Chapter IV · —THE NOUN

§ 1. The Formation of Nouns.

Nouns are either primitive or derived. Primitive nouns have no special terminations to distinguish them from other words. Derived nouns, chiefly abstract, are formed from adjectives, verbs, or other nouns. There are also verbal nouns which have the form of the infinitive of verbs.

1. Nouns are derived from adjectives and occasionally from nouns and verbs, by adding der or ter. Thus:—

dader, goodness, from da, good.

gwîrder, truth, from gwîr, true.

gwander, weakness, from gwan or gwadn, weak.

golowder, brightness, from golow, light.

tekter, beauty, from teg, beautiful.

whekter, sweetness, from wheg, sweet.

îthekter, horror, from îthek, horrible.

melder, sweetness (to taste), from mel, honey.

yender, coldness, from yên or yein, cold.

splander, brightness, splendour, from splan, bright.

tewlder, darkness, from tewal, dark.

tewder, thickness, from tew, thick.

tanowder, thinness, from tanow, thin.

powsder, heaviness, from pows, heavy.

scavder, lightness (of weight), from scav, light.

medhalder, softness, from medhal, soft.

glanithder, cleanness, from glanith, clean.

mǒgilder, warmth, from mǒgil, warm.

tǒmder, heat, from tǒm (or tǔbm), hot.

downder, depth, from down, deep.

sehter (or zehar), drought, from segh, dry.

ewhelder, height, from ewhel, high.

crevder, strength, from crev, strong.

Some adjectives ending in s revert to an original t in this formation. Thus:—

calletter, hardness, from cales, hard.

goscotter, shelter, from goskes, sheltering.

ponvotter, trouble, from ponvos, trouble.

It will be seen that this der or ter answers to the English termination ness, and may be added to almost any adjective to form the corresponding abstract noun.

2. Abstract nouns are derived from other nouns or adjectives by the addition of eth or neth.

gwiryoneth, truth, from gwiryon, truthful.

cosoleth, rest, peace, from cǒsel, quiet.

skîantoleth, wisdom, from skîantol, wise.

folneth, folly, from fol, a fool.

materneth, royalty, from matern, a king.

gokeneth, stupidity, from goky, a fool.

mescogneth, [76] madness, from mescok, a madman.

gowegneth, falsehood, from gowek, a liar.

roweth, bounty, from ro, a gift.

This termination answers more or less to the Latin itas or English ity.

3. Abstract nouns are derived from verbs by the addition of ans. Thus:—

crejyans, belief, from cresy (or crejy), to believe.

givyans, forgiveness, from gava, to forgive.

deskyans, learning, from desky, to learn.

disqwedhyans, discovery, from disqwedhas, to discover.

gordhyans (gorryans), glory, from gordhya (gorrya), to worship.

bownans, life, from bewa, to live.

marnans, death, from marwel or merwel, to die.

selwans, salvation, from selwel, to save.

tristyans, sadness, from trist, sad.

tibyans, thought, from tibya, to think.

This termination answers to the Latin antia or entia, and the English ance or ence. It is generally added to the root of the verb.

4. Nouns signifying agents or doers are derived from other nouns, adjectives, and verbs by the addition of or, er, ar, or yas (earlier iad or iat).

tŷor, a tiler, from tŷ, to cover.

pestrior, a wizard, from pestry, magic.

pescajor, a fisherman, from pescas, plur. of pesk, fish.

cosǒlyer, a counsellor, from cǒsǒl, counsel.

revader or revajor, a rower, from rev, an oar.

trǒccyer, a fuller.

lyuyar, a dyer, from, lyu, colour.

gwîadar, a weaver, from gwîa, to weave.

bǒnkyer, a cooper, from bǒnk, a blow.

ǒmdowlar, a wrestler, from ǒmdowla, to wrestle.

gǒnnador or gonajor, a sower, from gǒnas, to sow or plant.

mijar, a reaper, from mijy, to reap.

stênor, a tinner, from stên, tin.

selwyas, a saviour, from selwel, to save.

gwithyas (also gwithyor), a guardian, from gwithya, to keep.

kernyas, a trumpeter, from corn, a horn.

rennyas, a carver, from ranna, to divide.

sewyas, a tailor, from sewy, to sew.

pǔrkenyas, an enchanter, from the intensive prefix pur (lit. very) and cana, to sing.

helhyas, a pursuer, from helhya, to hunt.

scrivinyas, a writer, from scrîfa, to write.

offeryas, a priest, from offeren, mass.

hǒmbrǒnkyas, a leader, from hǒmbrǒnkya, to lead.

Many words in yas occur only in the Cottonian Vocabulary, and appear there as ending in iad or iat, but since all the Cottonian words in iad and iat which do appear in later MSS. are made in the latter to end in yas (or ias), and since it may be taken as an invariable rule that all words ending in t or d in Welsh or Breton, if they occur at all in Cornish, end in s, any Cottonian word in iat or iad may fairly be taken for purposes of modern Cornish to end in yas.

§ 2. The Gender of Nouns.

Nouns are of two genders, masculine and feminine. There is no neuter.

There is no rule whereby to tell the gender of a word, except in the case of animate objects, where the gender simply follows the sex.

There are only three grammatical cases in which gender matters at all.

1. When a noun or an adjective preceding a noun is preceded by the article an, the. If the noun or adjective is masculine singular or the noun feminine, or the adjective of either, plural, its initial remains in the first state. If the noun or adjective is feminine singular or the noun is masculine plural, [78] it is changed to the second state.

When a qualifying adjective follows a noun in the masculine or in the plural of either gender, the initial of the adjective remains in the first state. If the noun is feminine singular, the initial of the adjective changes to the second state.

3. The pronoun of the third person singular, used for a feminine noun, even when it signifies an inanimate object, is hŷ, she, not ev, he. Examples:—

tâs, a father; an tâs, the father.

tassow, fathers; an dassow, the fathers.

mergh, a daughter; an vergh, the daughter.

merhes, daughters; an merhes, the daughters.

tâs mas, a good father; mergh vas, a good daughter; an vergh vas, the good daughter.

tassow mas, good fathers; merhes mas, good daughters.

It will be evident, considering that a large number of nouns and adjectives do not begin with mutable letters, that the question of gender only applies to a limited number of nouns and adjectives, and therefore presents but little difficulty. Perhaps the best way to learn the genders of nouns with mutable initials is to get accustomed to their sound with the article prefixed.

The feminine equivalents of certain masculine nouns denoting animate objects are represented, as in other languages, in one of two ways, by the addition of a syllable or by different words.

1. By the addition of es. This is the regular form.

arledh, lord; arledhes, lady.

pestrior, a wizard; pestriores, a witch.

coweth, a companion, masc.; cowethes, a companion, fem.

mow, a boy; mowes, a girl.

sans, a saint; sanses, a female saint.

eneval, an animal, masc.; enevales, an animal, fem.

pehador or pehajor, a sinner, masc.; pehadores, a sinner, fem.

Except in the case of the other class of feminines, of which a list is given below, it may be taken as a general rule that the corresponding feminine of any noun denoting a masculine animate object is formed in this way.

2. By a different word. These are mostly those which denote relationships and familiar animals, and there are in some cases, as in English, further words to denote the young of both sexes, or the neuter.

dên, man; benen, woman; flogh, child.

gour, husband; gwrêg, wife.

mab, son; mergh, daughter.

ewiter, uncle; modreb, aunt.

tâs, father; mam, mother.

sîra, father; dama, mother.

sîra widn, [80] grandfather; dama widn, grandmother.

altrou, godfather; altrewan, godmother.

broder, brother; hoer, sister.

noy, nephew; noys, niece.

tarow, bull; bewgh, cow; ǒjion, ox; lewgh, calf; lǒdn, bullock; lejek, heifer.

hordh or hûr, ram; davas, sheep; mowls, wether; ôn, lamb.

margh, horse; caseg, mare; ebal, colt.

bŏk, he-goat; gavar, goat; min, kid.

baedh, boar; banew, sow; porhal, little pig; gwîs, old sow; ragomogh, hog; mohen, pig (plur. mogh); torgh, hog.

kŷ, dog; gêst, bitch.

gourgath, tom-cat; cath, cat.

carow, stag; ewik, hind; lewgh-ewik, fawn.

kǒtyorgh, roe buck; yorgh, roe doe.

keliok, cock; yar, hen; mabyer, chicken.

keliokwôdh, gander; gôdh, goose.

keliokôs, drake; hôs, duck.

§ 3. The Cases of Nouns.

All cases except the genitive and accusative are formed by prepositions, as in English. Of these prepositions some govern one state of the initial and some another, as will be seen in the chapter on prepositions, but when the article an, the, comes between the preposition and the noun, the initial is not changed by the preposition, but only, if at all (in the case of a feminine singular or masculine plural), by the article.

The genitive, by which must here be understood (in its old-fashioned sense) all those conditions under which a noun would in English be preceded by of, or followed by ’s, is formed in four ways, each of which has a different meaning.

1. The genitive of possession is the appositional genitive. This is formed by placing the noun that is in the genitive immediately after the noun which it qualifies, or, if the former has the definite article, or is qualified by a possessive pronoun or prefixed adjective, with only these intervening. No change of initial is made, [81] except the usual change of feminine singular or masculine plural nouns after an, or the changes caused by possessive pronouns, etc. The first of the two nouns must have no article. Thus:—

chŷ dên, the house of a man, or a man’s house.

chŷ an dên, the house of the man, or the man’s house.

chŷ benen, the house of a woman.

chŷ an venen, the house of the woman.

But not an chŷ an dên or an chŷ an venen.

If there is a succession of genitives, only the last noun can have an article. Thus:—

darras chŷ gour an venen, the door of the house of the husband of the woman.

2. The inflected genitive. This, which only exists, and that doubtfully, in the case of a few words, is formed by the modification of the root vowel. It is one of the common genitives of the Gaelic dialects, and as such is important, for it is not recognised in Welsh or Breton. Lhuyd gives five instances of it—margh, a horse, gen. mergh; mergh, a daughter, gen. myrgh; pen, a head, gen. pyn (used only in the quasi-preposition erbyn, against); whêl, work, gen. wheyl; crês, midst, gen. creys, but even these were very seldom used, and only probably in a few expressions. It would seem that the initial of the genitive word should in this case be in the second state. Thus:—

rên vergh, a horse’s mane.

3. The genitive of attribution, quality, origin, or quantity, denoted in English by the preposition of, but not expressible also by the possessive in ’s, though in many cases an adjective might be substituted for it, is expressed in Cornish by the preposition a, which puts the initial in the second state. Thus:—

a. Quality. Arledh a ’ras, Lord of grace; an Matern a wordhyans, the King of glory.

b. Origin. an Tâs an Nêv, the Father of Heaven (cf. Pater de cælis Deus, translated in the English Prayer-book, “O God, the Father of Heaven”); dên a Gernow, a man of Cornwall.

c. Quantity. Words denoting number, quantity, etc., generally adjectives or numerals, may be followed by this form of genitive. Thus:—

lên a ’ras, full of grace.

lower a ŷs, plenty of corn.

milyow a bensow, thousands of pounds.

4. The genitive of material is rather the use of a noun as an adjective. It differs from the appositional genitive in that the first noun may have the article before it, and the second does not, and that if the first noun be feminine singular, the initial of the second noun is in the second state. Thus:—

tolyer predn, a platter of wood.

tre bredn, a town of wood.

The accusative or objective is usually the same as the nominative, but it is to be remembered that there are a certain number of verbs which in English are followed directly by an accusative, but in Cornish require the intervention of a preposition.

The vocative is preceded by a, which signifies O, or by a personal pronoun. The initial after a and sometimes after the pronoun changes to the second state. Thus:—

mab, son; a vab, O son.

benen, woman; a venen, O woman; ti venen, thou woman.

why princis (Res. Dom., iii. 124), ye princes.

§ 4. The Plural of Nouns.

There are seven ways of forming the plural of nouns.

1. In ow or yow (pronounced o or yo). This is the commonest form, and would naturally be used for most new words. It answers to the Welsh au or iau, and the Breton ou or iou.

alwedh, a key, alwedhow.

dorn, a hand, dornow.

arv, a weapon, arvow.

bedh, a grave, bedhow.

ro, a gift, roow.

scovorn, an ear, scouornow.

dêdh, a day, dêdhyow.

Dew, God, dewow.

enev, soul, enevow.

cledh, ditch, cledhyow.

gwredh, root, gwredhyow.

menedh, mountain, menedhyow.

trev, tre, town, trevow.

tîr, land, tiryow,

Some which follow this form have peculiarities of their own.

a. Some double the last consonant, which has the effect of shortening the sound of the preceding vowel, and if the last consonant is an s, giving it the sound of s instead of z. Thus:—

Tâs, father, tassow.

fôs, wall, fossow.

lêr, floor, lerryow.

gêr, word, gerryow.

garget, garter, gargettow.

b. Some, which end in er or ar, drop the last vowel. Thus:—

levar, book, levrow.

dagar, tear, dagrow.

kenter, nail, kentrow.

c. Some insert g or k after a final l.

cŏsŏl, counsel, cŏsŏlgow.

tewal, dark, tewlgow or tewalgow.

del, leaves (collectively), delkyow (simple plural).

d. Some modify the root vowel. Thus:—

mâl, a joint, melyow.

2. In yon or on. This is also very common.

Cristiŏn, a Christian, Cristiŏnyon.

sgwer, esquire, sgwerryon.

caradow, friend, caradowyon.

scŏlŏr, scholar, scŏlŏryon.

deskibl, disciple, deskiblyon.

Breth, Briton, Brethon.

Sows, Englishman, Sowson.

prev, worm, prevyon.

When a word ends in k, and has this form of the plural (as most words ending in k have) the last letter becomes g.

bohajak, poor, bohajagyon.

marrek, knight, marregyon.

gowek, liar, gowegyon.

Some modify the root vowel.

clav, sick, clevyon.

mab, son, mebyon.

gwas, serving-man, gwesyon.

Yethow, Jew, Yethewon.

Kernow, Cornishman, Kernewon.

kîf, dear, kefyon.

gwîr, true, gweryon.

Those ending in er and ar, after a mute, contract the last syllable of the root.

lader, thief, laddron.

This termination is the only one used for the plural of adjectives. These are rarely inflected when in agreement with a plural noun, but when used as nouns they make their plural in this way. A large number of adjectives and also some nouns end in ek or ak. It is also the regular plural of words ending in or denoting an agent.

3. In y. This termination is more common in Cornish than in Welsh or Breton, though it is not uncommon in those languages also. It is often written i in the MSS.

esel, limb, esely.

mowes, girl, mowesy.

Gwidhel, Irishman, Gwidhely.

castell, castle, castelly.

legast, lobster, legesty (with a change of vowel).

porhel, pig, porhelly.

bîgel, shepherd, bîgely.

profes, prophet, profesy or profejy.

servis, servant, servisy or servijy.

gwithes, guardian, gwithesy. arledh, lord, arledhy.

trahes, cutter, trahesy (e.g. trahesy meyn, stone cutters).

This plural is mostly used for words ending in l and s, though not exclusively, and it occurs occasionally with other words. When a word ends in s preceded by a thin vowel, that letter is sometimes written j in the plural.

4. In es or edh. This is the equivalent of the Welsh edd, ydd, or oedd, and the Breton ed, though it is not necessarily used for the same words. Sometimes the vowel is modified. Thus:—

mergh, daughter, merhes. [86]

benen, woman, benenes.

flogh, child, flehes.

côl, coal, côles.

rôm, room, rômes.

laha, law, lahes.

best, beast, bestes.

silly, eel, sillyes.

abostol, apostle, abesteledh.

broder, brother; brederedh, brethren.

el, angel, eledh.

gwrêg, wife, gwrêgedh.

A variant of this, written by Lhuyd az, yz, or oz, the vowel being obscure, is best represented in this spelling by as. It perhaps answers to the Welsh od, and iaid.

canker, crab, kencras.

pesk, fish, pescas.

bes, finger, besyas.

bat, staff, battas.

fow, den, fowas.

cap, cap, cappas.

5. By the modification of the vowel.

trôs, foot, treys.

mên, stone, meyn.

broder, brother; breder, brothers.

davas, sheep, deves, but also devejyow.

margh, horse, mergh.

tol, hole, tel.

ascorn, bone, escarn.

sans, saint, sêns, but also sansow.

dans, tooth, dêns.

yar, hen, yer.

mab, son, mêb, but also mebyon.

manek, glove, menik.

gavar, goat, gever.

6. By dropping the syllable en or an from the singular; or rather in this case the singular is formed from a plural, usually more or less collective, by adding the individualising suffix an or en. The words to which this applies are mostly such as are more commonly used in the plural, and the en becomes, as Norris calls it, “an individualising particle.” Thus:—

dêl, leaves, foliage; dêlen, a leaf.

gwrîhon, sparks; gwrîhonen, a spark.

gwêdh, trees; gwêdhen, a tree.

gwêl, rods, twigs; gwêlen, a rod, a twig.

lûhas, lightning; lûhesen, a flash of lightning.

scow, elder trees; scowen, an elder tree.

eithin, furze; eithinen, a furze bush.

loggas, mice; loggosan or loggojan, a mouse.

low, lice; lewen, a louse.

redan, fern; redanen, a single fern.

mor, berries; moren, a berry.

hern, pilchards; hernen, a pilchard.

mŭrryan, ants; murryanen, an ant.

on, ash trees; onnen, an ash.

enwedh, ash trees; enwedhen, an ash, from on, ash, gwêdh, trees.

glasten, oaks; glastenen, an oak.

gwern, alders; gwernen, an alder.

spern, thorns; spernen, a thorn.

bannol, broom (the plants collectively); bannolen, a broom (to sweep with).

And many others, chiefly names of plants and animals of a more or less gregarious nature. Some of these have other plurals, formed by adding one of the plural terminations to the collective plural. These would be used when the collective idea was not required. Thus:—

dêl, leaves (collective); delkyow or delgyow, leaves (not collectively).

Some singulars in en form their modern plurals from a lost collective plural, i.e. by dropping the en and adding one of the ordinary plural terminations. Thus:—

asen, a rib; asow, ribs.

gwillen, a sea-gull; gwilles, gulls.

7. In en, with or without alteration of vowel and contraction. Thus:—

kŷ, dog; kîen.

hanow, name; henwen (formerly hynwyn).

There is no general definite rule for the formation of plurals; they must be learnt by experience. Some words are found with two plurals, but this generally means a tendency in modern Cornish to consider yow or ow to be the normal termination, and to discard other endings in favour of it, just as the plural in s in English has superseded all but a very few other forms. Thus:—

escop (or epscop), bishop; escobyon or escobow.

Dew, God; dewon or dewow.

flogh, child; flehes or flehesow (flejow).

dêlen, leaf; dêlyow or delkyow.

tîr, land; terros or terryow.

enes, island; eneses or enesow.

§ 5. The so-called Dual.

Parts of the body which are double (ears, eyes, hands, arms, shoulders, knees, etc.), when mentioned in reference to the two ears, eyes, etc. of the same person, are expressed by a compound with the numeral deu, two, prefixed to the singular. The Welsh and Breton grammarians call this a dual. When eyes, ears, etc. are mentioned as belonging to more than one person, the plural is formed in one of the usual ways. Thus:—

lâv, hand; dual deulâv.

lagas, eye; dual deulagas; pl. lagasow.

scovorn, ear; dual deuscovorn; pl. scovornow.

glîn, knee; dual deulin.

elin, elbow; deulin.

bregh, arm; deuvregh.

bron, breast; deuvron.

scoudh, shoulder; deuscoudh.

For hands in general the plural is formed from dorn (which means more exactly fist), dornow; there is, as in Welsh, no regular plural of lâv. A variant of glîn is penglin (lit. knee-end), with a dual pedndewlin, cf. Welsh penelin, elbow.

* * * * *

Lastly, the plural of dên, man, is almost always tîs (earlier tus), folk, though Lhuyd gives dynion as well.