A Biographical Dictionary of Freethinkers. (continued 5)

Inman (Thomas), B.A., physician and archæologist, b. 1820. Educated at London University, he settled at Liverpool, being connected with the well-known shipping family of that port. He is chiefly known by his work on Ancient Faiths Embodied in Ancient Names, in which he deals with the evidences of phallic worship amongst Jews and other nations. It was first published in ’69. A second edition appeared in ’73. He also wrote Ancient Pagan and Modern Christian Symbolism Exposed and Explained, ’69, and a controversial Freethought work, entitled Ancient Faiths and Modern, published at New York ’76. Dr. Inman was for some time President of the Liverpool Literary and Philosophical Society, and was physician to the Royal Infirmary of that city. His professional life was one of untiring industry. He wrote several medical works, including two volumes on the Preservation and Restoration of Health. Died at Clifton, 3 May. 1876.

Iron (Ralph), pseudonym of Olive Schreiner, q.v.

Isnard (Felix), French physician, b. Grasse 1829. Author of a work on Spiritualism and Materialism, 1879.

Isnard (Maximin), Girondin revolutionist, b. Grasse 16 Feb. 1751. He was made a member of the Assembly, in which he declared, “The Law, behold my God. I know no other.” He voted for the death of the King, and was nominated president of the Convention. On the fall of the Girondins he made his escape, and reappeared after the fall of Robespierre. In 1796 he was one of the Council of Five Hundred. Died 1830.

Isoard (Eric Michel Antoine), French writer, b. Paris, 1826. Was naval officer in ’48 but arrested as socialist in ’49. In ’70 he was made sous-prefet of Cambrai and wrote Guerre aux Jésuites.

Isoard Delisle (Jean Baptiste Claude), called also Delisle de Sales, French man of letters, b. Lyons 1743. When young he entered the Congregation of the Oratory, but left theology for literature. In 1769 he published the Philosophy of Nature, which in 1771 was discovered to be irreligious, and he was condemned to perpetual banishment. While in prison he was visited by many of the philosophers, and a subscription was opened for him, to which Voltaire gave five hundred francs. He went to the court of Frederick the Great, and subsequently published many works of little importance. Died at Paris 22 Sept. 1816.

Jacob (Andre Alexandre). See Erdan (A.)

Jacobson (Augustus), American, author of Why I do not Believe, Chicago 1881, and The Bible Inquirer.

“Jacobus (Dom)” Pseudonym of Potvin (Charles) q.v.

Jacoby (Leopold) German author of The Idea of Development. 2 vols. Berlin 1874–76.

Jacolliot (Louis), French orientalist, b. Saint Etienne, 1806. Brought up to the law, in ’43 he was made judge at Pondichery. He first aroused attention by his work, The Bible in India, ’70. He also has written on Genesis of Humanity, ’76. The Religions Legislators, Moses, Manu and Muhammad, ’80, and The Natural and Social History of Humanity, ’84, and several works of travel.

Jantet (Charles and Hector), two doctors of Lyons, b. the first in 1826, the second in ’28, have published together able Aperçus Philosophiques on Rènan’s Life of Jesus, ’64, and Doctrine Medicale Matérialiste, 1866.

Jaucourt (Louis de), Chevalier, French scholar and member of the Royal Society of London and of the academies of Berlin and Stockholm, b. Paris 27 Sept. 1704. He studied at Geneva, Cambridge, and Leyden, furnished the Encyclopédie with many articles, and conducted the Bibliothèque Raisonnée. Died at Compiègne, 3 Feb. 1779.

Jefferies (Richard), English writer, b. 1848, famous for his descriptions of nature in The Gamekeeper at Home, Wild Life in a Southern Country, etc. In his autobiographical Story of My Heart (1883) Mr. Jefferies shows himself a thorough Freethinker. Died Goring-on-Thames, 14 Aug. 1887.

Jefferson (Thomas), American statesman, b. Shadwell, Virginia, 2 April 1743. He studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1767. He became a member of the House of Burgesses, 1769–75. In 1774 he published his Summary Views of the Rights of British-Americans. He drafted and reported to Congress the “Declaration of Independence” which was unanimously adopted, 4 July 1766. He was Governor of Virginia from 1719 to 1781, and originated a system of education in the State. He was Ambassador to Paris from 1785–89, secretary of state from 1789–93, vice-president 1791–1801 and third president of the United States 1801–9. In ’19 he founded the University of Virginia, of which he was rector till his death, 4 July 1826. Dr. J. Thomas in his Dictionary of Biography says “In religion he was what is denominated a freethinker.” He spoke in old age of “the hocus-pocus phantom of God, which like another Cerberus had one body and three heads.” See his life by J. Parton.

Johnson (Richard Mentor), Colonel, American soldier and statesman, b. Bryant’s Station, Kentucky, 17 Oct. 1781. Was educated at Lexington, studied law, and practiced with success. Became member of the Kentucky Legislature in 1805, and raised a regiment of cavalry ’12. Fought with distinction against British and Indians. Was member of Congress from 1807–19, and from ’29–37; a United States Senator from ’19–29, and Vice-President of the United States, ’37–40. Is remembered by his report against the suspension of Sunday mails and his speeches in favor of rights of conscience. Died at Frankfort, Kentucky, 19 Nov. 1850.

Johnson (Samuel), American author, b. Salem, Massachusetts, 10 Oct. 1822. He was educated at Harvard, and became pastor of a “Free Church” at Lynn in ’53. He never attached himself to any denomination, although in some points his views were like those of the Unitarians and Universalists. About ’46 he published, in conjunction with S. Longfellow, brother of the poet, Hymns of the Spirit, Oriental Religions in relation to Universal Religion, of which the volume on India appeared in ’72, China ’77, and Persia ’84. Died Andover, 19 Feb. 1882.

Jones (Ernest Charles), barrister and political orator, b. Berlin, 25 Jan. 1819. His father was in the service of the King of Hanover, who became his godfather. Called to the bar in ’44 in the following year he joined the Chartist movement, editing the People’s Paper, Notes to the People, and other Chartist periodicals. In ’48 he was tried for making a seditious speech, and condemned to two years’ imprisonment, during which he wrote Beldagon Church and other poems. He stood for Halifax in ’47, and Nottingham in ’53 and ’57, without success. He was much esteemed by the working classes in Manchester, where he died 26 Jan. 1869.

Jones (John Gale), Political orator, b. 1771. At the time of the French Revolution he became a leading member of the London Corresponding Society. Arrested at Birmingham for sedition, he obtained a verdict of acquittal. He was subsequently committed to Newgate in Feb. 1810, for impugning the proceedings of the House of Commons, and there remained till his liberation was effected by the prorogation of Parliament, June 21. On 26 Dec. ’11 he was again convicted for “a seditious and blasphemous libel.” He was a resolute advocate of the rights of free publication during the trials of Carlile and his shopmen. Died Somers Town, 4 April, 1838.

Jones (Lloyd), Socialist, b. of Catholic parents at Brandon, co. Cork, Ireland, in March, 1811. In ’27 he came over to Manchester, and in ’32 joined the followers of Robert Owen. He became “a social missionary,” and had numerous debates with ministers, notably one on “The Influence of Christianity” with J. Barker, then a Methodist, at Manchester, in ’39. Lloyd Jones was an active supporter of co-operation and trades-unionism, and frequently acted as arbitrator in disputes between masters and men. He contributed to the New Moral World, Spirit of the Age, Glasgow Sentinel, Leeds Express, North British Daily Mail, Newcastle Chronicle, and Co-operative News. Died at Stockwell, 22 May, 1886, leaving behind a Life of Robert Owen.

Joseph II., Emperor of Germany, son of Francis I. and Maria Theresa, b. Vienna 13 March 1741. In 1764 he was elected king of the Romans, and in the following year succeeded to the throne of Germany. He wrought many reforms, suppressed the Jesuits 1773, travelled in France as Count Falkenstein, saw d’Alembert but did not visit Voltaire. He abolished serfdom, allowed liberty of conscience, suppressed several convents, regulated others, abridged the power of the pope and the clergy, and mitigated the condition of the Jews. Carlyle says “a mighty reformer he had been, the greatest of his day. Austria gazed on him, its admiration not unmixed with terror. He rushed incessantly about, hardy as a Charles Twelfth; slept on his bearskin on the floor of any inn or hut;—flew at the throat of every absurdity, however broad and based or dangerously armed. ‘Disappear I say.’ A most prompt, severe, and yet beneficent and charitable kind of man. Immensely ambitious, that must be said withal. A great admirer of Friedrich; bent to imitate him with profit. ‘Very clever indeed’ says Friedrich, ‘but has the fault (a terribly grave one!) of generally taking the second step without having taken the first.’” Died Vienna 20 Feb. 1790.

Jouy (Victor Joseph Etienne de), French author b. Jouy near Versailles 1764. He served as soldier in India and afterwards in the wars of the Republic. A disciple of Voltaire to whom he erected a temple, he was a prolific writer, his plays being much esteemed in his own day. Died 4 Sept. 1846.

Julianus (Flavius Claudius), Roman Emperor, b. Constantinople 17 Nov. 331. In the massacre of his family by the sons of Constantine he escaped. He was educated in the tenets of Christianity but returned to an eclectic Paganism. In 354 he was declared Cæsar. He made successful campaigns against the Germans who had overrun Gaul and in 361 was made Emperor. He proclaimed liberty of conscience and sought to uproot the Christian superstition by his writings, of which only fragments remain. As Emperor he exhibited great talent, tact, industry, and skill. He was one of the most gifted and learned of the Roman Emperors, and his short reign (Dec. 361—26 June, 363), comprehended the plans of a life-long administration. He died while seeking to repel a Persian invasion, and his death was followed by the triumph of Christianity and the long night of the dark ages.

Junghuhn (Franz Wilhelm), traveller and naturalist, b. Mansfeld, Prussia 29 Oct 1812. His father was a barber and surgeon. Franz studied at Halle and Berlin. He distinguished himself by love for botany and geology. In a duel with another student he killed him and was sentenced to imprisonment at Ehrenbreitster for 20 years. There he simulated madness and was removed to the asylum at Coblentz, whence he escaped to Algiers. In ’34 he joined the Dutch Army in the Malay Archipelago. He travelled through the island of Java making a botanical and geological survey. In ’54 he published his Licht en Schaduwbeelden uit de binnenlanden van Java (Light and Shadow pictures from the interior of Java), which contains his ideas of God, religion and science, together with sketches of nature and of the manners of the inhabitants. This book aroused much indignation from the pious, but also much agreement among freethinkers, and led to the establishment of De Dageraad (The Daybreak,) the organ of the Dutch Freethinkers Union. Junghuhn afterwards returned to Java and died 21 April, ’64 at Lemberg, Preanges, Regentsch. His Light and Shadow pictures have been several times reprinted.

Kalisch (Moritz Marcus), Ph.D., b. of Jewish parents in Pomerania, 16 May, 1828. Educated at the University of Berlin, where he studied under Vatke and others. Early in ’49 he came to England as a political refugee, and found employment as tutor to the Rothschild family. His critical Commentary on the Pentateuch commenced with a volume on Exodus, ’55, Genesis ’58, Leviticus in two vols. in ’67 and ’72 respectively. His rational criticism anticipated the school of Wellhausen. He published Bible Studies on Balaam and Jonah ’77, and discussions on philosophy and religion in a very able and learned work entitled Path and Goal, ’80. Kalisch also contributed to Scott’s series of Freethought tracts. Died at Baslow, Derbyshire, 23 Aug. 1885.

Kames (Lord). See Home (Henry).

Kant (Immanuel), German critical philosopher, b. Königsberg, 22 April, 1724. He became professor of mathematics in 1770. In 1781 he published his great work, The Critick of Pure Reason, which denied all knowledge of the “Thing itself,” and overthrew the dogmatism of earlier metaphysics. In 1792 the philosopher fell under the royal censorship for his Religion within the Limits of Pure Reason. Kant effected a complete revolution in philosophy, and his immediate influence is not yet exhausted. Died at Königsberg, 12 Feb. 1804.

Kapila. One of the earliest Hindu thinkers. His system is known as the Atheistic philosophy. It is expounded in the Sankhya Karika, an important relic of bold rationalistic Indian thought. His aphorisms have been translated by J. R. Ballantyne.

Karneades. See Carneades.

Keeler (Bronson C.) American author of an able Short History of the Bible, being a popular account of the formation and development of the canon, published at Chicago 1881.

Keim (Karl Theodor), German rationalist, b. Stuttgart, 17 Dec. 1825. Was educated at Tübingen, and became professor of theology at Zürich. Is chiefly known by his History of Jesus of Nazara (’67–’72). He also wrote a striking work on Primitive Christianity (’78), and endeavored to reproduce the lost work of Celsus. His rationalism hindered his promotion, and he was an invalid most of his days. Died at Giessen, where he was professor, 17 Nov. 1878.

Keith (George), Lord Marshall, Scotch soldier, b. Kincardine 1685, was appointed by Queen Anne captain of Guard. His property being confiscated for aiding the Pretender, he went to the Continent, and like his brother, was in high favor with Frederick the Great. Died Berlin, 25 May, 1778.

Keith (James Francis Edward), eminent military commander, b. Inverugie, Scotland, 11 June, 1696. Joined the army of the Pretender and was wounded at Sheriffmuir, 1715. He afterwards served with distinction in Spain and in Russia, where he rose to high favor under the Empress Elizabeth. In 1747 he took service with Frederick the Great as field-marshal, and became Governor of Berlin. Carlyle calls him “a very clear-eyed, sound observer of men and things. Frederick, the more he knows him, likes him the better.” From their correspondence it is evident Keith shared the sceptical opinions of Frederick. After brilliant exploits in the seven years’ war at Prague, Rossbach, and Olmutz, Marshal Keith fell in the battle of Hochkirch, 14 Oct. 1758.

Kenrick (William), LL.D., English author, b. near Watford, Herts, about 1720. In 1751 he published, at Dublin, under the pen-name of Ontologos, an essay to prove that the soul is not immortal. His first poetic production was a volume of Epistles, Philosophical and Moral (1759), addressed to Lorenzo; an avowed defence of scepticism. In 1775 he commenced the London Review, and the following year attacked Soame Jenyns’s work on Christianity. He translated some of the works of Buffon, Rousseau, and Voltaire. Died 10 June 1779.

Kerr (Michael Crawford) American statesman, b. Titusville, Western Pennsylvania, 15 March 1827. He was member of the Indiana Legislature ’56, and elected to Congress in ’74 and endeavoured to revise the tariff in the direction of free-trade. Died Rockbridge, Virginia, 19 Aug. 1876, a confirmed Freethinker and Materialist.

Ket, Kett, or Knight (Francis), of Norfolk, a relative of the rebellious tanner. He was of Windham and was an M.A. He was prosecuted for heresy and burnt in the castle ditch, Norwich, 14 Jan. 1588. Stowe says he was burnt for “divers detestable opinions against Christ our Saviour.”

Khayyam (Omar) or Umar Khaiyam, Persian astronomer, poet, b. Naishapur Khorassan, in the second half of the eleventh century, and was distinguished by his reformation of the calendar as well as by his verses (Rubiyat), which E. Fitzgerald has so finely rendered in English. He alarmed his contemporaries and made himself obnoxious to the Sufis. Died about 1123. Omar laughed at the prophets and priests, and told men to be happy instead of worrying themselves about God and the Hereafter. He makes his soul say, “I myself am Heaven and Hell.”

Kielland (Alexander Lange), Norwegian novelist, b. Stavanger, 18 Feb. 1849. He studied law at Christiania, but never practised. His stories, Workpeople, Skipper Worse, Poison, and Snow exhibit his bold opinions.

Kleanthes. See Cleanthes.

Klinger (Friedrich Maximilian von), German writer, b. Frankfort, 19 Feb. 1753. Went to Russia in 1780, and became reader to the Grand Duke Paul. Published poems, dramas, and romances, exhibiting the revolt of nature against conventionality. Goethe called him “a true apostle of the Gospel of nature.” Died at Petersburg, 25 Feb. 1831.

Kneeland (Abner), American writer, b. Gardner, Mass., 7 April, 1774, became a Baptist and afterwards a Universalist minister. He invented a new system of orthography, published a translation of the New Testament, 1823, The Deist (2 Vols.), ’22, edited the Olive Branch and the Christian Inquirer. He wrote The Fourth Epistle of Peter, ’29, and a Review of the Evidences of Christianity, being a series of lectures delivered in New York in ’29. In that year he removed to Boston, and in April ’31 commenced the Boston Investigator, the oldest Freethought journal. In ’33 he was indicted and tried for blasphemy for saying that he “did not believe in the God which Universalists did.” He was sentenced 21 Jan. ’34, to two months’ imprisonment and fine of five hundred dollars. The verdict was confirmed in the Courts of Appeal in ’36, and he received two months’ imprisonment. Kneeland was a Pantheist. He took Frances Wright as an associate editor, and soon after left the Boston Investigator in the hands of P. Mendum and Seaver, and retired to a farm at Salubria, where he died 27 August, 1844. His edition, with notes, of Voltaire’s Philosophical Dictionary, was published in two volumes in 1852.

Knoblauch (Karl von), German author, b. Dillenburg, 3 Nov. 1757. He was a friend of Mauvillon and published several works directed against supernaturalism and superstition. Died at Bernburg, 6 Sept. 1794.

Knowlton (Charles) Dr., American physician and author, b. Templeton, Mass., 10 May, 1800. He published the Fruits of Philosophy, for which he was imprisoned in ’32. He was a frequent correspondent of the Boston Investigator, and held a discussion on the Bible and Christianity with the Rev. Mr. Thacher of Harley. About ’29 he published The Elements of Modern Materialism. Died in Winchester, Mass., 20 Feb. 1850.

Knutzen (Matthias), b. Oldensworth, in Holstein, 1645. He early lost his parents, and was brought to an uncle at Königsberg, where he studied philosophy. He took to the adventurous life of a wandering scholar and propagated his principles in many places. In 1674 he preached Atheism publicly at Jena, in Germany, and had followers who were called “Gewissener,” from their acknowledging no other authority but conscience. It is said there were seven hundred in Jena alone. What became of him and them is unknown. A letter dated from Rome gives his principles. He denied the existence of either God or Devil, deemed churches and priests useless, and held that there is no life beyond the present, for which conscience is a sufficient guide, taking the place of the Bible, which contains great contradictions. He also wrote two dialogues.

Koerbagh (Adriaan), Dutch martyr, b. Amsterdam, 1632 or 1633. He became a doctor of law and medicine. In 1668 he published A Flower Garden of all Loveliness, a dictionary of definitions in which he gave bold explanations. The work was rigidly suppressed, and the writer fled to Culemborg. There he translated a book De Trinitate, and began a work entitled A Light Shining in Dark Places, to illuminate the chief things of theology and religion by Vrederijk Waarmond, inquisitor of truth. Betrayed for a sum of money, Koerbagh was tried for blasphemy, heavily fined and sentenced to be imprisoned for ten years, to be followed by ten years banishment. He died in prison, Oct. 1669.

Kolb (Georg Friedrich), German statistician and author, b. Spires 14 Sept. 1808, author of an able History of Culture, 1869–70. Died at Munich 15 May, 1884.

Koornhert (Theodore). See Coornhert (Dirk Volkertszoon.)

Korn (Selig), learned German Orientalist of Jewish birth, b. Prague, 26 April, 1804. A convert to Freethought, under the name of “F. Nork,” he wrote many works on mythology which may still be consulted with profit. A list is given in Fuerst’s Bibliotheca Judaica. We mention Christmas and Easter Explained by Oriental Sun Worship, Leipsic, ’36; Brahmins and Rabbins, Weissen, ’36; The Prophet Elijah as a Sun Myth, ’37; The Gods of the Syrians, ’42; Biblical Mythology of the Old and New Testament, 2 vols. Stuttgart, ’42–’43. Died at Teplitz, Bohemia, 16 Oct. 1850.

Krause (Ernst H. Ludwig), German scientific writer, b. Zielenzig 22 Nov. 1839. He studied science and contributed to the Vossische Zeitung and Gartenlaube. In ’63 he published, under the pen-name of “Carus Sterne,” a work on The Natural History of Ghosts, and in ’76 a work on Growth and Decay, a history of evolution. In ’77 he established with Hæckel, Dr. Otto Caspari, and Professor Gustav Jaeger, the monthly magazine Kosmos, devoted to the spread of Darwinism. This he conducted till ’82. In Kosmos appeared the germ of his little book on Erasmus Darwin, ’79, to which Charles Darwin wrote a preliminary notice. As “Carus Sterne” he has also written essays entitled Prattle from Paradise, The Crown of Creation, ’84, and an illustrated work in parts on Ancient and Modern Ideas of the World, ’87, etc.

Krekel (Arnold), American judge, b. Langenfield, Prussia 14 March, 1815. Went with parents to America in ’32 and settled in Missouri. In ’42 he was elected Justice of the Peace and afterwards county attorney. In ’52 he was elected to the Missouri State Legislature. He served in the civil war being elected colonel, was president of the constitutional convention of ’65 and signed the ordinance of emancipation by which the slaves of Missouri were set free. He was appointed judge by President Lincoln 9 March, ’65. A pronounced Agnostic, when he realized he was about to die he requested his wife not to wear mourning, saying that death was as natural as birth. Died at Kansas 14 July, 1888.

Krekel (Mattie H. Hulett), b. of freethinking parents, Elkhart Indiana 13 April, 1840. Educated at Rockford, Illinois, in her 16th year became a teacher. Married Judge Krekel, after whose death, she devoted her services to the Freethought platform.

Kropotkin (Petr Aleksyeevich) Prince, Russian anarchist, b. Moscow 9 Dec 1842. After studying at the Royal College of Pages he went to Siberia for five years to pursue geological researches. In ’71 he went to Belgium and Switzerland and joined the International. Arrested in Russia, he was condemned to three years imprisonment, escaped ’76 and came to England. In ’79 he founded at Geneva, Le Révolté was expelled. Accused in France in ’83 of complicity in the outrage at Lyons, he was condemned to five years imprisonment, but was released in ’86, since which he has lived in England. A brother who translated Herbert Spencer’s “Biology” into Russian, died in Siberia in the autumn of 1886.

Laas (Ernst) German writer, b. Furstenwalde, 16 June, 1837. He has written three volumes on Idealism and Positivism, 1879–’84, and also on Kant’s Place in the History of the Conflict between Faith and Science, Berlin, 1882. He was professor of philosophy at Strassburg, where he died 25 July, 1885.

Labanca (Baldassarre), professor of moral philosophy in the University of Pisa, b. Agnone, 1829. He took part in the national movement of ’48, and in ’51 was imprisoned and afterwards expelled from Naples. He has written on progress in philosophy and also a study on primitive Christianity, dedicated to Giordano Bruno, the martyr of Freethought, ’86.

Lachatre (Maurice), French writer, b. Issoudun 1814, edits a “Library of Progress,” in which has appeared his own History of the Inquisition, and History of the Popes, ’83.

Lacroix (Sigismund), the pen name of Sigismund Julien Adolph Krzyzanowski, b. Warsaw 26 May, 1845. His father was a refugee. He wrote with Yves Guyot The Social Doctrines of Christianity. In ’74 he was elected a municipal councillor of Paris. In ’77 he was sentenced to three months’ imprisonment for calling Jesus “enfant adulterin” in Le Radical. In Feb. ’81 he was elected president of the municipal council, and in ’83 deputy to the French parliament.

Laffitte (Pierre), French Positivist philosopher, b. 21 Feb. 1823 at Beguey (Gironde), became a disciple of Comte and one of his executors. He was professor of mathematics, but since the death of his master has given a weekly course of instruction in the former apartment of Comte. M. Laffitte has published discourses on The General History of Humanity, ’59, and The Great Types of Humanity, ’75–6. In ’78 he founded La Revue Occidentale.

Lagrange (Joseph Louis), Count, eminent mathematician, b. Turin, 25 Jan. 1736. He published in 1788 his Analytical Mechanics, which is considered one of the masterpieces of the human intellect. He became a friend of D’Alembert, Diderot, Condorcet, and Delambre. He said he believed it impossible to prove there was a God. Died 10 April 1813.

La Hontan (Jean), early French traveller in Canada, b. 1666. In his account of Dialogues with an American Savage, 1704, which was translated into English, he states objections to religion. Died in Hanover, 1715.

Lainez (Alexandre), French poet, b. Chimay, Hainault, 1650, of the same family with the general of the Jesuits. He lived a wandering Bohemian life and went to Holland to see Bayle. Died at Paris 18 April, 1710.

Laing (Samuel), politician and writer, b. Edinburgh 1812, the son of S. Laing of Orkney. Educated at Cambridge, where he took his degree ’32; called to the bar ’42; became secretary of the railway department of the Board of Trade; returned as Liberal M.P. for Kirkwall ’52; helped repeal duty on advertisements in newspapers. In ’60 he became finance minister for India. His Modern Science and Modern Thought, ’85, is a plain exposition of the incompatibility of the old and new view of the universe. In the Modern Zoroastrian, ’87, he gives the philosophy of polarity, in which, however, he was anticipated by Mr. Crozier, who in turn was anticipated by Emerson. In ’88 he entered into a friendly correspondence with Mr. Gladstone on the subject of Agnosticism his portion of which has been published.

Lakanal (Joseph), French educator, b. Serres, 14 July, 1762. Studied for priesthood, but gave up that career. He entered with ardor into the Revolution, was a member of the Convention 1792–5, and there protected the interests of science. At the restoration in 1814 he retired to America, and was welcomed by Jefferson and became president of the University of Louisiana. He returned to France after the Revolution of ’30, and died in Paris 14 Feb. 1845.

Lalande (Joseph Jèrome le Francais de), distinguished French astronomer, b. Bourg en Bresse, 11 July 1732. Educated by the Jesuits, he was made a member of the Academy of Sciences in his 20th year. In 1762 he became Professor of Astronomy at the College of France. In 1764 he published his Treatise of Astronomy, to which Dupuis subjoined a memoir, which formed the basis of his Origin of all Religions, the idea of which he had taken from Lalande. In Aug 1793 Lalande hazarded his own life to save Dupont de Nemours, and some priests whom he concealed in the observatory of Mazarin college. It was upon Lalande’s observations that the Republican calender was drawn up. At Lalande’s instigation Sylvain Maréchal published his Dictionary of Atheists, to which the astronomer contributed supplements after Maréchal’s death. Lalande professed himself prouder of being an Atheist than of being an astronomer. His Bibliographie Astronomique is called by Prof. de Morgan “a perfect model of scientific bibliography.” It was said that never did a young man address himself to Lalande without receiving proof of his generosity. He died at Paris 4 April, 1807.

Lamarck (Jean Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet) French naturalist, b. Picardy 1 Aug. 1744, educated for the Church, but entered the army in 1761, and fought with distinction. Having been disabled, he went to Paris, studied Botany, and published French Flora in 1788, which opened to him the Academy of Sciences. He became assistant at the Museum of Natural History, and in 1809 propounded, in his Zoological Philosophy, a theory of transmutation of species. His Natural History of Invertebrate Animals (1815–22) was justly celebrated. He became blind several years before his death, 18 Dec. 1829.

Lamborelle (Louis). Belgian author of books on The Good Old Times, Brussels, 1874; The Apostles and Martyrs of Liberty of Conscience, Antwerp, 1882, and other anti-clerical works. Lamborelle lost a post under government through his anticlerical views, and is one of the council of the Belgian Freethought party.

Lamettrie (Julian Offray de). French physician and philosopher, b. St. Malo, 25 Dec. 1709. Destined for the Church, he was educated under the Jesuits at Caen. He, however, became a physician, studying under Boerhaave, at Leyden. Returning to France, he became surgeon to the French Guard, and served at the battles of Fontenoy and Dettingen. Falling ill, he noticed that his faculties fluctuated with his physical state, and drew therefrom materialistic conclusions. The boldness with which he made his ideas known lost him his place, and he took refuge in Holland. Here he published The Natural History of the Soul, under the pretence of its being a translation from the English of Charp [Sharp], 1745. This was followed by Man a Machine (1748), a work which was publicly burnt at Leyden, and orders given for the author’s arrest. It was translated into English, and reached a second edition (London, 1750). It was often attributed to D’Argens. Lamettrie held that the senses are the only avenues to knowledge, and that it is absurd to assume a god to explain motion. Only under Atheism will religious strife cease. Lamettrie found an asylum with Frederick the Great, to whom he became physician and reader (Feb. 1748). Here he published Philosophical Reflections on the Origin of Animals (1750), translated Seneca on Happiness, etc. He died 11 Nov. 1751, and desired by his will to be buried in the garden of Lord Tyrconnel. The great king thought so well of him that he composed his funeral eulogy.

La Mothe Le Vayer (François de). French sceptical philosopher, b. Paris, 1588, was patronised by Louis XIV., and was preceptor to the Duke of Anjou. Published The Virtue of Pagans and Dialogues after the Manner of the Ancients, in which he gave scope to his scepticism. Two editions of his collected works appeared, but neither of these contains The Dialogues of Orasius Tubero (Frankfort 1606, probably a false date). Died 1672.

Lancelin (Pierre F.), French materialist, b. about 1770. Became a constructive engineer in the French navy, wrote an able Introduction to the Analysis of Science, 3 vols. 1801–3, and a physico-mathematical theory of the organisation of worlds, 1805. Died Paris, 1809.

Land (Jan Pieter Nicolaus), Dutch writer, b. Delft, 23 April, 1834. Has written critical studies on Spinoza, and brought out an edition of the philosopher’s works in conjunction with J. van Vloten.

Landesmann (Heinrich). See Lorm.

Landor (Walter Savage), English poet, b. Ipsley Court, Warwickshire, 30 Jan. 1775. He was educated at Rugby and Oxford, and, inheriting a fortune, could indulge his tastes as an author. He published a volume of poems in 1795, and Gebir in 1798. An ardent Republican, he served as a volunteer colonel in the Spanish Army against Napoleon from 1808 to 1814, besides devoting a considerable sum of money to the Spanish cause. He became a resident of Florence about 1816. His reputation chiefly rests on his great Imaginary Conversations, in which many bold ideas are presented in beautiful language. Landor was unquestionably the greatest English writer of his age. While nominally a Christian, he has scattered many Freethought sentiments over his various works. Died at Florence, 17 Sept. 1864.

Lanessan (Jean Louis de), French naturalist, b. at Saint André de Cubzac (Gironde), 13 July, 1843. At 19 he became a naval physician, and M.D. in ’68. He was elected in ’79 as Radical member of the Municipal Council of Paris, and re-elected in ’81. In August of the same year he was elected Deputy for the Department of the Seine. He founded Le Reveil, edited the Marseillaise, and started the International Biological Library, to which he contributed a study on the doctrine of Darwin. He has written a standard work on botany, and has written vol. iii. of the “Materialists’ Library,” on the Evolution of Matter.

Lanfrey (Pierre), French author and senator, b. Chambéry, 26 Oct. 1828, became known by a book on The Church and the Philosophers of the Eighteenth Century, ’55, and celebrated by his History of Napoleon I. ’67–75. M. Lanfrey also wrote The Political History of the Popes, a work placed on the Index. Died at Pau, 15 Nov. 1877.

Lang (Andrew), man of letters, b. Selkirk, 31 March, 1844. Educated at St. Andrews and Oxford. Mr. Lang made his name by his translation of the Odyssey with Mr. Butcher, and by his graceful poems and ballads. He has written In the Wrong Paradise, and many other pleasant sketches. More serious work is shown in Custom and Myth, ’84, and Myth, Ritual and Religion, ’87. A disciple of E. B. Tylor, Mr. Lang successfully upholds the evolutionary view of mythology.

Lang (Heinrich), German Rationalist, b. 14 Nov. 1826. Studied theology under Baur at Tübingen, and became teacher at Zürich, where he died, 13 Jan. 1876.

Lange (Friedrich Albert), German philosopher and writer, b. Wald, near Solix, 28 Sept. 1828. He studied at Bonn, and became teacher in the gymnasium of Cologne, ’52. In ’53 he returned to Bonn as teacher of philosophy, and there enjoyed the friendship of Ueberweg. He became proprietor and editor of the democratic Landbote, and filled various municipal offices. In ’70 he was called to the chair of philosophy at Zürich, but resigned in ’72 and accepted a similar post at Marburg, where he died 21 Nov. 1875. His fame rests on his important History of Materialism, which has been translated into English.

Langsdorf (Karl Christian), German Deist, b. 18 May, 1757, author of God and Nature, a work on the immortality of the soul, and some mathematical books. Died Heidelberg, 10 June, 1834.

Lankester (Edwin Ray), F.R.S., LL.D., English scientist, b. London, 15 May, 1847, and educated at St. Paul’s School and Oxford. Has published many scientific memoirs, revised the translation of Haeckel’s History of Creation, and has done much to forward evolutionary ideas. In 1876 he exposed the spiritist medium Slade, and procured his conviction. He is Professor of Zoology and Natural History in the University of London.

La Place (Pierre Simon). One of the greatest astronomers, b. Beaumont-en-Auge, 23 March, 1749. His father was a poor peasant. Through the influence of D’Alembert, La Place became professor of mathematics in the military school, 1768. By his extraordinary abilities he became in 1785 member of the Academy of Science, which he enriched with many memoirs. In 1796 he published his Exposition of the System of the Universe, a popularisation of his greater work on Celestial Mechanics, 1799–1825. Among his sayings were, “What we know is but little, what we know not is immense.” “There is no need for the hypothesis of a God.” Died Paris, 5 March, 1827.

Larevelliere-Lepaux (Louis Marie DE), French politician, b. Montaigu 25 Aug. 1753. Attached from youth to the ideas of Rousseau, he was elected with Volney to represent Angers in the national assembly. He was a moderate Republican, defended the proscribed Girondins, was doomed himself but escaped by concealment, and distinguished himself by seeking to replace Catholicism with theophilanthropy or natural religion. He wrote Reflections on Worship and the National Fêtes. He became President of the Directory, and after the 18 Brumaire retired, refusing to swear fealty to the empire though offered a pension by Napoleon. Died Paris, 27 March, 1824.

Larousse (Pierre Athanase), French lexicographer, b. of poor parents, 23 Oct. 1817, at Toucy, Yonne, where he became teacher. He edited many school books and founded the Grand Dictionnaire Universel du XIXe. Siecle, 1864–77. This is a collection of dictionaries, and may be called the Encyclopedie of this century. Most of M. Larousse’s colleagues were also Freethinkers. Died at Paris, 3 Jan. 1875.

Larra (Mariano José de), distinguished Spanish author, b. Madrid, 4 March, 1809. He went with his family to France and completed his education. He returned to Spain in ’22. At eighteen he published a collection of poems, which was followed by El Duende Satirico (The Satirical Goblin). In ’31 appeared his Pobrecito Hablador (Poor Gossip), a paper in which he unmercifully satirised the public affairs and men of Spain. It was suppressed after its fourteenth number. He edited in the following year the Revista Española, signing his articles “Figaro.” He travelled through Europe, and on his return to Madrid edited El Mundo. Larra wrote also some dramas and translated Lamennais’ Paroles d’un Croyant. Being disappointed in love he shot himself, 13 April, 1837. Ch. de Mazade, after speaking of Larra’s scepticism, adds, “Larra could see too deep to possess any faith whatever. All the truths of this world, he was wont to say, can be wrapped in a cigarette paper!”

Larroque (Patrice), French philosopher, b. Beaume, 27 March, 1801. He became a teacher and was inspector of the academy of Toulouse, 1830–36, and rector of the academies of Cahors, Limoges, and Lyons, 1836–49. In the latter year he was denounced for his opposition to clerical ideas and lost his place. Among his numerous works we mention De l’Esclavage chez les Nations Chrétiennes, ’57, in which he proves that Christianity did not abolish slavery. This was followed by an Critical Examination of the Christian Religion, ’59, and a work on Religious Renovation, ’59, which proposes a moral system founded upon pure deism. Both were for a while prohibited in France. M. Larroque also wrote on Religion and Politics, ’78. Died at Paris, 15 June, 1879.

Lassalle (Ferdinand Johann Gottlieb), founder of German Social Democratic party, b. of Jewish parents, 11 April, 1825, in Breslau, studied philosophy and law at Breslau and Berlin. He became a follower of Hegel and Feuerbach. Heine, at Paris, ’46, was charmed with him. Humboldt called him “Wunderkind.” In 1858 he published a profound work on the philosophy of Heraclitus. For planning an insurrection against the Prussian Government he was arrested, but won his acquittal. Died through a duel, 31 Aug. 1864.

Lastarria (José Victorino), Chilian statesman and Positivist, b. Rancagua, 1812. From youth he applied himself to teaching and journalism, and in ’38 was appointed teacher of civil law and literature in the National Institute. He has founded several journals and literary societies. From ’43 he has been at different times deputy to the legislature and secretary to the republic of Chili. He has also served as minister to Peru and Brazil. In ’73 he founded the Santiago Academy of Science and Literature; has written many works, and his Lecciones de Politicia Positiva has been translated into French by E. de Rivière and others, 1879.

Lau (Theodor Ludwig), German philosopher, b. at Königsberg, 15 June 1670, studied at Königsberg and Halle, and about 1695 travelled through Holland, England, and France. In 1717 he published in Latin, at Frankfort, Philosophical Meditations on God, the World, and Man, which excited an outcry for its materialistic tendency and was suppressed. He was a follower of Spinoza, and held several official positions from which he was deposed on account of his presumed atheism. Died at Altona, 8 Feb. 1740.

Laurent (François), Belgian jurisconsult, b. Luxembourg, 8 July, 1810. Studied law and became an advocate. In ’35 he was made Professor of Civil Law in the University of Ghent, a post he held, despite clerical protests, till his retirement in ’80. A voluminous author on civil and international law, his principal work is entitled Studies in the History of Humanity. He was a strong advocate of the separation of Church and State, upon which he wrote, 1858–60. He also wrote Letters on the Jesuits, ’65. Died in 1887.

Law (Harriet), English lecturess, who for many years occupied the secular platform, and engaged in numerous debates. She edited the Secular Chronicle, 1876–1879.

Lawrence (James), Knight of Malta, b. Fairfield, Jamaica, 1773, of good Lancashire family. Educated at Eton and Gottingen; became acquainted with Schiller and Goethe at Stuttgart and Weimar, was detained with English prisoners at Verdun. In 1807 he published his The Empire of the Nairs, or the Rights of Women, a free-love romance which he wrote in German, French, and English. He also wrote in French and English, a curious booklet The Children of God, London, 1853. He addressed a poem on Tolerance to Mr. Owen, on the occasion of his denouncing the religions of the world. It appears in The Etonian Out of Bounds. Died at London 26 Sept. 1841.

Lawrence (Sir William), surgeon, b. Cirencester, 1783. Admitted M.R.C.S., 1805, in ’13 he was chosen, F.R.S., and two years later was named Professor of Anatomy and Surgery at the Royal College of Surgeons. While he held that chair he delivered his Lectures on Man, which on their publication in 1819 roused a storm of bigotry. In his early manhood, Lawrence was an earnest advocate of radical reform; but notwithstanding his early unpopularity, he acquired a lucrative practice. Died London, 5 July, 1867.

Layton (Henry), educated at Oxford, and studied at Gray’s Inn, being called to the bar. He wrote anonymously observations on Dr. Bentley’s Confutation of Atheism (1693), and a Search After Souls, and Spiritual Observations in Man (1700).

Leblais (Alphonse), French professor of mathematics, b. Mans, 1820. Author of a study in Positivist philosophy entitled Materialism and Spiritualism (1865), to which Littré contributed a preface.

Le Bovier de Fontenelle. See Fontenelle.

Lecky (William Edward Hartpole), historian, b. near Dublin, 26 March, 1838. Educated at Trinity College, Dublin. His works, which are characterised by great boldness and originality of thought, are A History of the Rise and Spirit of Rationalism in Europe (’65), A History of European Morals from Augustus to Charlemagne (’69), and A History of England in the Eighteenth Century (1878–87).

Leclerc (Georges Louis). See Buffon.

Leclerc de Septchenes (N.), b. at Paris. Became secretary to Louis XVI., translated the first three vols. of Gibbon, and wrote an essay on the religion of the ancient Greeks (1787). A friend of Lalande, he prepared an edition of Freret, published after his death. Died at Plombieres, 9 June, 1788.

Leconte de Lisle (Charles Marie René), French poet, b. Isle of Bourbon, 23 Oct. 1818. After travelling in India, returned to Paris, and took part in the revolution of ’48, but has since devoted himself mainly to poetry, though he has written also A Republican Catechism and A Popular History of Christianity (’71). One of his finest poems is Kain. On being elevated to the seat of Victor Hugo at the Academy in ’87, he gave umbrage to Jews and Catholics by incidentally speaking of Moses as “the chief of a horde of ferocious nomads.”

Lecount (Peter), lieutenant in the French navy. He was engaged in the battle of Navarino. Came to England as a mathematician in the construction of the London and Birmingham Railway, of which he wrote a history (1839). He wrote a curious book in three volumes entitled A Few Hundred Bible Contradictions; A Hunt After the Devil and other Old Matters, by John P. Y., M.D.; published by H. Hetherington (’43). The author’s name occurs on p. 144, vol i., as “the Rev. Peter Lecount.”

Leenhof (Frederick van), b. Middelburg (Zealand), Aug. 1647. Became a minister of Zwolle, where he published a work entitled Heaven on Earth (1703), which subjected him to accusations of Atheism. It was translated into German in 1706.

Lefevre (André), French writer, b. Provins, 9 Nov. 1834. He became, at the age of twenty-three, one of the editors of the Magasin Pittoresque. He wrote much in La Libre Pensée and La Pensée Nouvelle; has translated Lucretius in verse (’76), and written Religions and Mythologies Compared (’77); contributed a sketchy History of Philosophy to the Library of Contemporary Science (’78); has written Man Across the Ages (’80) and the Renaissance of Materialism (’81). He has also edited the Lettres Persanes of Montesquieu, some Dialogues of Voltaire, and Diderot’s La Religieuse (’86).

Lefort (César), disciple of Comte. Has published a work on the method of modern science (Paris, 1864).

Lefrancais de Lalande. See Lalande.

Legate (Bartholomew), Antitrinitarian native of Essex, b. about 1572, was thrown into prison on a charge of heresy, 1611. King James had many personal interviews with him. On one occasion the king asked him if he did not pray to Jesus Christ. He replied that he had done so in the days of his ignorance, but not for the last seven years. “Away, base fellow!” said His Majesty, “It shall never be said that one stayeth in my presence who hath never prayed to the Savior for seven years together.” He was burnt at Smithfield by the King’s writ, De Hæretico Comburendo, 18 March, 1612, being one of the last persons so punished in England.

Leguay de Premontval. See Premontval.

Le Hon (Henri) Belgian scientist, b. Ville-Pommerœul (Hainault) 1809, was captain in the Belgian army, professor at the military school of Brussels, and Chevalier of the Order of Leopold. Author of L’Homme Fossile en Europe, ’66. Translated Professor Omboni’s exposition of Darwinism. Died at San Remo, 1872.

Leidy (Joseph), M.D., American naturalist, b. Philadelphia, 9 Sept. 1823. He became professor of biology at the University of Philadelphia, and is eminent for his contributions to American palæontology.

Leigh (Henry Stone), English author of a Deistic work on the Religions of the World, 1869.

Leland (Theron C.), American journalist, b. 9 April, 1821. He edited with Wakeman the journal Man. Died 2 June, 1885.

Lemaire (Charles), member of the Academical Society of Saint Quentin, author of an atheistic philosophical work, in two vols., entitled Initiation to the Philosophy of Liberty, Paris, 1842.

Lemonnier (Camille), Belgian writer, b. Ixel les Bruxelles, 1845, author of stories and works on Hysteria, Death, etc., in which he evinces his freethought sentiments.

Lenau (Nicolaus), i.e. Nicolaus Franz Niembsch von Strehlenau, Hungarian poet, b. Czatad, 15 Aug. 1802. His poems, written in German, are pessimistic, and his constitutional melancholy deepened into insanity. Died Ober-Döbling, near Vienna, 22 Aug. 1850.

Lennstrand (Viktor E.), Swedish writer and orator, b. Gefle, 30 Jan. 1861. Educated at Upsala University. Founded the Swedish Utilitarian Society, March ’88, and in May was sentenced to a fine of 250 crowns for denial of the Christian religion. On the 29th Nov. he was imprisoned for three months for the same offence. Has written several pamphlets and has incurred several fresh prosecutions. In company with A. Lindkvist he has founded the Fritankaren as the organ of Swedish freethought.

Leontium, Athenian Hetæra, disciple and mistress of Epicurus (q.v.) She acquired distinction as a philosopher, and wrote a treatise against Theophrastus, which is praised by Cicero as written in a skilful and elegant manner.

Leopardi (Giacomo), count, Italian pessimist poet, b. Recanati (Ancona), 29 June, 1798. In 1818 he won a high place among poets by his lines addressed To Italy. His Canti, ’31, are distinguished by eloquence and pathos, while his prose essays, Operette Morali, ’27, are esteemed the finest models of Italian prose of this century. Leopardi’s short life was one long disease, but it was full of work of the highest character. As a poet, philologist, and philosopher, he is among the greatest of modern Italians. Died at Naples, 14 July, 1837.

Lequinio (Joseph Marie), French writer and Conventionnel, b. Sarzeau, 1740. Elected Mayor of Rennes, 1790, and Deputy from Morbihar to the Legislative Assembly. He then professed Atheism. He voted the death of Louis XVI. “regretting that the safety of the state did not permit his being condemned to penal servitude for life.” In 1792 he published Prejudices Destroyed, signed “Citizen of the World,” in which he considered religion as a political chain. He took part in the Feasts of Reason, and wrote Philosophy of the People, 1796. Died 1813.

Lermina (Jules Hippolyte), French writer, b. 27 March, 1839. Founded the Corsair and Satan, and has published an illustrated biographical dictionary of contemporary France, 1884–5.

Lermontov (Mikhail Yur’evich), Russian poet and novelist, b. Moscow, 3 Oct. 1814. Said to have come of a Scotch family, he studied at Moscow University, from which he was expelled. In ’32 he entered the Military Academy at St. Petersburg, and afterwards joined the Hussars. In ’37 some verses on the death of Pushkin occasioned his being sent to the Caucasus, which he describes in a work translated into English, ’53. His poems are much admired. The Demon, exhibiting Satan in love, has been translated into English, and so has his romance entitled A Hero of Our Times. He fell in a duel in the Caucasus, 15 July, 1840.

Leroux (Pierre), French Socialist and philosophic writer, b. Bercy, near Paris, 6 April, 1797. At first a mason, then a typographer, he invented an early composing machine which he called the pianotype. In 1824 he became editor of the Globe. Becoming a Saint Simonian, he made this paper the organ of the sect. He started with Reynaud L’Encyclopédie Nouvelle, and afterwards with L. Viardot and Mme. George Sand the Revue Indépendante (’41), which became noted for its pungent attacks on Catholicism. His principal work is De l’Humanite (’40). In June ’48 M. Leroux was elected to the Assembly. After the coup d’état he returned to London and Jersey. Died at Paris, 12 April, 1871.

Leroy (Charles Georges), lieutenant ranger of the park of Versailles, b. 1723, one of the writers on the Encyclopédie. He defended the work of Helvetius on the Mind against Voltaire, and wrote Philosophical Letters on the Intelligence and Perfectibility of Animals (1768), a work translated into English in 1870. Died at Paris 1789.

Lespinasse (Adolf Frederik Henri de). Dutch writer, b. Delft, 14 May, 1819. Studied medicine, and established himself first at Deventer and afterwards at Zwartsluis, Vaassen, and Hasselt. In the Dageraad he wrote many interesting studies under the pen-name of “Titus,” and translated the work of Dupuis into Dutch. In 1870 he emigrated to America and became director of a large farm in Iowa. Died in Orange City (Iowa) 1881.

L’Espinasse (Julie Jeanne Eléonore de). French beauty and wit, b. Lyons, 9 Nov. 1732. She became the protégé of Madame du Deffand, and gained the favor of D’Alembert. Her letters are models of sensibility and spirit. Died Paris, 23 May, 1776.

Lessing (Gotthold Ephraim). German critic and dramatic poet, b. Kamenz, 22 Jan. 1729. He studied at Leipsic, and at Berlin became acquainted with Voltaire and Mendelssohn. Made librarian at Wolfenbüttel he published Fragments of an Unknown (1777), really the Vindication of Rational Worshippers of God, by Reimarus, in which it was contended that Christian evidences are so clad in superstition as to be unworthy credence. Among his writings were The Freethinker and Nathan the Wise, his noblest play, in which he enforces lessons of toleration and charity to all faiths. The effect of his writings was decidedly sceptical. Heine calls Lessing, after Luther, the greatest German emancipator. Died at Brunswick 15 Feb. 1781.

Lessona (Michele). Italian naturalist, b. 20 Sept., 1823; has translated some of the works of Darwin.

Leucippus. Greek founder of the atomic philosophy.

L’Estrange (Thomas), writer, b. 17 Jan. 1822. With a view to entering the Church he graduated at Trinity College, Dublin, 26 Feb. ’44, but became an attorney. Having read F. A. Paley’s Introduction to the Iliad, he became convinced that the “cooking” process there described, has been undergone by all sacred books now extant. He wrote for Thomas Scott’s series valuable tracts on Our First Century, Primitive Church History, Irenæus, Order, The Eucharist. He also edited Hume’s Dialogues on Natural Religion, and wrote The First Ten Alleged Persecutions.

Levallois (Jules), French writer, b. Rouen 18 May, 1829. In ’55 he became secretary to Sainte Beuve. Wrote Déisme et Christianisme, 1866.

Lewes (George Henry), English man of letters, b. in London, 18 April, 1817, he became a journalist and dramatic critic. In 1845–6 appeared his Biographical History of Philosophy, which showed higher power. This has been republished as History of Philosophy from Thales to Comte. Lewes was one of the first to introduce English readers to Comte in his account of Comte’s Philosophy of the Sciences, ’47. In ’49 he became one of the founders of the Leader, for which he wrote till ’54. In that year he began his association with “George Eliot” (q.v.). His Life of Goethe appeared in ’55, and from this time he began to give his attention to scientific, especially biological, studies. In ’64 he published an important essay on Aristotle. On the foundation of the Fortnightly Review, ’65, Lewes was appointed editor. His last work, Problems of Life and Mind, 5 vols. ’74–79, was never completed owing to his death, 28 Nov. 1878. He bequeathed his books to Dr. Williams’s library.

Lichtenberg (Georg Christoph), German satirical writer and scientist, b. Ober-Ramstädt, 1 July, 1742; a friend of G. Forster, he left many thoughts showing his advanced opinions. Died Göttingen, 24 Feb. 1799.

Lick (James), American philanthropist, b. Fredericksburg, Pa., 25 Aug. 1796. In 1847 he settled in California and made a large fortune by investing in real estate. He was a Materialist and bequeathed large sums to the Lick Observatory, Mount Hamilton, and for other philanthropic purposes. Died San Francisco, 1 Oct. 1876.

Lilja (Nicolai), Swedish writer, b. Rostanga, 18 Oct. 1808. Studied at Lund and became parish clerk in the Lund diocese. He wrote, on Man; his Life and Destiny. Died Lund 1870.

Lincoln (Abraham), sixteenth President of the United States, b. Kentucky, 12 Feb. 1809. An uncompromising opponent of slavery, his election (Nov. ’60) led to the civil war and the emancipation of slaves. Ward H. Lamon, who knew him well, says he “read Volney and Paine and then wrote a deliberate and labored essay, wherein he reached conclusions similar to theirs. The essay was burnt, but he never denied or regretted its composition.” Mrs. Lincoln said, “Mr. Lincoln had no hope and no faith in the usual acceptance of those words.” Assassinated 14 April, 1865, he expired the following morning.

Lindet (Robert Thomas), “apostate” French bishop, b. Bernay, 1743. Was elected to the States-General by the clergy of his district. He embraced Republican principles, and in March, 1791, was made Bishop of L’Eure. In Nov. 1792 he publicly married. On 7 Nov. 1793, renounced his bishopric. He proposed that civil festivals should take the place of religious ones. He became member of the Conseil des Anciens. Died Bernay, 10 Aug. 1823, and was buried without religious service.

Lindh (Theodor Anders), b. Borgo (Finland), 13 Jan. 1833. Studied at Helsingfors University, ’51–57; became lawyer in ’71, and is now a member of the Municipal Council of Borgo. He has written many poems in Swedish, and also translated from the English poets, and has published Freethought essays, which have brought him into controversy with the clergy.

Lindkvist (Alfred), Swedish writer, b. Gefle, 21 Oct. 1860, of pious parents. At the University of Upsala he studied European literature, and became acquainted with the works of Mill, Darwin, and Spencer. He has published two volumes of poems, Snow Drops and April Days, and lost a stipend at the University by translating from the Danish a rationalistic life of Jesus entitled The Reformer from Galilee. Mr. Lindkvist has visited Paris, and collaborated on a Stockholm daily paper. In ’88 he joined his friend Lennstrand in propagating Freethought, and in Nov. received a month’s imprisonment for having translated one of J. Symes’s anti-Christian pamphlets. He now edits Fritankaren in conjunction with Mr. Lennstrand.

Lindner (Ernst Otto Timotheus), German physician, b. Breslau, 28 Nov. 1820. A friend of Schopenhauer, whose philosophy he maintained in several works on music. He edited the Vossische Zeitung from ’63. Died at Berlin, 7 Aug. 1867.

Liniere (François Payot de), French satiric poet, b. Paris, 1628; known as the Atheist of Senlis. Boileau says the only act of piety he ever did was drinking holy water because his mistress dipped her finger in it. Wrote many songs and smart epigrams, and is said to have undertaken a criticism of the New Testament. Died at Paris in 1704.

Linton (Eliza, née Lynn) novelist and journalist, daughter of vicar of Crosthwaite, Cumberland, b. Keswick, 1822. Has contributed largely to the leading Radical journals, and has written numerous works of fiction, of which we must mention Under which Lord? and The Rebel of the Family. In ’72 she published The True History of Joshua Davidson, Christian and Communist, and in ’85 the Autobiography of Christopher Kirkland. She has also written on the woman question, and contributed largely to periodical literature.

Linton (William James), poet, engraver, and author, b. at London, 1812. A Chartist in early life, he was intimately associated with the chief political refugees. He contributed to the democratic press, and also, we believe, to the Oracle of Reason. He wrote the Reasoner tract on “The Worth of Christianity.” He was one of the founders of the Leader, has edited the Truthseeker, the National and the English Republic, and has published Famine a Masque, a Life of Paine, and a memoir of James Watson and some volumes of poems. In ’67 he went to America, but has recently returned.

Liscow (Christian Ludwig), one of the greatest German satirists, b. Wittenberg, 29 April, 1701. He studied law in Jena, and became acquainted with Hagedorn in Hamburg. In 1745 he was Councillor of War at Dresden. This post he abandoned, occupying himself with literature until his death, 30 Oct. 1760. Liscow’s principal satires are The Uselessness of Good Works for our Salvation and The Excellence and Utility of Bad Writers. He has been called the German Swift, and his works show him to have been an outspoken Freethinker.

Lisle (Lionel), author of The Two Tests: the Supernatural Claims of Christianity Tried by Two of its own Rules (London, 1877).

Liszinski (Casimir), Polish martyr of noble birth. Denounced as an Atheist in 1688 by the Bishop of Wilna and Posnovia, he was decapitated and burnt at Grodno 30 March, 1689. His ashes were placed in a cannon and scattered abroad. Among the statements in Liszinski’s papers was that man was the creator of God, whom he had formed out of nothing.

Littre (Maximilian Paul Emile), French philologist and philosopher, b. Paris, 1 Feb. 1801. He studied medicine, literature and most of the sciences. An advanced Republican, he was one of the editors of the National. His edition of the works of Hippocrates (1839–61) proved the thoroughness of his learning. He embraced the doctrines of Comte, and in ’45 published a lucid analysis of the Positive Philosophy. He translated the Life of Jesus, by Strauss, and wrote the Literary History of France. His Dictionary of the French Language, in which he applied the historical method to philology, is one of the most colossal works ever performed by one man. He wrote on Comte and Positive Philosophy, Comte and Mill, etc., but refused to follow Comte in his later vagaries. From ’67 till his death he conducted La Philosophie Positive. Littré also wrote Science from the Standpoint of Philosophy, ’73; Literature and History, ’75; Fragments of Positive Philosophy and Contemporary Sociology, ’76. He was proposed for the Academy in ’63, but was bitterly opposed by Bishop Dupanloup, and was elected in ’71. In the same year he was elected to the National Assembly, and in ’75 was chosen senator. Under the Empire he twice refused the Legion of Honor. After a long life of incessant labor, he died at Paris, 2 June 1881.

Lloyd (John William), American poet and writer, b. of Welsh-English stock at Westfield, New Jersey, 4 June, 1857. Is mostly self-educated. After serving apprenticeship as a carpenter, became assistant to Dr. Trall. Brought up as an orthodox Christian he became an Agnostic and Anarchist, and has written much in Liberty and Lucifer.

Lohmann (Hartwic), a native of Holstein, who in 1616 occupied a good position in Flensburg. He was accused of Atheism. In 1635 he practised medicine at Copenhagen. He wrote a work called the Mirror of Faith. Died 1642.

Lollard (Walter), heretic and martyr, b. England, towards end of thirteenth century, began to preach in Germany in 1315. He rejected the sacraments and ceremonies of the Church. It is said he chose twelve apostles to propagate his doctrines and that he had many followers. Arrested at Cologne in 1322, he was burnt to death, dying with great courage.

Loman (Abraham Dirk), Dutch rationalist, b. The Hague 16 Sep. 1823. He holds the entire New Testament to be unhistorical, and the Pauline Epistles to belong to the second century, and has written many critical works.

Lombroso (Cesare). Italian writer and scientist, b. Nov. 1836, has been a soldier and military physician. Introduced Darwinism to Italy. Has written several works, mostly in relation to the physiology of criminals.

Longet (François Achille), French physiologist, b. St. Germain-en-Laye, 1811, published a Treatise on Physiology in 3 vols. and several medical works. Died Bordeaux, 20 April, 1871.

Longiano (Sebastiano). See Fausto.

Longue (Louis Pierre de), French Deist, writer in the service of the house of Conti; wrote Les Princesses de Malabares, Adrianople, 1734, in which he satirised religion. It was condemned to be burnt 31 Dec. 1734, and a new edition published in Holland with the imprint Tranquebar, 1735.

Lorand (Georges), Belgian journalist, b. Namur, 1851, studied law at Bologna (Italy) and soon became an active propagator of Atheistic doctrines among the youth of the University and in workmen associations. He edits La Réforme at Brussels, the ablest daily exponent of Freethought and Democratic doctrines in Belgium. He has lately headed an association for the suppression of the standing army.

“Lorm (Hieronymus),” the pen name of Heinrich Landesmann. German pessimistic poet, b. Nikolsberg, 9 Aug. 1821. In addition to many philosophical poems, he has written essays entitled Nature and Spirit, Vienna, ’84.

Lozano (Fernando), Spanish writer in Las Dominicales dal Libre Pensamiento, where he uses the signature “Demofilo.” He has written Battles of Freethought, Possessed by the Devil, The Church and Galeote, etc.

Lubbock (Sir John), banker, archæologist, scientist and statesman, b. in London, 30 April, 1834. Educated at Eton, he was taken into his father’s bank at the age of fourteen, and became a partner in ’56. By his archæological works he has most distinguished himself. He has written Prehistoric Times as Illustrated by Ancient Remains, and the Manners and Customs of Modern Savages (’65), and The Origin of Civilisation and the Primitive Condition of Man (’70).

Lucretius Carus (Titus). Roman philosophical poet, b. about B.C. 99. Little is known of his life, but his name is immortalised by his atheistic work, De Rerum Natura, in six books, which is the finest didactic poem in any language. Lucretius has been said to have believed in one god, Epicurus, whose system he expounds. Full of animation, dignity, and sublimity, he invests philosophy with the grace of genius. Is said to have died by his own hand B.C. 55.

Luetzelberger (Ernst Karl Julius), German controversialist b. Ditterswind, 19 Oct. 1802. He was a friend of the Feuerbachs. He wrote on The Church Tradition of the Apostle John. He also wrote a work on Jesus, translated in Ewerbeck’s Qu’est ce que la Religion. In ’56 he was appointed town librarian at Nuremberg.

Lunn (Edwin), Owenite lecturer. Published pamphlets On Prayer, its Folly, Inutility, etc. 1839, and Divine Revelation Examined, 1841.

Luys (Jules Bernard), French alienist, b. Paris, 1828. Is physician at l’Hopital de la Charité, Paris, and author of a work on The Brain and its Functions in the “International Scientific Series.”

Lyell (Sir Charles), geologist, b. Kinnordy, Forfarshire, 14 Nov. 1797. Was educated at Exeter College, Oxford, and devoted himself to geology. In 1830–33 appeared his great work, The Principles of Geology, which went through numerous editions. His last important work was Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man, in which he accepts the Darwinian theory. Died 22 Feb. 1875.

Maccall (William), writer, b. Largs. Scotland, 1812. Educated at Glasgow, he found his way to the Unitarian Church which he left as insufficiently broad. He wrote Elements of Individualism (’47), translated Spinoza’s Treatise on Politics (’54), wrote to the Critic as “Atticus,” contributed to the National Reformer, Secular Review, etc., published Foreign Biographies (’73), and translated Dr. Letourneau’s Biology and other works. Maccall was an idealistic Pantheist of strong individual character. Died at Bexley, 19 Nov. 1888.

Macchi (Mauro), Italian writer, b. Milan, 1 July, 1818. Became professor of rhetoric at the age of twenty-four, when, becoming obnoxious to the Austrians by the liberty of his opinions, he was deprived of his position. He betook himself to radical journalism, founded l’Italia, a Republican journal, for which he was exiled. He was associated with Ausonio Franchi and Luigi Stefanoni in the Libero Pensiero and the Libero Pensatore, and founded an Italian Association of Freethinkers. In ’61 he was elected deputy to Parliament for Cremona, and in ’79 was elevated to the Senate. Died at Rome, 24 Dec. 1880. One of his principal works is on the Council of Ten.

Macdonald (Eugene Montague), editor of the New York Truthseeker, b. Chelsea, Maine, 4 Feb. 1855. He learned the printer’s trade in New York, where he became foreman to D. M. Bennett, and contributed to the paper, which he has conducted since Mr. Bennett’s death.

Macdonald (George), brother of the preceding. Wrote on the Truthseeker, and now conducts Freethought, of San Francisco, in company with S. P. Putnam. George Macdonald is a genuine humorist and a sound Freethinker.

McDonnell (William), American novelist, b. 15 Sept. 1824. Author of The Heathens of the Heath and Exeter Hall, ’73, both Freethought romances.

Mackay (Robert William), author of The Progress of the Intellect, 1850, Sketch of the Rise and Progress of Christianity, ’53, and The Tubingen School, ’63.

Mackey (Sampson Arnold), astronomer and shoemaker, of Norwich, who is said to have constructed an orrery out of leather. He wrote The Mythological Astronomy of the Ancients, Norwich, 1822–24, Pious Frauds, ’26, A Lecture on Astronomy and Geology, edited by W. D. Saull, ’32, Urania’s Key to the Revelation, ’33, and The Age of Mental Emancipation, ’36–39. Mackey also wrote the Sphinxiad, a rare book. Died 1846.

Mackintosh (Thomas Simmons), author of The Electrical Theory of the Universe, 1848, and An Inquiry into the Nature of Responsibility. Died 1850.

MacSweeney (Myles), mythologist, b. at Enniskillen 1814. He came to London, and hearing Robert Taylor at the Rotunda in 1830, adopted his views. He held that Jesus never existed, and wrote in the National Reformer, Secular Chronicle, and other papers. He published a pamphlet on Moses and Bacchus in 1874. Died Jan. 1881.

Madach (Imré), Hungarian patriot and poet, b. 21 Jan. 1823, at Sztregova, studied at the University of Buda Pesth, and afterwards lived at Cseszlova. He was in ’52 incarcerated for a year for having given asylum at his castle to a political refugee. He became in ’61 delegate at Pesth. In this year he published his fine poem Az Ember Tragédiája (The Human Tragedy), in which mankind is personified as Adam, with Lucifer in his company. Many Freethought views occur in this poem. Died 5 Oct. 1864. His works were published in 3 vols., 1880.

Maier (Lodewyk). See Meyer.

Maillet (Benôit de). French author, b. Saint Michiel, 12 April, 1656. He was successively consul in Egypt and at Leghorn; and died at Marseilles, 30 Jan. 1738. After his death was published “Telliamed” (the anagram of his name), in which he maintained that all land was originally covered with water and that every species of animal, man included, owes its origin to the sea.

“Mainlaender” (Philipp), pseudonym of Philipp Batz, German pessimist, author of a profound work entitled the Philosophy of Redemption, the first part of which was published in 1876. It was said that “Mainländer” committed suicide in that year, but the second part of his work has come out 1882–86. He holds that Polytheism gives place to Monotheism and Pantheism, and these again to Atheism. “God is dead, and his death was the life of the world.”

Malherbe (François de). French poet, b. Caen, 1555. He served in the civil wars of the League, and enjoyed the patronage of Henry IV. He was called the prince of poets and the poet of princes. Many stories are told illustrating his sceptical raillery. When told upon his death-bed of paradise and hell he said he had lived like others and would go where others went. Died Paris, 16 Oct. 1628.

Mallet (Mme. Josephine). French authoress of a work on The Bible, its origin, errors and contradictions (1882).

Malon (Benoît). French Socialist, b. near St. Etienne, 1841. One of the founders of the International; he has written a work on that organisation, its history and principles (Lyons, 1872). He is editor on L’Intransigeant, conducted the Revue Socialiste, and has written on the religion and morality of the Socialists and other works.

Malvezin (Pierre). French journalist, b. Junhac, 26 June 1841. Author of La Bible Farce (Brussels, 1879.) This work was condemned and suppressed, 1880, and the author sentenced to three month’s imprisonment. He conducts the review La Fraternité.

Mandeville (Bernhard), b. Dort. 1670. He studied medicine, was made a doctor in Holland, and emigrated to London. In 1705 he published a poetical satire, The Grumbling Hive, or Knaves Turned Honest. In 1709, he published The Virgin Unmasked, and in 1723, Free Thoughts on Religion the Church and National Happiness. In the same year appeared his Fables of the Bees or Private Vices, Public Benefits. This work was presented by the grand jury of Middlesex, 1723 and 1728. It was attacked by Law, Berkeley, and others. Mandeville replied to Berkeley in A Letter to Dion, occasioned by a book called Alciphron, or the Minute Philosopher, 1732. He also wrote An Inquiry of Honor, and Usefulness of Christianity in War, 1731. Died, London, 19 Jan. 1733.

Mantegazza (Paolo), Italian anthropologist, b. Monza, 31 Oct. 1831. Studied medicine at Milan, Pisa, and Paria, and travelled considerably through Europe, and produced at Paris in 1854 his first book The Physiology of Pleasure. He has also written on the physiology of pain, spontaneous generation, anthropological works on Ecstacy, Love and other topics, and a fine romance Il Dio Ignoto, the unknown god (1876). Mantegazza is one of the most popular and able of Italian writers.

Manzoni (Romeo), Dr. Italian physician, b. Arogno, 1847, studied philosophy at Milan, and graduated at Naples. He has written on the doctrine of love of Bruno and Schopenhauer A Life of Jesus, also Il Prete, a work translated into German with the title Religion as a Pathological Phenomenon, etc.

Marchena (José), Spanish writer, b. Utrera, Andalusia, 1768. Brought up for the church, reading the writings of the French philosophers brought on him the Inquisition. He fled to France where he became a friend of Brissot and the Girondins. He wrote a pronounced Essai de Théologie, 1797, and translated into Spanish Molière’s Tartufe, and some works of Voltaire. He translated Dupuis’ Origine de tous les Cultes, became secretary to Murat, and died 10 Jan. 1821.

Marechal (Pierre Sylvain), French author, b. Paris, 15 Aug. 1750; was brought up to the Bar, which he quitted for the pursuit of literature. He was librarian to the Mazarin College, but lost his place by his Book Escaped from the Deluge, Psalms, by S. Ar. Lamech (anagram), 1784. This was a parody of the style of the prophets. In 1781 he wrote Le Nouveau Lucrece. In 1788 appeared his Almanack of Honest People, in which the name of Jesus Christ was found beside that of Epicurus. The work was denounced to Parliament, burnt at the hands of the hangman, and Maréchal imprisoned for four months. He welcomed the Revolution, and published a republican almanack, 1793. In 1797 and 1798 he published his Code of a Society of Men without God, and Free Thoughts on the Priests. In 1799 appeared his most learned work, Travels of Pythagoras in Egypt, Chaldea, India, Rome, Carthage, Gaul, etc. 6 vols. Into this fiction Maréchal puts a host of bold philosophical, political, and social doctrines. In 1800 he published his famous Dictionary of Atheists, which the Government prohibited and interdicted journals from noticing. In the following year appeared his For and Against the Bible. Died at Montrouge, 18 Jan. 1803. His beneficence is highly spoken of by Lalande.

Maret (Henry), French journalist and deputy, b. Santerre, 4 March, 1838. He ably combatted against the Empire, and edits Le Radical; was elected deputy in ’81.

Marguerite, of Valois, Queen of Navarre, sister to Francis I. b. at Angouleme, 11 April, 1492. Deserves place for her protection to religious reformers. Died 21 Dec. 1549.

Marguetel de Saint Denis. See Saint Evremond (C.)

Mario (Alberto), Italian patriot, b. 3 June, 1825. He edited the Tribune and Free Italy, became aide-de-camp to Garibaldi and married Jessie White, an English lady. In ’60 he wrote a polemic against the papacy entitled Slavery and Thought. Died 2 June, 1883.

Marlow (Christopher), English poet and dramatist, b. Canterbury, 8 Feb. 1564. Educated at Benet College, Cambridge, where he took his degree in 1587. He devoted himself to dramatic writing and according to some became an actor. He was killed in a brawl at Deptford, 1 June, 1593, in time to escape being tried on an information laid against him for Atheism and blasphemy. The audacity of his genius is displayed in Tamburlaine and Dr. Faustus. Of the latter, Goethe said “How greatly is it all planned.” Swinburne says “He is the greatest discoverer, the most daring and inspired pioneer in all our poetic literature.”

Marr (Wilhelm), German socialist, author of Religious Excursions, 1876, and several anti-Semitic tracts.

Marsais (Cesar Chesneau du). See Du Marsais.

Marselli (Niccola), Italian writer, b. Naples, 5 Nov. 1832. Author of advanced works on the Science of History, Nature and Civilisation, the Origin of Humanity, the Great Races of Humanity, etc.

Marston (Philip Bourke), English poet, b. London, 13 Aug. 1850. He became blind in childhood, and devoted to poetry. A friend of D. G. Rossetti, Swinburne, and Thomson, his poems are sad and sincere. Died 14 Feb. 1887, and was buried in accordance with his own wishes in unconsecrated ground at Highgate, and without religious service.

Marsy (François Marie de), b. Paris, 1714, educated as a Jesuit. He brought out an analysis of Bayle, 1755, for which he was confined in the Bastile. Died 16 Dec. 1763.

Marten (Henry), regicide, b. Oxford, 1602. Educated at Oxford, where he proceeded B.A., 1619. He was elected to Parliament in 1640, and expelled for his republican sentiments in 1643. He resumed his seat 6 Jan. 1646, took part in the civil war, sat as one of King Charles’s judges, and became one of the Council of State. He proposed the repeal of the statute of banishment against the Jews, and when it was sought to expel all profane persons, proposed to add the words “and all fools.” Tried for regicide 10 Oct. 1660, he was kept in Chepstow Castle till his death, Sep. 1680. Carlyle calls him “sworn foe of Cant in all its figures; an indomitable little Pagan if not better.”

Martin (Emma), English writer and lecturess, b. Bristol, 1812. Brought up as a Baptist, she, for a time, edited the Bristol Magazine. She wrote the Exiles of Piedmont and translated from the Italian the Maxims of Guicciardini. The trials of Holyoake and Southwell for blasphemy led her to inquire and embrace the Freethought cause. While Holyoake and Paterson were in gaol, Mrs. Martin went about committing the “crime” for which they were imprisoned. In ’43 she published Baptism A Pagan Rite. This was followed by Tracts for the People on the Bible no Revelation, Religion Superseded, Prayer, God’s Gifts and Men’s Duties, a conversation on the being of God, etc. She also lectured and wrote on the Punishment of Death, to which she was earnestly opposed. Died Oct. 1851.

Martin (Bon Louis Henri), French historian, b. St. Quentin, 20 Feb. 1810. He was sent to Paris to study law, but abandoned it for history. His History of France, in nineteen vols. (1838–53), is a monumental work of erudition. A confirmed Republican, he warmly opposed the Second Empire and after its fall became member of the National Assembly, ’71, and senator, ’76. He was elected member of the Academy, ’78. In addition to his historical works he contributed to le Siecle, la Liberté de penser, and l’Encyclopédie Nouvelle, etc. Died 14 Dec. 1883.

Martin (Louis), author of Les Evangiles Sans Dieu (called by Victor Hugo cette noble page), Paris, 1887, describes himself as an Atheist Socialist.

Martin (Louis Auguste). French writer, b. Paris, 25 April, 1811, editor of the Morale Independante and member of the Institute of Geneva. For his True and False Catholics (’58), he was fined three thousand francs and imprisoned for six months. He published the Annuaire Philosophique. Several of his works are placed on the Roman Index. Died Paris, 6 April, 1875.

Martinaud (M.), an ex-abbé who refused ordination, and wrote Letters of a young priest, who is an Atheist and Materialist, to his bishop, Paris, 1868, in which he says, “Religion is the infancy of peoples, Atheism their maturity.”

Martineau (Harriet), b. Norwich 12 June, 1803, descended from a Huguenot family. Brought up as a Unitarian, she began writing Devotional Exercises for Young Persons, and, taking to literature as a means of living, distinguished herself by popularisations of political economy. The Letters on the Laws of Man’s Nature and Development, which passed between her and H. G. Atkinson, appeared in ’51, and disclosed her advance to the Positivist school of Thought. In ’53 she issued a condensed account of Comte’s philosophy. She wrote a History of England during the Thirty Years’ Peace, and numerous other works. Died at Ambleside 27 June, 1876. Her Autobiography, published after her death, shows the full extent of her unbelief.

Masquerier (Lewis), American land reformer of Huguenot descent, b. 1 March, 1802. Wrote The Sataniad, established Greenpoint Gazette, and contributed to the Boston Investigator. Died 7 Jan. 1888.

Massenet (Jules Emile Fréderic), French musical composer, b. Montard, 12 May, 1842. Has written a daring and popular oratorio on Marie Magdeleine, and an opera, Herodiade.

Massey (Gerald), poet and archæologist, b. of poor parents at Tring, in Herts, 29 May, 1828. At eight years of age he was sent to a factory to earn a miserable pittance. At the age of fifteen he came to London as an errand boy, read all that came in his way, and became a Freethinker and political reformer. Inspired by the men of ’48, he started The Spirit of Freedom, ’49. It cost him five situations in eleven months. In ’53 his Ballad of Babe Christabel, with other Lyrical Poems at once gave him position as a poet of fine taste and sensibility. Mr. Massey devoted himself to the study of Egyptology, the result of which is seen in his Book of Beginnings and Natural Genesis, ’81–83, in which he shows the mythical nature of Christianity. Mr. Massey has also lectured widely on such subjects as Why Don’t God Kill the Devil? The Historical Jesus and the Mythical Christ, The Devil of Darkness in the Light of Evolution, The Coming Religion, etc. His poems are being re-published under the title My Lyrical Life.

Massey (James). See Tyssot. (S.)

Massol (Marie Alexandre), French writer, b. Beziers, 18 March, 1805. He studied under Raspail, went to Paris in ’30 and became a Saint Simonian. In ’48 he wrote on Lamennais’ La Réforme, and on the Voix du Peuple with his friend Proudhon, to whom he became executor. In ’65 he established La Morale Independante with the object of showing morality had nothing to do with theology. Died at Paris 20 April, 1875.

Maubert de Gouvest (Jean Henri), French writer, b. Rouen, 20 Nov. 1721. Brought up as a monk, he fled and took service in the Saxon army. He was thrown into prison by the King of Poland, but the Papal nuncio procured his release on condition of retaking his habit. This he did and went to Rome to be relieved of his vows. Failing this he went to Switzerland and England, where he was well received by Lord Bolingbroke. He published Lettres Iroquoises, Irocopolis, 1752, and other anonymous works. At Frankfort in 1764 he was arrested as a fugitive monk and vagabond, and was imprisoned eleven months. Died at Altona, 21 Nov. 1767.

Maudsley (Henry), M.D., b. near Giggleswick, Yorkshire, 5 Feb. 1835. Educated at London University, where he graduated M.D. in 1857. Taking mental pathology as his speciality, he soon reached eminence in his profession. From ’69–’79 he was professor of medical jurisprudence at University College, London. His works on The Physiology and Pathology of the Mind (’67), Body and Mind (’70), Responsibility in Mental Disease (’73), and Body and Will (’83) have attracted much attention. His Natural Laws and Supernatural Seemings (’80) is a powerful exposure of the essence of all superstition.

Mauvillon (Jakob von), b. Leipzig, 8 March, 1743. Though feeble in body, he had a penchant for the army, and joined the engineer corps of Hanover, and afterwards became lieutenant-colonel in the service of the Duke of Brunswick. A friend and admirer of Mirabeau, he defended the French Revolution in Germany. He wrote anonymously Paradoxes Moraux (Amsterdam, 1768) and The Only True System of the Christian Religion (Berlin, 1787), at first composed under the title of False Reasonings of the Christian Religion. Died in Brunswick, 11 Jan. 1794.

Mazzini (Giuseppe), Italian patriot, b. Genoa, 28 June 1808. In ’26 he graduated LL.D., in the University of Genoa, and plunged into politics, becoming the leader of Young Italy, with the object of uniting the nation. Condemned to death in ’33, he went to Switzerland and was expelled, then came to England in ’37. In ’48 he returned, and in March ’49 was made triumvir of Rome with Saffi and Armellini. Compelled, after a desperate resistance, to retire, he returned to London. He wrote in the Westminster Review and other periodicals and his works are numerous though mostly of a political character. They are distinguished by highmindedness, love of toleration and eloquence. Carlyle called Mazzini “a man of genius and virtue, a man of sterling veracity, humanity and nobleness of mind.” Died at Pisa 10 March, 1872. He was a Deist.

Meissner (Alfred), German poet, b. Teplitz, 15 Oct. 1822. Has written Ziska, an epic poem, The Son of Atta Troll, Recollections of Heine, etc. Died Teplitz, 20 May, 1885.

Meister (Jacques Henri), Swiss writer, b. Bückeburg, 6 Aug. 1744. Intended for a religious career, he went to France, and became acquainted with D’Holbach and Diderot, of whom he wrote a short life, and was secretary to Grimm. He wrote the Origin of Religious Principles, 1762, and Natural Morality, 1787.

Menard (Louis), French author and painter, b. Paris, 1822. In ’48–’49 he wrote Prologue of a Revolution, for which he was obliged to leave France. Has written on Morality before the Philosophers, ’60, Studies on the Origin of Christianity, ’67, and Freethinkers’ Religious Catechism, ’75.

Mendoza (Diego Hurtado de), famous and learned Spanish author, b. of distinguished family, Granada, 1503. Intended for the church, he studied Latin, Greek, Arabic, and Hebrew, but on leaving the university he joined the army. At school he wrote his well known comic novel, Lazarillo de Tormes, which was condemned by the Inquisition. Sent on an embassy to Pope Paul III., the latter was greatly shocked at his audacity and vehemence of speech. His chief work is his History of the Moorish Wars, which remained unprinted thirty years, through the intolerant policy of Philip II. Mendoza’s satires and burlesques were also prohibited by the Inquisition. He commented Aristotle and translated his Mechanics. Died at Valladolid, April, 1575.

Mendum (Josiah P.), publisher and proprietor of the Boston Investigator, b. Kennebunk, Maine, 7 July, 1811. He became a printer, and in 1833 became acquainted with Abner Kneeland and after his imprisonment engaged to print the Investigator, and when Kneeland left Boston for the West to recruit his health, he carried on the paper together with Mr. Horace Seaver. Mr. Mendum was one of the founders of the Paine Memorial Hall, Boston, and a chief support of Freethought in that city.

Mentelle (Edme), French geographer and historian, b. Paris, 11 Oct. 1730. Studied at the College de Beauvais under Crévier. His Précis de l’Histoire des Hébreux (1798), and Précis de l’Histoire Universelle are thoroughly anti-Christian. He doubted if Jesus ever existed. He was a member of the Institute and Chevalier of the Legion of Honor. Died at Paris, 28 Dec. 1815.

Mercier (L. A.), author of La Libre Pensée, Brussels, 1879.

Meredith (Evan Powell), Welsh writer, author of The Prophet of Nazareth (1864), an able work exposing the prophecies of Jesus, and Amphilogia, a reply in to the Bishop of Landaff and the Rev. J. F. Francklin, ’67.

Meredith (George), philosophical poet and novelist, b. Hampshire, 1828, and educated partly on the Continent. Intended for the law, he adopted literature in preference. He first appeared as a poet with Poems (’51). Of his powerful novels we mention the Ordeal of Richard Feveril (’59), Emilia in England (’64), now Sandra Belloni, with Vittoria (’66) for a sequel. Rhoda Fleming, Beauchamp’s Career (’76), The Egoist (’79), The Tragic Comedians (’81) and Diana of the Crossways (’85). Deep thought and fine grace characterise his writings. As a poet Mr. Meredith is not popular, but his volumes of verse are marked by the highest qualities, and give him a place apart from the throng of contemporary singers.

Merimee (Prosper), learned French writer, b. Paris, 28 Sept. 1808, author of numerous essays and romances. Was made Inspector General of Historic Monuments and was admitted to the Academy in ’44. In his anonymous brochure on H(enri) B(eyle), Eleutheropolis (Brussels), ’64, there is an open profession of Atheism. Died at Cannes, 23 Sept. 1870.

Merritt (Henry), English painter and writer, b. Oxford, 8 June, 1822. On coming to London he lived with Mr. Holyoake, and contributed to the Reasoner, using the signature “Christopher.” He wrote on Dirt and Pictures and Robert Dalby and his World of Troubles, etc. Died in London, 10 July, 1877.

Meslier or Mellier (Jean), curé of Etrepigny, Champagne, b. Mazerny, Rethelois, 15 June, 1664. Died in 1729. After his death a will was discovered of which he had made three copies, in which he repudiated Christianity and requested to be buried in his own garden. His property he left to his parishioners. Voltaire published it under the title of Extract from the sentiments of Jean Meslier. To Meslier has been attributed the work entitled Le Bon Sens, written by Baron D’Holbach. Le Testament de Jean Meslier has been published in three volumes at Amsterdam, 1864, preceded by a study by Rudolf Charles (R. C. d’Ablaing van Giessenburg). It calls in question all the dogmas of Christianity. Anacharsis Clootz proposed to the National Convention to erect a statue to this “honest priest.”

Metchnikov (Léon), Russian writer in French; author of a work on Japan and of able articles, notably one on Christian Communion in the Revue Internationale des Sciences Biologiques, tome 12.

Metrodorus of Lampsacus. Greek philosopher, b. 330 B.C., a disciple and intimate friend of Epicurus. He wrote numerous works, the titles of which are preserved by Diogenes Laertius. Died B.C. 277.

Mettrie, see La Mettrie.

Meunier (Amédée Victor), French writer, b. Paris, 2 May, 1817. Has done much to popularise science by his Scientific Essays, 1851–58, the Ancestors of Adam, ’75, etc.

Meyer (Lodewijk), a Dutch physician, a friend and follower of Spinoza, who published Exercitatio Paradoxa on the philosophical interpretation of scripture, Eleutheropoli (Amst.), 1666. This has been wrongly attributed to Spinoza. It was translated into Dutch in 1667. He is also credited with Lucii Antistic Constantes, de jure ecclesiasticorum. Alethopoli (Amst.), 1665. This work is also attributed to another writer, viz. P. de la Court.

Mialhe (Hippolyte), French writer, b. Roquecourbe (Tarn), 1834. From ’60–62 he was with the French army of occupation at Rome. He has organised federations of Freethinkers in France, edited L’Union des Libres-Penseurs, and has written Mémoires d’un libre Penseur (Nevers, 1888).

Michelet (Jules), French historian, b. Paris, 21 Aug. 1798. Became a Professor of History in 1821. Has written a History of France and of the French Revolution; The Jesuits, with his friend Quinet, ’43; The Priest, Woman and the Family, ’44; The Sorceress, dealing with witchcraft in the Middle Ages, ’62; The Bible of Humanity, ’64. His lectures were interdicted by the Government of Louis Phillippe, and after the coup d’état he was deprived of his chair. All Michelet’s works glow with eloquence and imagination. He never forgot that he was a republican and Freethinker of the nineteenth century. Died at Hyères, 9 Feb. 1874.

Michelet (Karl Ludwig), German philosopher of French family, b. Berlin, 4 Dec. 1801. In ’29 he became Professor of Philosophy. A disciple of Hegel, he edited his master’s works, ’32. His principle work is A System of Philosophy as an Exact Science, ’76–81. He has also written on the relation of Herbert Spencer to German philosophy.

Middleton (Conyers), Freethinking clergyman, b. York 1683. His Letters from Rome, 1729, showed how much Roman Christianity had borrowed from Paganism, and his Free Inquiry into the Miraculous Powers supposed to have subsisted in the Christian Church, 1749, was a severe blow to hitherto received “Christian Evidences.” He also wrote a classic Life of Cicero. Died at Hildersham near Cambridge, 28 July, 1750.

Mignardi (G.), Italian writer, who in 1884 published Memorie di un Nuovo Credente (Memoirs of a New Believer).

Milelli (Domenico), Italian poet, b. Catanzaro, Feb. 1841. His family intended to make him a priest, but he turned out a rank Pagan, as may be seen in his Odi Pagane, ’79, Canzonieri, ’84, and other works.

Mill (James), philosopher and historian, b. Northwaterbridge, Montrose, 6 April, 1773. Studied at Edinburgh, and distinguished himself by his attainments in Greek and moral philosophy. He was licensed as preacher in the Scotch Church, but removed to London in 1800, and became editor of the Literary Review, and contributed to the reviews. He published, ’17–’19, his History of British India. He contributed many articles to the fifth edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica. A friend of Bentham, he wrote largely in the Westminster Review, and did much to forward the views of Philosophic Radicalism. His Analysis of the Human Mind, ’39, is a profound work. In religion he was a complete sceptic. Reading Bishop Butler’s Analogy made him an Atheist. Died 23 June, 1836.

Mill (John Stuart), eminent English writer, son of the preceding, b. London, 20 May, 1806. Educated by his father without religion, he became clerk in the East India House, and early in life contributed to the Westminster and Edinburgh Reviews. Of the first he became joint editor in ’35. His System of Logic, ’43, first made him generally known. This was followed by his Principles of Political Economy. In ’59 appeared his small but valuable treatise On Liberty, in which he defends the unrestricted free discussion of religion. Among subsequent works were Utilitarianism, ’63; Auguste Comte and Positivism, ’67; Examination of Sir William Hamilton’s Philosophy ’65; Dissertations and Discussions, ’59–’75; and the Subjection of Women, ’69. In ’65 he was elected to Parliament for Westminster, but lost his seat in ’68. In ’67 he was chosen Rector of St. Andrews, and delivered the students an able address. Prof. Bain says “in everything characteristic of the creed of Christendom he was a thorough-going negationist. He admitted neither its truth nor its utility.” Died at Avignon, 8 May, 1873, leaving behind his interesting Autobiography and three essays on “Nature,” “Theism,” and “Religion.”

Mille (Constantin), Roumanian writer, b. at Bucharest, educated at Paris. He lectured at Jassy and Bucharest on the History of Philosophy, from a Materialistic point of view. He was also active with Codreano, and after the latter’s death (’77), in spreading Socialism. Millé contributes to the Rivista Sociala and the Vütorul, edited by C. Pilitis.

Milliere (Jean Baptiste), Socialist, b. of poor parents, Lamarche (Côte d’Or), 13 Dec. 1817. He became an advocate, and founded the Proletaire at Clermont Ferrand. For writing Revolutionary Studies he was, after the coup d’état, banished to Algeria until the amnesty of ’59. In ’69 Millière started, with Rochefort, the Marseillaise, of which he became one of the principal directors. At the election for the National Assembly he was elected for Paris by 73,000 votes. Although he took no part in the Commune, but sought to act as an intermediary, he was arrested and summarily shot near the Pantheon, Paris, 26 May, 1871. He died crying “Vive l’Humanité.”

Mirabaud (Jean Baptiste de), French writer, b. Paris, 1675. He translated Tasso and Ariosto, and became perpetual secretary to the French Academy. He wrote Opinions of the Ancients on the Jews, a Critical Examination of the New Testament, (published under the name of Fréret), The World: its Origin and Antiquity, 1751, Sentiments of a Philosopher on the Nature of the Soul inserted in the collection entitled Nouvelle libertés de Penser, Amst. (Paris) 1743. The System of Nature, attributed to Mirabaud, was written by d’Holbach. Mirabaud died 24 June, 1760.

Mirabeau (Honoré Gabriel Riquetti Comte de), French statesman and orator, b. at the Chateau de Bignon (Loiret) 9 March, 1749. He inherited a passionate nature, a frank strong will, generous temper, and a mind of prodigious activity. He entered the army in 1767, but by an amorous intrigue provoked the ire of his father, by whom he was more than once imprisoned. In 1776 he went to Amsterdam and employed himself in literary work. In 1783 appeared anonymously his Erotika Biblion, dealing with the obscenity of the Bible. In 1786 he was sent to Berlin, where he met Frederick and collected materials for his work on The Prussian Monarchy. He returned to the opening of the States General and soon became leader of the Revolution, being in Jan. 1791 chosen President of the National Assembly. He advocated the abolition of the double aristocracy of Lords and bishops, the spoliation of the Church and the National Guard. Carlyle calls him “far the strongest, best practical intellect of that time.” He died 2 April, 1791. Among his last words were, “Envelop me with perfumes and crown me with flowers that I may pass away into everlasting sleep.”

Miranda (Don Francisco). South American patriot and general, b. Caracas 1750, aided the Americans in their War of Independence, tried to free Guatimalaus from the Spanish, allied himself to the Girondins and became second in command in the army of Dumouriez. He was a friend of Thomas Paine. In 1806–11 he was engaged seeking to free Peru from the Spaniards, by whom he was made prisoner, and died in a dungeon at Cadiz, 16 Jan. 1816. It was said General Miranda made a sceptic of James Mill.

Miron. See Morin (André Saturnin.)

Mitchell (J. Barr), Dr., anonymous author of Dates and Data (1876) and Chrestos; a Religious Epithet (1880). Dr. Mitchell has also written in the National Reformer, using his initials only.

Mitchell (Logan), author of Lectures published as The Christian Mythology Unveiled. This work was also issued under the title Superstition Besieged. It is said that Mitchell committed suicide in Nov. 1841. He left by his will a sum of £500 to any bookseller who had the courage to publish his book. It was first published by B. Cousens, and was republished in ’81.