich and Feng Chia-sheng in Isis, vol. 36, 1946 and 39, 1948; also G. Sarton, Li Ch'iao-p'ing, J. Pru[vs]ek, J. Needham, and M. Ishida; a comparative, general study is by K. Huuri, Studia Orientalia vol. 9, 1941.—For the earliest contacts of Wang with Portuguese, I used Chang Wei-hua's monograph.—While there is no satisfactory, comprehensive study in English on Wang, for Lu Hsiang-shan the book by Huang Siu-ch'i, Lu Hsiang-shan, a Twelfth-century Chinese Idealist Philosopher, New Haven 1944, can be used.

p. 264: For Tao-yen, I used work done by David Chan.—Large parts of the Yung-lo ta-tien are now lost (Kuo Po-kung, Yüan T'ung-li studied this problem).

p. 265: Yen-ta's Mongol name is Altan Qan (died 1582), leader of the Tümet. He is also responsible for the re-introduction of Lamaism into Mongolia (1574).—For the border trade I used Hou Jen-chih; for the Shansi bankers Ch'en Ch'i-t'ien and P. Maybon. For the beginnings of the Manchu see Fr. Michael, The Origins of Manchu Rule in China, Baltimore 1942.

p. 266: M. Ricci's diary (Matthew Ricci, China in the Sixteenth Century. The Journals of M. Ricci, transl. by L.J. Gallagher, New York 1953) gives much insight into the life of Chinese officials in this period. Recently, J. Needham has tried to show that Ricci and his followers did not bring much which was not already known in China, but that they actually attempted to prevent the Chinese from learning about the Copernican theory.

p. 267: For Coxinga I used M. Eder's study.—The Szechwan rebellion was led by Chang Hsien-chung (1606-1647); I used work done by James B. Parsons. Cheng T'ien-t'ing, Sun Yueh and others have recently published the important documents concerning all late Ming peasant rebellions.—For the Tung-lin academy see Ch. O. Hucker in J.K. Fairbank, Chinese Thought and Institutions, Chicago 1957. A different interpretation is indicated by Shang Yüeh in Li-shih yen-chiu 1955, No. 3.

p. 268: Work on the "academies" (shu-yüan) in the earlier time is done by Ho Yu-shen.

pp. 273-4: Based upon my own, as yet unfinished research.

p. 274: The population of 1953 as given here, includes Chinese outside of mainland China. The population of mainland China was 582.6 millions. If the rate of increase of about 2 per cent per year has remained the same, the population of mainland China in 1960 may be close to 680 million. In general see P.T. Ho. Studies on the Population of China, 1368-1953, Cambridge, Mass., 1960.

p. 276: Based upon my own research.—A different view of the development of Chinese industry is found in Norman Jacobs, Modern Capitalism and Eastern Asia, Hong Kong 1958. Jacobs attempted a comparison of China with Japan and with Europe. Different again is Marion Levy and Shih Kuo-heng, The Rise of the Modern Chinese Business Class, New York 1949. Both books are influenced by the sociological theories of T. Parsons.

p. 277: The Dzungars (Dsunghar; Chun-ko-erh) are one of the four Ölöt (Oirat) groups. I am here using studies by E. Haenisch and W. Fuchs.

p. 278: Tibetan-Chinese relations have been studied by L. Petech, China and Tibet in the Early 18th Century, Leiden 1950. A collection of data is found in M.W. Fisher and L.E. Rose, England, India, Nepal, Tibet, China, 1765-1958, Berkeley 1959. For diplomatic relations and tributary systems of this period, I referred to J.K. Fairbank and Teng Ssu-yü.

p. 279: For Ku Yen-wu, I used the work by H. Wilhelm.—A man who deserves special mention in this period is the scholar Huang Tsung-hsi (1610-1695) as the first Chinese who discussed the possibility of a non-monarchic form of government in his treatise of 1662. For him see Lin Mou-sheng, Men and Ideas, New York 1942, and especially W.T. de Bary in J.K. Fairbank, Chinese Thought and Institutions, Chicago 1957.

pp. 280-1: On Liang see now J.R. Levenson, Liang Ch'i-ch'ao and the Mind of Modern China, London 1959.

p. 282: It should also be pointed out that the Yung-cheng emperor was personally more inclined towards Lamaism.—The Kalmuks are largely identical with the above-mentioned Ölöt.

p. 286: The existence of hong is known since 1686, see P'eng Tse-i and Wang Chu-an's recent studies. For details on foreign trade see H.B. Morse, The Chronicles of the East India Company Trading to China 1635-1834, Oxford 1926, 4 vols., and J.K. Fairbank, Trade and Diplomacy on the China Coast. The Opening of the Treaty Ports, 1842-1854, Cambridge, Mass., 1953, 2 vols.—For Lin I used G.W. Overdijkink's study.

p. 287: On customs read St. F. Wright, Hart and the Chinese Customs, Belfast 1950.

p. 288: For early industry see A. Feuerwerker, China's Early Industrialization: Sheng Hsuan-huai (1844-1916), Cambridge, Mass., 1958.

p. 289: The Chinese source materials for the Mohammedan revolts have recently been published, but an analysis of the importance of the revolts still remains to be done.—On T'ai-p'ing much has been published, especially in the last years in China, so that all documents are now available. I used among other studies, details brought out by Lo Hsiang-lin and Jen Yu-wen.

p. 291: For Tsêng Kuo-fan see W.J. Hail, Tsêng Kuo-fan and the T'ai-p'ing Rebellion, New Haven 1927, but new research on him is about to be published.—The Nien-fei had some connection with the White Lotus, and were known since 1814, see Chiang Siang-tseh, The Nien Rebellion, Seattle 1954.

p. 292: Little is known about Salars, Dungans and Yakub Beg's rebellion, mainly because relevant Turkish sources have not yet been studied. On Salars see L. Schram, The Monguors of Kansu, Philadelphia 1954, p. 23 and P. Pelliot; on Dungans see I. Grebe.

p. 293: On Tso Tsung-t'ang see G. Ch'en, Tso Tung T'ang, Pioneer Promotor of the Modern Dockyard and Woollen Mill in China, Peking 1938, and Yenching Journal of Soc. Studies, vol. I.

p. 294: For the T'ung-chih period, see now Mary C. Wright, The Last Stand of Chinese Conservativism. The T'ung-chih Restoration, 1862-1874, Stanford 1957.

p. 295: Ryukyu is Chinese: Liu-ch'iu; Okinawa is one of the islands of this group.—Formosa is Chinese: T'ai-wan (Taiwan). Korea is Chinese: Chao-hsien, Japanese: Chôsen.

p. 297: M.C. Wright has shown the advisers around the ruler before the Empress Dowager realized the severity of the situation.—Much research is under way to study the beginning of industrialization of Japan, and my opinions have changed greatly, due to the research done by Japanese scholars and such Western scholars as H. Rosovsky and Th. Smith. The eminent role of the lower aristocracy has been established. Similar research for China has not even seriously started. My remarks are entirely preliminary.

p. 298: For K'ang Yo-wei, I use work done by O. Franke and others. See M.E. Cameron, The Reform Movement in China, 1898-1921, Stanford 1921. The best bibliography for this period is J.K. Fairbank and Liu Kwang-ching, Modern China: A Bibliographical Guide to Chinese Works, 1898-1937, Cambridge, Mass., 1950. The political history of the time, as seen by a Chinese scholar, is found in Li Chien-nung, The Political History of China 1840-1928, Princeton 1956.—For the social history of this period see Chang Chung-li, The Chinese Gentry, Seattle 1955.—For the history of Tz[)u] Hsi Bland-Backhouse, China under the Empress Dowager, Peking 1939 (Third ed.) is antiquated, but still used. For some of K'ang Yo-wei's ideas, see now K'ang Yo-wei: Ta T'ung Shu. The One World Philosophy of K'ang Yu Wei, London 1957.

Chapter Eleven

p. 305: I rely here partly upon W. Franke's recent studies. For Sun Yat-sen (Sun I-hsien; also called Sun Chung-shan) see P. Linebarger, Sun Yat-sen and the Chinese Republic, Cambridge, Mass., 1925 and his later The Political Doctrines of Sun Yat-sen, Baltimore 1937.—Independently, Atatürk in Turkey developed a similar theory of the growth of democracy.

p. 306: On student activities see Kiang Wen-han, The Ideological Background of the Chinese Student Movement, New York 1948.

p. 307: On Hu Shih see his own The Chinese Renaissance, Chicago 1934 and J. de Francis, Nationalism and Language Reform in China, Princeton 1950.

p. 310: The declaration of Independence of Mongolia had its basis in the early treaty of the Mongols with the Manchus (1636): "In case the Tai Ch'ing Dynasty falls, you will exist according to previous basic laws" (R.J. Miller, Monasteries and Culture Change in Inner Mongolia, Wiesbaden 1959, p. 4).

p. 315: For the military activities see F.F. Liu, A Military History of Modern China, 1924-1949, Princeton 1956. A Marxist analysis of the 1927 events is Manabendra Nath Roy, Revolution and Counter-Revolution in China, Calcutta 1946; the relevant documents are translated in C. Brandt, B. Schwartz, J.K. Fairbank, A Documentary History of Chinese Communism, Cambridge, Mass., 1952.

Chapter Twelve

For Mao Tse-tung, see B. Schwartz, Chinese Communism and the Rise of Mao, second ed., Cambridge, Mass., 1958. For Mao's early years; see J.E. Rue, Mao Tse-tung in Opposition, 1927-1935, Stanford 1966. For the civil war, see L.M. Chassin, The Communist Conquest of China: A History of the Civil War, 1945-1949, Cambridge, Mass., 1965. For brief information on communist society, see Franz Schurmann and Orville Schell, The China Reader, vol. 3, Communist China, New York 1967. For problems of organization, see Franz Schurmann, Ideology and Organization in Communist China, Berkeley 1966. For cultural and political problems, see Ho Ping-ti, China in Crisis, vol. 1, China's Heritage and the Communist Political System, Chicago 1968. For a sympathetic view of rural life in communist China, see J. Myrdal, Report from a Chinese Village, New York 1966; for Taiwanese village life, see Bernard Gallin, Hsin Hsing, Taiwan: A Chinese Village in Change, Berkeley 1966.

INDEX

Abahai, ruler Abdication Aborigines Absolutism (see Despotism, Dictator, Emperor, Monarchy) Academia Sinica Academies Administration; provincial (see Army, Feudalism, Bureaucracy) Adobe (Mud bricks) Adoptions Afghanistan Africa Agriculture; development; Origin of; of Shang; shifting (denshiring) (see Wheat, Millet, Rice, Plough, Irrigation, Manure, Canals, Fallow) An Ti, ruler of Han Ainu, tribes Ala-shan mountain range Alchemy (see Elixir) Alexander the Great America (see United States) Amithabha, god Amur, river An Chi-yeh, rebel An Lu-shan, rebel Analphabetism Anarchists Ancestor, cult Aniko, sculptor Animal style Annam (Vietnam) Anyang (Yin-ch'ü) Arabia; Arabs Architecture Aristocracy (see Nobility, Feudalism) Army, cost of; organization of; size of; Tibetan (see War, Militia, tu-tu, pu-ch'ü) Art, Buddhist (see Animal style, Architecture, Pottery, Painting, Sculpture, Wood-cut) Arthashastra, book, attributed to Kautilya Artisans; Organizations of (see Guilds, Craftsmen) Assimilation (see Colonization) Astronomy Austroasiatics Austronesians Avars, tribe (see Juan-juan) Axes, prehistoric Axis, policy

Babylon Baghdad, city Balasagun, city Ballads Banks Banner organization Barbarians (Foreigners) Bastards Bath Beg, title Beggar Bengal Boat festival Bokhara (Bukhara), city Bon, religion Bondsmen (see pu-ch'ü, Serfs, Feudalism) Book, printing; B burning Böttger, inventor Boxer rebellion Boycott Brahmans, Indian caste Brain drain Bronze (see Metal, Copper) Brothel (Tea-house) Buddha; Buddhism (see Ch'an, Vinaya, Sects, Amithabha, Maitreya, Hinayana, Mahayana, Monasteries, Church, Pagoda, Monks, Lamaism) Budget (see Treasury, Inflation, Deflation) Bullfights Bureaucracy; religious B (see Administration; Army) Burgher (liang-min) Burma Businessmen (see Merchants, Trade) Byzantium

Calcutta, city Caliph (Khaliph) Cambodia Canals; Imperial C (see Irrigation) Cannons Canton (Kuang-chou), city Capital of Empire (see Ch'ang-an, Sian, Loyang, etc.) Capitalism (see Investments, Banks, Money, Economy, etc.) Capitulations (privileges of foreign nations) Caravans (see Silk road, Trade) Carpet Castes, (see Brahmans) Castiglione, G., painter Cattle, breeding Cavalry, (see Horse) Cave temples (see Lung-men, Yün-kang, Tunhuang) Censorate Censorship Census (see Population) Central Asia (see Turkestan, Sinkiang, Tarim, City States) Champa, State Ch'an (Zen), meditative Buddhism Chan-kuo Period (Contending States) Chancellor Ch'ang-an, capital of China (see Sian) Chang Ch'ien, ambassador Chang Chü-chan, teacher Chang Hsien-chung, rebel Chang Hsüeh-hang, war lord Chang Ling, popular leader Chang Ti, ruler Chang Tsai, philosopher Chang Tso-lin, war lord Chao, state; Earlier Chao; Later Chao Chao K'uang-yin (T'ai Tsu), ruler Chao Mêng-fu, painter Charters Chefoo Convention Ch'en, dynasty Ch'en Pa-hsien, ruler Ch'en Tu-hsiu, intellectual Ch'eng Hao, philosopher Cheng Ho, navy commander Ch'eng I, philosopher Cheng-i-chiao, religion Ch'eng Ti, ruler of Han; ruler of Chin Ch'eng Tsu, ruler of Manchu Ch'engtu, city Ch'i, state; short dynasty; Northern Ch'i Ch'i-fu, clan Chi-nan, city Ch'i-tan (see Kitan) Ch'i Wan-nien, leader Chia, clan Chia-ch'ing, period Chia Ss[)u]-tao, politician Ch'iang, tribes, (see Tanguts) Chiang Kai-shek, president Ch'ien-lung, period ch'ien-min (commoners), Chin, dynasty, (see Juchên); dynasty; Eastern Chin dynasty; Later Chin dynasty, Ch'in, state; Ch'in, dynasty; Earlier Ch'in dynasty; Later Ch'in dynasty; Western Ch'in dynasty Ch'in K'ui, politician Chinese, origin of Ching Fang, scholar Ching-tê (-chen), city ching-t'ien system Ching Tsung, Manchu ruler Ch'iu Ying, painter Chou, dynasty; short Chou dynasty; Later Chou dynasty; Northern Chou dynasty Chou En-lai, politician Chou-k'ou-tien, archaeological site Chou-kung (Duke of Chou) Chou-li, book Chou Tun-i, philosopher Christianity (see Nestorians, Jesuits, Missionaries) Chronology Ch'u, state Chu Ch'üan-chung, general and ruler Chu Hsi, philosopher Chu-ko Liang, general Chu Tê, general Chu Tsai-yü, scholar Chu Yüan-chang (T'ai Tsu), ruler chuang (see Manors, Estates) Chuang Tz[)u], philosopher Chün-ch'en, ruler Ch'un-ch'iu, book chün-t'ien system (land equalization system) chün-tz[)u] (gentleman) Chung-ch'ang T'ung, philosopher Chungking (Ch'ung-ch'ing), city Church, Buddhistic Taoistic (see Chang Ling) Cities spread and growth of cities origin of cities twin cities (see City states, Ch'ang-an, Sian, Loyang, Hankow, etc.) City States (of Central Asia) Clans Classes, social classes (see Castes, ch'ien-min, liang-min, Gentry, etc.) Climate, changes Cliques Cloisonné Cobalt Coins (see Money) Colonialism (see Imperialism) Colonization (see Migration, Assimilation) Colour prints Communes Communism (see Marxism, Socialism, Soviets) Concubines Confessions Confucian ritual Confucianism Confucian literature false Confucian literature Confucians (see Neo-Confucianism) Conquests (see War, Colonialism) Conservatism Constitution Contending States Co-operatives Copper (see Bronze, Metal) Corruption Corvée (forced labour) (see Labour) Cotton Courtesans (see Brothel) Coxinga, rebel Craftsmen (see Artisans) Credits Criminals Crop rotation

Dalai Lama, religious ruler of Tibet Dance Deflation Deities (see T'ien, Shang Ti, Maitreya, Amithabha, etc.) Delft, city Demands, the twenty-one Democracy Denshiring Despotism (see Absolutism) Dewey, J., educator Dialects (see Language) Dialecticians Dictators (see Despotism) Dictionaries Diploma, for monks Diplomacy Disarmament Discriminatory laws (see Double Standard) Dog Dorgon, prince Double standard, legal Drama Dress, changes Dungan, tribes Dynastic histories (see History) Dzungars, people

Eclipses Economy Money economy Natural economy (see Agriculture, Nomadism, Industry, Denshiring, Money, Trade, etc.) Education (see Schools, Universities, Academies, Script, Examination system, etc.) Elements, the five Elephants Élite (see Intellectuals, Students, Gentry) Elixir (see Alchemy) Emperor, position of Emperor and church (see Despotism, King, Absolutism, Monarchy, etc.) Empress (see Lü, Wu, Wei, Tz[)u] Hsi) Encyclopaedias England (see Great Britain) Ephtalites, tribe Epics Equalization Office (see chün-t'ien) Erotic literature Estates (chuang) Ethics (see Confucianism) Eunuchs Europe Europeans Examination system Examinations for Buddhists

Fables Factories Fallow system Falsifications (see Confucianism) Family structure Family ethics Family planning Fan Chung-yen, politician Fascism Federations, tribal Felt Fêng Kuo-chang, politician Fêng Meng-lung, writer Fêng Tao, politician Fêng Yü-hsiang, war lord Ferghana, city Fertility cults differential fertility Fertilizer Feudalism end of feudalism late feudalism new feudalism nomadic feudalism (see Serfs, Aristocracy, Fiefs, Bondsmen, etc.) Fiefs Finances (see Budget, Inflation, Money, Coins) Fire-arms (see Rifles, Cannons) Fishing Folk-tales Food habits Foreign relations (see Diplomacy, Treaty, Tribute, War) Forests Formosa (T'aiwan) France Frontier, concept of Frugality Fu Chien, ruler Fu-lan-chi (Franks) Fu-lin, Manchu ruler Fu-yü, country Fukien, province

Galdan, leader Gandhara, country Gardens Geisha (see Courtesans) Genealogy Genghiz Khan, ruler Gentry (Upper class) colonial gentry definition of gentry gentry state southern gentry Germany Gök Turks Governors, role of Grain (see Millet, Rice, Wheat) Granaries Great Britain (see England) Great Leap Forward Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution Great Wall Greeks Guilds

Hakka, ethnic group Hami, city state Han, dynasty Later Han dynasty Han Fei Tz[)u], philosopher Han T'o-wei, politician Han Yü, philosopher Hankow (Han-k'ou), city Hangchow (Hang-chou), city Heaven (see Shang Ti, T'ien) Hermits (see Monks, Sages) Hinayana, religion Historians Histories, dynastic falsification of histories Historiography Hitler, Adolf, dictator Hittites, ethnic group Ho Ch'êng-t'ien, scholar Ho-lien P'o-p'o, ruler Ho Ti, Han ruler hong, association Hong Kong, colony Hopei, province Horse horse chariot horse riding horse trade Hospitals Hou Ching, ruler Houses (see Adobe) Hsi-hsia, kingdom Hsi-k'ang, Tibet Hsia, dynasty Hunnic Hsia dynasty (see Hsi-hsia) Hsia-hou, clan Hsia Kui, painter Hsiao Tao-ch'eng, general Hsiao Wu Ti, Chin ruler Hsieh, clan Hsieh Hsüan, general Hsien-feng, period Hsien-pi, tribal federation Hsien Ti, Han ruler Hsien-yün, tribes Hsin, dynasty Hsin-an merchants Hsin Ch'ing-nien, journal Hsiung-nu, tribal federation (see Huns) Hsü Shih-ch'ang, president Hsüan-tê, period Hsüan-tsang, Buddhist Hsüan Tsung, T'ang ruler Manchu ruler Hsüan-t'ung, period Hsün Tz[)u], philosopher Hu, name of tribes (see Huns) Hu Han-min, politician Hu Shih, scholar and politician Hu Wei-yung, politician Huai-nan Tz[)u], philosopher Huai, Ti, Chin ruler Huan Hsüan, general Huan Wen, general Huang Ch'ao, leader of rebellion Huang Ti, ruler Huang Tsung-hsi, philosopher Hui-chou merchants hui-kuan, association Hui Ti, Chin ruler Manchu ruler Hui Tsung, Sung ruler Hui Tz[)u], philosopher Human sacrifice Hung Hsiu-ch'üan, leader of rebellion Huns (see Hu, Hsiung-nu) Hunting Hutuktu, religious ruler Hydraulic society

i-chuang, clan manors Ili, river Imperialism (see Colonialism) India (see Brahmans, Bengal, Gandhara, Calcutta, Buddhism) Indo-China (see Cambodia, Annam, Laos). Indo-Europeans, language group (see Yüeh-chih, Tocharians, Hittites) Indonesia, (see Java) Industries Industrialization Industrial society (see Factories) Inflation Inheritance, laws of Intellectuals (see Élite, Students) Investments Iran (Persia) Iron Cast iron Iron money (see Steel) Irrigation Islam (see Muslims) Istanbul (Constantinople) Italy Japan (see Meiji, Tada, Tanaka) Java Jedzgerd, ruler, Jehol, province, Jen Tsung, Manchu ruler Jesuits Jews Ju (scribes) Juchên (Chin Dynasty, Jurchen) Juan-juan, tribal federation Jurchen (see Juchên)

K'ai-feng, city (see Yeh, Pien-liang) Kalmuk, Mongol tribes (see Ölöt) K'ang-hsi, period K'ang Yo-wei, politician and scholar Kansu, province (see Tunhuang) Kao-ch'ang, city state Kao, clan Kao-li, state (see Korea) Kao Ming, writer Kao Tsu, Han ruler Kao Tsung, T'ang ruler Kao Yang, ruler Kapok, textile fibre Kara Kitai, tribal federation Kashgar, city Kazak, tribal federation Khalif (see Caliph) Khamba, Tibetans Khan, Central Asian title Khocho, city Khotan, city King, position of first kings religious character of kingship (see Yao, Shun, Hsia dynasty, Emperor, Wang, Prince) Kitan (Ch'i-tan), tribal federation (see Liao dynasty) Ko-shu Han, general Korea (see Kao-li, Pai-chi, Sin-lo) K'ou Ch'ien-chih, Taoist Kowloon, city Ku Yen-wu, geographer Kuan Han-ch'ing, writer Kuang-hsü, period Kuang-wu Ti, Han ruler Kub(i)lai Khan, Mongol ruler Kung-sun Lung, philosopher K'ung Tz[)u] (Confucius) Kuomintang (KMT), party Kuo Wei, ruler Kuo Tz[)u]-hsing, rebel leader Kuo Tz[)u]-i, loyal general Kyakhta (Kiachta), city

Labour, forced (see Corvée) Labour laws Labour shortage Lacquer Lamaism, religion Land ownership (see Property) Land reform (see chün-t'ien, ching-t'ien) Landlords temples as landlords Language dialects Language reform Lang Shih-ning, painter La Tz[)u], philosopher Laos, country Law codes (see Li K'ui, Property law, Inheritance, Legalists) Leadership League of Nations Leibniz, philosopher Legalists (fa-chia) Legitimacy of rule (see Abdication) Lenin, V. Lhasa, city Li An-shih, economist Li Chung-yen, governor Li Hung-chang, politician Li K'o-yung, ruler Li Kuang-li, general Li K'ui, law-maker Li Li-san, politician Li Lin-fu, politician Li Lung-mien, painter Li Shih-min (see T'ai Tsung), T'ang ruler Li Ss[)u], politician Li Ta-chao, librarian Li T'ai-po, poet Li Tz[)u]-ch'eng, rebel Li Yu, writer Li Yu-chên, writer Li Yüan, ruler Li Yüan-hung, politician Liang dynasty, Earlier Later Liang Northern Liang Southern Liang Western Liang Liang Ch'i-ch'ao, journalist liang-min (burghers) Liao, tribes, Liao dynasty (see Kitan) Western Liao dynasty Liao-chai chih-i, short-story collection Libraries Lin-chin, city Lin-ch'uan, city Lin Shu, translator Lin Tsê-hsü, politician Literati, (see Scholars, Confucianists) Literature (see pien-wen, pi-chi, Poetry, Drama, Novels, Epics, Theatre, ballads, Folk-tales, Fables, History, Confucians, Writers, Scholars, Scribes) Literary revolution Liu Chi, Han ruler Liu Chin-yüan, ruler Liu Chin, eunuch Liu Hsiu (see Kuang wu Ti), Han ruler Liu Lao-chih, general liu-min (vagrants) Liu Pang (see Liu Chi) Liu Pei, general and ruler Liu Shao-ch'i, political leader Liu Sung, rebel Liu Tsung-yüan, writer Liu Ts'ung, ruler Liu Yao, ruler Liu Yü, general emperor Liu Yüan, sculptor emperor Lo Kuan-chung, writer Loans, to farmers foreign Loess, soil formation Logic Long March Lorcha War Loyang (Lo-yang), capital of China Lu, state Lü, empress Lu Hsiang-shan, philosopher Lu Hsün, writer Lü Kuang, ruler Lü Pu, general Lü Pu-wei, politician Lun, prince Lun-heng, book Lung-men, place Lung-shan, excavation site Lytton Commission Ma Yin, ruler Ma Yüan, general painter Machiavellism Macao, Portuguese colony Mahayana, Buddhist sect Maitreya, Buddhist deity (see Messianic movements) Malacca, state Malaria Managers Manchu, tribal federation and dynasty Manchuria Manichaeism, Iranian religion Manors (chuang, see Estates) Mao Tun, Hsiung-nu ruler Mao Tse-tung, party leader Marco Polo, businessman Market Market control Marriage systems Marxism Marxist theory of history (see Materialism, Communism, Lenin, Mao Tse-tung) Materialism Mathematics Matrilinear societies Mazdaism, Iranian religion May Fourth Movement Medicine Medical doctors Meditation (see Ch'an) Megalithic culture Meiji, Japanese ruler Melanesia Mencius (Meng Tz[)u]), philosopher Merchants foreign merchants (see Trade, Salt, Caravans, Businessmen) Messianic movements Metal (see Bronze, Copper, Iron) Mi Fei, painter Middle Class (see Burgher, Merchant, Craftsmen, Artisans) Middle East (see Near East) Migrations forced migrations (see Colonization, Assimilation, Settlement) Militarism Militia Millet Mills Min, state in Fukien Ming dynasty Ming Jui, general Min Ti, Chin ruler Ming Ti, Han ruler Wei ruler Later T'ang ruler Minorate Missionaries, Christian (see Jesuits) Mo Ti, philosopher Modernization Mohammedan rebellions (see Muslim) Mon-Khmer tribes Monarchy (see King, Emperor, Absolutism, Despotism) Monasteries, Buddhist economic importance Money Money economy Origin of money paper money (see Coins, Paper, Silver) Mongolia Mongols, tribes, tribal federation, dynasty (see Yüan dynasty, Kalmuk, Tümet, Oirat, Ölöt, Naiman, Turgut, Timur, Genghiz, Kublai) Monks, Buddhist Monopolies Mound-dwellers Mu-jung, tribes Mu Ti, East Chin ruler Mu Tsung, Manchu ruler Mulberries Munda tribes Music (see Theatre, Dance, Geisha) Muslims Muslim rebellions (see Islam, Mohammedans) Mysticism

Naiman, Mongol tribe Nan-chao, state Nanyang, city Nanking (Nan-ching), capital of China Nanking regime Nationalism (see Kuomintang) Nature Nature philosophers Navy Near East (see Arabs, Iran, etc.) Neo-Confucianism Neolithicum Nepal Nerchinsk, place Nestorian Christianity Ni Tsan, painter Nien Fei, rebels Niu Seng-yu, politician Nobility Nomadic nobility (see Aristocracy) Nomadism Economy of nomads Nomadic society structure Novels

Oil Oirat, Mongol tribes Okinawa (see Ryukyu) Ölöt, Mongol tribes Opera Opium Opium War Oracle bones Ordos, area Orenburg, city Organizations (see hui-kuan Guilds, hong, Secret Societies) Orphanages Ottoman (Turkish) Empire Ou-yang Hsiu, writer Outer Mongolia

Pagoda Pai-chi (Paikche), state in Korea Pai-lien-hui (see White Lotus) Painting Palaeolithicum Pan Ch'ao, general pao-chia, security system Paper Paper money (see Money) Parliament Party (see Kuomintang, Communists) Pearl Harbour Peasant rebellions (see Rebellions) Peking, city Peking Man Pensions People's Democracy Persecution, religious Persia (Iran) Persian language Peruz, ruler Philippines, state Philosophy, (see Confucius, Lao Tz[)u], Chuang Tz[)u], Huai-nan Tz[)u], Hsün Tz[)u], Mencius, Hui Tz[)u], Mo Ti, Kung-sun Lung, Shang Tz[)u], Han Fei Tz[)u], Tsou Yen, Legalists, Chung-ch'ang, T'ung, Yüan Chi, Liu Ling, Chu Hsi, Ch'eng Hao, Lu Hsiang-shan, Wang Yang-ming, etc.) pi-chi, literary form pieh-yeh (see Manor) Pien-liang, city (see K'ai-feng) pien-wen, literary form Pig Pilgrims P'ing-ch'êng, city Pirates Plantation economy Plough Po Chü-i, poet Po-hai, state Poetry Court Poetry Northern Poetry Poets (see T'ao Ch'ien, Po Chü-i, Li T'ai-po, Tu Fu, etc.) Politicians, migratory Pontic migration Population changes Population decrease (see Census, Fertility) Porcelain Port Arthur, city Portsmouth, treaty Portuguese (see Fu-lan-chi, Macao) Potter Pottery black pottery (see Porcelain) Price controls Priests (see Shamans, Ju, Monks) Primogeniture Princes Printing (see Colour, Book) Privileges of gentry Proletariat (see Labour) Propaganda Property relations (see Laws, Inheritance, Primogeniture) Protectorate Provinces, administration pu-ch'ü, bondsmen P'u-ku Huai-en, general P'u Sung-lin, writer P'u Yi, Manchu ruler Puppet plays

Railways Manchurian Railway Rebellions (see Peasants, Secret Societies, Revolutions) Red Eyebrows, peasant movement Red Guards Reforms; Reform of language (see Land reform) Regents Religion popular religion (see Bon, Shintoism, Persecution, Sacrifice, Ancestor cult, Fertility cults, Deities, Temples, Monasteries, Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, Mazdaism, Manichaeism, Messianic religions, Secret societies, Soul, Shamanism, State religion) Republic Revolutions; legitimization of revolution (see Rebellions) Ricci, Matteo, missionary Rice Rifles Ritualism Roads Roman Empire Roosevelt, F.D., president Russia (see Soviet Republics) Ryukyu (Liu-ch'iu), islands

Sacrifices Sages Sakhalin (Karafuto), island Salar, ethnic group Salary Salt Salt merchants Salt trade Samarkand, city San-min chu-i, book Sang Hung-yang, economist Sassanids, Iranian dynasty Scholars (Ju) (see Literati, Scribes, Intellectuals, Confucianists) Schools, (see Education) Science, (see Mathematics, Astronomy, Nature) Scribes Script, Chinese Sculpture Buddhist sculptures sê-mu (auxiliary troops) Seal, imperial Secret societies (see Red Eyebrows; Yellow Turbans; White Lotus; Boxer; Rebellions) Sects Buddhist sects Seng-ko-lin-ch'in, general Serfs (see Slaves, Servants, Bondsmen) Servants Settlement, of foreigners military (see Colonization) Sha-t'o, tribal federation Shadow theatre Shahruk, ruler Shamans Shamanism Shan tribes of South East Asia Shan-hai-ching, book Shan-yü, title of nomadic ruler Shang dynasty Shang Ti, deity Shang Tz[)u], philosopher (Shang Yang) Shanghai, city Shao Yung, philosopher Sheep Shen Nung, mythical figure Shen Tsung, Sung ruler Manchu ruler Sheng Tsu, Manchu ruler Shih-chi, book Shih Ching-t'ang, ruler Shih Ch'ung, writer Shih Hêng, soldier Shih Hu, ruler Shih Huang-ti, ruler Shih Lo, ruler Shih-pi, ruler Shih Ss[)u]-ming Shih Tsung, Manchu ruler Shih-wei, Mongol tribes Shintoism, Japanese religion Ships (see Navy) Short stories Shoulder axes Shu (Szechwan), area and/or state Shu-Han dynasty Shun, dynasty mythical ruler Shun-chih, reign period Sian (Hsi-an, Ch'ang-an), city Siao Ho (Hsiao Ho), jurist Silk Silk road Silver Sin-lo (Hsin-lo, Silla), state of Korea Sinanthropos Sinkiang (Hsin-Chiang, Turkestan) Slash and burn agriculture (denshiring) Slaves Slave society Temple slaves Social mobility Social structure of tribes Socialism (see Marxism, Communism) Sogdiana, country in Central Asia Soul, concept of soul South-East Asia (see Burma, Champa, Cambodia, Annam, Laos, Vietnam, Tonking, Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand, Mon-Khmer) Soviet Republics (see Russia) Speculations, financial Ss[)u]-ma, clan Ss[)u]-ma Ch'ien, historian Ss[)u]-ma Kuang, historian Ss[)u]-ma Yen, ruler Standardization States, territorial and national State religion Statistics (see Population) Steel Steppe Stone age Stratification, social (see Classes, Social mobility) Strikes Students Su Chün, rebel Su Tsung, T'ang ruler Su Tung-p'o, poet su-wang (uncrowned king) Sui, dynasty Sun Ts'ê, ruler Sun Yat-sen (Sun I-hsien), revolutionary leader, president Sung, dynasty Liu-Sung dynasty Szechwan (Ss[)u]-ch'uan), province (see Shu)

Ta-tan (Tatars), tribal federation Tada, Japanese militarist Tai, tribes (see Thailand) Tai Chen, philosopher Tai Ch'ing dynasty (Manchu) T'ai P'ing, state T'ai Tsu, Sung ruler Manchu ruler T'ai Tsung, T'ang ruler (see Li Shih-min) Taiwan (T'ai-wan, see Formosa) T'an-yao, priest Tanaka, Japanese militarist T'ang, dynasty Later T'ang dynasty T'ang Hsien-tsu, writer T'ang Yin, painter Tanguts, Tibetan tribal federation and/or state (see Ch'iang) Tao, philosophical term Tao-kuang, reign period Tao-tê-ching, book T'ao-t'ieh, mythical emblem Tao-yen, monk Taoism, religion Taoists (see Lao Tz[)u], Chuang Tz[)u], Chang Ling, etc.) Tarim basin Tatars (Ta-tan) Mongolian tribal federation Taxation Tax collectors Tax evasion Tax exemptions Taxes for monks Tax reform Tê Tsung, Manchu ruler Tea Tea trade Tea house (see Brothel) Teachers (see Schools) Technology Tell, archaeological term Temples (see Monasteries) Tengri khan, ruler Textile industry (see Silk, Cotton) Thailand, state (see Tai tribes) Theatre (see Shadow, Puppet, Opera) Throne, accession to (see Abdication, Legitimacy) Ti, Tibetan tribes Tibet (see Ch'iang, Ti, T'u-fan, T'u-yü-hun, Lhasa Tanguts) T'ien, deity Tientsin (T'ien-chin), city Timur, ruler Tin Ting-ling, tribal federation T'o-pa (see Toba) T'o-t'o, writer Toba, Turkish tribal federation Tocharians, Central Asian ethnic group Tokto (see T'o-t'o) Tölös, Turkish tribal group Tombs Tonking, state Tortoise Totalitarianism (see Dictatorship, Fascism, Communism) Tou Ku, general T'ou-man, ruler Towns (see City) Trade barter trade international trade (see Merchants, Commerce, Caravans, Silk road) Translations Transportation (see Roads, Canals, Ships, Post, Caravans, Horses) Travels of emperors Treasury Treaty, international Tribal organization (see Banner, Army, Nomads) Tribes, disappearance of social organization military organization Tribute (kung) tsa-hu, social class Tsai T'ien, prince Ts'ai Yüan-p'ei, scholar Ts'ao Chih, poet Ts'ao Hsüeh-ch'in, writer Ts'ao K'un, politician Ts'ao P'ei, ruler Ts'ao Ts'ao, general Tsewang Rabdan, general Tsêng Kuo-fan, general Tso Tsung-t'ang, general Tsou Yen, philosopher Ts'ui, clan T'u-chüeh, Gök Turk tribes (see Turks) Tu Fu, poet T'u-fan, Tibetan tribal group Tu-ku, Turkish tribe T'u-shu chi-ch'eng, encyclopaedia tu-tu, title T'u-yü-hun, Tibetan tribal federation Tuan Ch'i-jui, president Tümet, Mongol tribal group Tung Ch'i-ch'ang, painter T'ung-chien kang-mu, historical encyclopaedia T'ung-chih, reign period Tung Chung-shu, thinker Tung Fu-hsiang, politician Tung-lin academy Tungus tribes (see Juchên, Po-hai, Manchu) Tunhuang (Tun-huang), city Turfan, city state Turgut, Mongol tribal federation Turkestan (see Central Asia, Tarim, Turfan, Sinkiang, Ferghana, Samarkand, Khotcho, Tocharians, Yüeh-chih, Sogdians, etc.) Turkey Turks (see Gök Turks, T'u-chüeh, Toba, Tölös, Ting-ling, Uighur, Sha-t'o, etc.) Tz[)u] Hsi, empress

Uighurs, Turkish federation United States (see America) Ungern-Sternberg, general Urbanization (see City) Urga, city University Usury

Vagrants (liu-min) Vietnam (see Annam) Village Village commons Vinaya Buddhism Voltaire, writer

Walls Great Wall Wan-li, reign period Wang (king) Wang An-shih, statesman Wang Chen, eunuch Wang Ching-wei, collaborator Wang Ch'ung, philosopher Wang Hsien-chih, peasant leader Wang Kung, general Wang Mang, ruler Wang Shih-chen, writer Wang Shih-fu, writer Wang Tao-k'un, writer Wang Tun, rebel Wang Yang-ming, general and philosopher War size of wars War-chariot cost of wars War lords Warrior-nomads (see Army, World War, Opium War, Lorcha War, Fire-arms) Washington, conference Wei, dynasty small state empress Wei Chung-hsien, eunuch Wei T'o, ruler in South China Welfare state Well-field system (ching-t'ien), Wen Ti, Han ruler Wei ruler Toba ruler Sui ruler Wen Tsung, Manchu ruler Whampoa, military academy Wheat White Lotus sect (Pai-lien) Wholesalers Wine Wood-cut (see Colour print) Wool (see Felt) World Wars Women rights Writing, invention (see Script) Wu, empress state Wuch'ang, city (see Hankow) Wu Ching-tz[)u], writer Wu-huan, tribal federation Wu P'ei-fu, war lord Wu San-kui, general Wu Shih-fan, ruler Wu-sun, tribal group Wu Tai (Five Dynasties period) Wu Tao-tz[)u], painter Wu (Ti), Han ruler Chin ruler Liang ruler Wu Tsung, Manchu ruler Wu Wang, Chou ruler wu-wei, philosophical term

Yakub beg, ruler Yamato, part of Japan Yang, clan Yang Chien, ruler (see Wen Ti) Yang (Kui-fei), concubine Yang-shao, archaeological site Yang Ti, Sui ruler Yao, mythical ruler tribes in South China Yarkand, city in Turkestan Yeh (K'ai-feng), city Yeh-ta (see Ephtalites) Yehe-Nara, tribe Yellow Turbans, secret society Yeh-lü Ch'u-ts'ai, politician Yen, state dynasty Earlier Yen dynasty Later Yen dynasty Western Yen dynasty Yen-an, city Yen Fu, translator Yen Hsi-shan, war lord Yen-ta (Altan), ruler Yen-t'ieh-lun (Discourses on Salt and Iron), book Yin Chung-k'an, general Yin-ch'ü, city Yin and Yang, philosophical terms Ying Tsung, Manchu ruler Yo Fei, general Yü Liang, general Yü-wen, tribal group Yüan Chen Yüan Chi, philosopher Yüan Mei, writer Yüan Shao, general Yüan Shih-k'ai, general and president Yüan Ti, Han ruler Chin ruler Yüeh, tribal group and area Yüeh-chih, Indo-European-speaking ethnic group Yün-kang, caves Yünnan (Yün-nan), province Yung-cheng, reign period Yung-lo, reign period

Zen Buddhism (see Ch'an) Zoroaster, founder of religion