CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION 1

THE EARLIEST TIMES

Chapter I: PREHISTORY 1 Sources for the earliest history 7 2 The Peking Man 8 3 The Palaeolithic Age 8 4 The Neolithic Age 9 5 The eight principal prehistoric cultures 10 6 The Yang-shao culture 12 7 The Lung-shan culture 15 8 The first petty States in Shansi 16

Chapter II: THE SHANG DYNASTY (c. 1600-1028 B.C.) 1 Period, origin, material culture 19 2 Writing and Religion 22 3 Transition to feudalism 24

ANTIQUITY

Chapter III: THE CHOU DYNASTY (c. 1028-257 B.C.) 1 Cultural origin of the Chou and end of the Shang dynasty 29 2 Feudalism in the new empire 30 3 Fusion of Chou and Shang 32 4 Limitation of the imperial power 36 5 Changes in the relative strength of the feudal states 38 6 Confucius 40 7 Lao Tzŭ 45

Chapter IV: THE CONTENDING STATES (481-256 B.C.): DISSOLUTION OF THE FEUDAL SYSTEM 1 Social and military changes 51 2 Economic changes 53 3 Cultural changes 57

Chapter V: THE CHIN DYNASTY (256-207 B.C.) 1 Towards the unitary State 62 2 Centralization in every field 64 3 Frontier Defence. Internal collapse 67

THE MIDDLE AGES

Chapter VI: THE HAN DYNASTY (206 B.C.-A.D. 220) 1 Development of the gentry-state 71 2 Situation of the Hsiung-nu empire; its relation to the Han empire. Incorporation of South China 75 3 Brief feudal reaction. Consolidation of the gentry 77 4 Turkestan policy. End of the Hsiung-nu empire 86 5 Impoverishment. Cliques. End of the Dynasty 90 6 The pseudo-socialistic dictatorship. Revolt of the "Red Eyebrows" 93 7 Reaction and Restoration: the Later Han dynasty 96 8 Hsiung-nu policy 97 9 Economic situation. Rebellion of the "Yellow Turbans". Collapse of the Han dynasty 99 10 Literature and Art 103

Chapter VII: THE EPOCH OF THE FIRST DIVISION OF CHINA (A.D. 220-580)

(A) The three kingdoms (A.D. 220-265) 1 Social, intellectual, and economic problems during the period of the first division 107 2 Status of the two southern Kingdoms 109 3 The northern State of Wei 113

(B) The Western Chin dynasty (265-317) 1 Internal situation in the Chin empire 115 2 Effect on the frontier peoples 116 3 Struggles for the throne 119 4 Migration of Chinese 120 5 Victory of the Huns. The Hun Han dynasty (later renamed the Earlier Chao dynasty) 121

(C) The alien empires in North China, down to the Toba (A.D. 317-385) 1 The Later Chao dynasty in eastern North China (Hun; 329-352) 123 2 Earlier Yen dynasty in the north-east (proto-Mongol; 352-370), and the Earlier Ch'in dynasty in all north China (Tibetan; 351-394) 126 3 The fragmentation of north China 128 4 Sociological analysis of the two great alien empires 131 5 Sociological analysis of the petty States 132 6 Spread of Buddhism 133

(D) The Toba empire in North China (A.D. 385-550) 1 The rise of the Toba State 136 2 The Hun kingdom of the Hsia (407-431) 139 3 Rise of the Toba to a great power 139 4 Economic and social conditions 142 5 Victory and retreat of Buddhism 145

(E) Succession States of the Toba (A.D. 550-580): Northern Ch'i dynasty, Northern Chou dynasty 1 Reasons for the splitting of the Toba empire 148 2 Appearance of the (Gök) Turks 149 3 The Northern Ch'i dynasty; the Northern Chou dynasty 150

(F) The southern empires 1 Economic and social situation in the south 152 2 Struggles between cliques under the Eastern Chin dynasty (A.D. 317-419) 155 3 The Liu-Sung dynasty (A.D. 420-478) and the Southern Ch'i dynasty (A.D. 479-501) 159 4 The Liang dynasty (A.D. 502-556) 161 5 The Ch'en dynasty (A.D. 557-588) and its ending by the Sui 162 6 Cultural achievements of the south 163

Chapter VIII: THE EMPIRES OF THE SUI AND THE T'ANG

(A) The Sui dynasty (A.D. 580-618) 1 Internal situation in the newly unified empire 166 2 Relations with Turks and with Korea 169 3 Reasons for collapse 170

(B) The Tang dynasty (A.D. 618-906) 1 Reforms and decentralization 172 2 Turkish policy 176 3 Conquest of Turkestan and Korea. Summit of power 177 4 The reign of the empress Wu: Buddhism and capitalism 179 5 Second blossoming of T'ang culture 182 6 Revolt of a military governor 184 7 The role of the Uighurs. Confiscation of the capital of the monasteries 186 8 First successful peasant revolt. Collapse of the empire 189

MODERN TIMES

Chapter IX: THE EPOCH OF THE SECOND DIVISION OF CHINA

(A) The period of the Five Dynasties (906-960) 1 Beginning of a new epoch 195 2 Political situation in the tenth century 199 3 Monopolistic trade in South China. Printing and paper money in the north 200 4 Political history of the Five Dynasties 202

(B) Period of Moderate Absolutism

(1) The Northern Sung dynasty 1 Southward expansion 208 2 Administration and army. Inflation 210 3 Reforms and Welfare schemes 215 4 Cultural situation (philosophy, religion, literature, painting) 217 5 Military collapse 221

(2) The Liao (Kitan) dynasty in the north (937-1125) 1 Sociological structure. Claim to the Chinese imperial throne 222 2 The State of the Kara-Kitai 223

(3) The Hsi-Hsia State in the north (1038-1227) 1 Continuation of Turkish traditions 224

(4) The empire of the Southern Sung dynasty (1127-1279) 1 Foundation 225 2 Internal situation 226 3 Cultural situation; reasons for the collapse 227

(5) The empire of the Juchên in the north (1115-1234) 1 Rapid expansion from northern Korea to the Yangtze 229 2 United front of all Chinese 229 3 Start of the Mongol empire 230

Chapter X: THE PERIOD OF ABSOLUTISM

(A) The Mongol Epoch (1280-1368) 1 Beginning of new foreign rules 232 2 "Nationality legislation" 233 3 Military position 234 4 Social situation 235 5 Popular risings: National rising 238 6 Cultural 241

(B) The Ming Epoch (1368-1644) 1 Start. National feeling 243 2 Wars against Mongols and Japanese 244 3 Social legislation within the existing order 246 4 Colonization and agricultural developments 248 5 Commercial and industrial developments 250 6 Growth of the small gentry 252 7 Literature, art, crafts 253 8 Politics at court 256 9 Navy. Southward expansion 258 10 Struggles between cliques 259 11 Risings 262 12 Machiavellism 263 13 Foreign relations in the sixteenth century 264 14 External and internal perils 266

(C) The Manchu Dynasty (1644-1911) 1 Installation of the Manchus 270 2 Decline in the eighteenth century 272 3 Expansion in Central Asia; the first State treaty 277 4 Culture 279 5 Relations with the outer world 282 6 Decline; revolts 284 7 European Imperialism in the Far East 285 8 Risings in Turkestan and within China: the T'ai P'ing Rebellion 288 9 Collision with Japan; further Capitulations 294 10 Russia in Manchuria 296 11 Reform and reaction: The Boxer Rising 296 12 End of the dynasty 299

Chapter XI: THE REPUBLIC (1912-1948) 1 Social and intellectual position 303 2 First period of the Republic: The warlords 309 3 Second period of the Republic: Nationalist China 314 4 The Sino-Japanese war (1937-1945) 317

Chapter XII: PRESENT-DAY CHINA 1 The growth of communism 320 2 Nationalist China in Taiwan 323 3 Communist China 327

Notes and References 335

Index 355