A Biographical Dictionary of Freethinkers. (continued 3)

Cuffeler (Abraham Johann), a Dutch philosopher and doctor of law, who was one of the first partizans of Spinoza. He lived at Utrecht towards the end of the seventeenth century, and wrote a work on logic in three parts entitled Specimen Artis Ratiocinandi, etc., published ostensibly at Hamburg, but really at Amsterdam or Utrecht, 1684. It was without name but with the author’s portrait.

Cuper (Frans), Dutch writer, b. Rotterdam. Cuper is suspected to have been one of those followers of Spinoza, who under pretence of refuting him, set forth and sustained his arguments by feeble opposition. His work entitled Arcana Atheismi Revelata, Rotterdam 1676, was denounced as written in bad faith. Cuper maintained that the existence of God could not be proved by the light of reason.

Cyrano de Bergerac (Savinien), French comic writer, b. Paris 6 March, 1619. After finishing his studies and serving in the army in his youth he devoted himself to literature. His tragedy “Agrippine” is full of what a bookseller called “belles impiétés,” and La Monnoye relates that at its performance the pit shouted “Oh, the wretch! The Atheist! How he mocks at holy things!” Cyrano knew personally Campanella, Gassendi, Lamothe Le Vayer, Linière, Rohault, etc. His other works consist of a short fragment on Physic, a collection of Letters, and a Comic History of the States and Empires of the Moon and the Sun. Cyrano took the idea of this book from F. Godwin’s Man in the Moon, 1583, and it in turn gave rise to Swift’s Gulliver’s Travels and Voltaire’s Micromegas. Died Paris, 1655.

Czolbe (Heinrich), German Materialist, b. near Dantzic, 30 Dec. 1819, studied medicine at Berlin, writing an inaugural dissertation on the Principles of Physiology, ’44. In ’55 he published his New Exposition of Sensationalism, in which everything is resolved into matter and motion, and in ’65 a work on The Limits and Origin of Human Knowledge. He was an intimate friend of Ueberweg. Died at Königsberg, 19 Feb. 1873. Lange says “his life was marked by a deep and genuine morality.”

D’Ablaing. See Giessenburg.

Dale (Antonius van), Dutch writer, b. Haarlem, 8 Nov. 1638. His work on oracles was erudite but lumbersome, and to it Fontenelle gave the charm of style. It was translated into English by Mrs. Aphra Behn, under the title of The History of Oracles and the Cheats of Pagan Priests, 1699. Van Dale, in another work on The Origin and Progress of Idolatry and Superstition, applied the historical method to his subject, and showed that the belief in demons was as old and as extensive as the human race. He died at Haarlem, 28 Nov. 1708.

Damilaville (Etienne Noël), French writer, b. at Bordeaux, 1721. At first a soldier, then a clerk, he did some service for Voltaire, who became his friend. He also made the friendship Diderot, d’Alembert, Grimm, and d’Holbach. He contributed to the Encyclopédie, and in 1767 published an attack on the theologians, entitled Theological Honesty. The book entitled Christianity Unveiled [see Boulanger and Holbach] was attributed by Voltaire, who called it Impiety Unveiled, and by La Harpe and Lalande to Damilaville. Voltaire called him “one of our most learned writers.” Larousse says “he was an ardent enemy of Christianity.” He has also been credited with a share in the System of Nature. Died 15 Dec. 1768.

Dandolo (Vincenzo) Count, Italian chemist, b. Venice, 26 Oct. 1758, wrote Principles of Physical Chemistry, a work in French on The New Men, in which he shows his antagonism to religion, and many useful works on vine, timber, and silk culture. Died Varessa, 13 Dec. 1819.

Danton (Georges Jacques), French revolutionist, b. Arcis sur Aube, 28 Oct. 1759. An uncle wished him to enter into orders, but he preferred to study law. During the Revolution his eloquence made him conspicuous at the Club of Cordeliers, and in Feb. 1791, he became one of the administrators of Paris. One of the first to see that after the flight of Louis XVI. he could no longer be king, he demanded his suspension, and became one of the chief organisers of the Republic. In the alarm caused by the invasion he urged a bold and resolute policy. He was a member of the Convention and of the Committee of Public Safety. At the crisis of the struggle with Robespierre, Danton declined to strike the first blow and disdained to fly. Arrested March, 1794, he said when interrogated by the judge, “My name is Danton, my dwelling will soon be in annihilation; but my name will live in the Pantheon of history.” He maintained his lofty bearing on the scaffold, where he perished 5 April, 1794. For his known scepticism Danton was called fils de Diderot. Carlyle calls him “a very Man.”

Dapper (Olfert), Dutch physician, who occupied himself with history and geography, on which he produced important works. He had no religion and was suspected of Atheism. He travelled through Syria, Babylonia, etc., in 1650. He translated Herodotus (1664) and the orations of the late Prof. Caspar v. Baerli (1663), and wrote a History of the City of Amsterdam, 1663. Died at Amsterdam 1690.

Darget (Etienne), b. Paris, 1712; went to Berlin in 1744 and became reader and private secretary to Frederick the Great (1745–52), who corresponded with him afterwards. Died 1778.

Darwin (Charles Robert), English naturalist, b. Shrewsbury, 12 Feb. 1809. Educated at Shrewsbury, Edinburgh University, and Cambridge. He early evinced a taste for collecting and observing natural objects. He was intended for a clergyman, but, incited by Humboldt’s Personal Narrative, resolved to travel. He accompanied Captain Fitzroy in the “Beagle” on a voyage of exploration, ’31–36, which he narrated in his Voyage of a Naturalist Round the World, which obtained great popularity. In ’39 he married, and in ’42 left London and settled at Down, Kent. His studies, combined with the reading of Lamarck and Malthus, led to his great work on The Origin of Species by means of Natural Selection, ’59, which made a great outcry and marked an epoch. Darwin took no part in the controversy raised by the theologians, but followed his work with The Fertilisation of Orchids, ’62; Cross and Self Fertilisation of Plants, ’67; Variations of Plants and Animals under Domestication, ’65; and in ’71 The Descent of Man and Selection in relation to Sex, which caused yet greater consternation in orthodox circles. The following year he issued The Expression of the Emotions of Men and Animals. He also published works on the Movements of Plants, Insectivorous Plants, the Forms of Flowers, and Earthworms. He died 19 April, 1882, and was buried in Westminster Abbey, despite his expressed unbelief in revelation. To a German student he wrote, in ’79, “Science has nothing to do with Christ, except in so far as the habit of scientific research makes a man cautious in admitting evidence. For myself I do not believe that there ever has been any revelation.” In his Life and Letters he relates that between 1836 and 1842 he had come to see “that the Old Testament was no more to be trusted than the sacred books of the Hindoos.” He rejected design and said “I for one must be content to remain an Agnostic.”

Darwin (Erasmus), Dr., poet, physiologist and philosopher, grandfather of the above, was born at Elston, near Newark, 12 Dec. 1731. Educated at Chesterfield and Cambridge he became a physician, first at Lichfield and afterwards at Derby. He was acquainted with Rousseau, Watt and Wedgwood. His principal poem, The Botanic Garden was published in 1791, and The Temple of Nature in 1803. His principal work is Zoomania, or the laws of organic life (1794), for which he was accused of Atheism. He was actually a Deist. He also wrote on female education and some papers in the Philosophical Transactions. Died at Derby, 18 April, 1802.

Daubermesnil (François Antoine), French conventionalist. Elected deputy of Tarn in 1792. Afterwards became a member of the Council of Five Hundred. He was one of the founders of Theophilanthropy. Died at Perpignan 1802.

Daudet (Alphonse), French novelist, b. at Nîmes, 13 May 1840, author of many popular romances, of which we mention L’Evangeliste, ’82, which has been translated into English under the title Port Salvation.

Daunou (Pierre Claude François), French politician and historian, b. Boulogne, 18 Aug. 1761. His father entered him in the congregation of the Fathers of the Oratory, which he left at the Revolution. The department of Calais elected him with Carnot and Thomas Paine to the Convention. After the Revolution he became librarian at the Pantheon. He was a friend of Garat, Cabanis, Chenier, Destutt Tracy, Ginguené and Benj. Constant. Wrote Historical Essay on the Temporal Power of the Popes, 1810. Died at Paris, 20 June, 1840, noted for his benevolence.

Davenport (Allen), social reformer, b. 1773. He contributed to Carlile’s Republican; wrote an account of the Life, Writings and Principles of Thomas Spence, the reformer (1826); and published a volume of verse, entitled The Muses’ Wreath (1827). Died at Highbury, London, 1846.

Davenport (John), Deist, b. London, 8 June, 1789, became a teacher. He wrote An Apology for Mohammed and the Koran, 1869; Curiositates Eroticœ Physiologæ, or Tabooed Subjects Freely Treated, and several educational works. Died in poverty 11 May, 1877.

David of Dinant, in Belgium, Pantheistic philosopher of the twelfth century. He is said to have visited the Papal Court of Innocent III. He shared in the heresies of Amalric of Chârtres, and his work Quaterini was condemned and burnt (1209). He only escaped the stake by rapid flight. According to Albert the Great he was the author of a philosophical work De Tomis, “Of Subdivisions,” in which he taught that all things were one. His system was similar to that of Spinoza.

David (Jacques Louis), French painter, born at Paris, 31 Aug. 1748, was made painter to the king, but joined the Jacobin Club, became a member of the Convention, voted for the king’s death and for the civic festivals, for which he made designs. On the restoration he was banished. Died at Brussels, 29 Dec. 1825. David was an honest enthusiast and a thorough Freethinker.

Davidis or David (Ferencz), a Transylvanian divine, b. about 1510. He was successively a Roman Catholic, a Lutheran and an Antitrinitarian. He went further than F. Socinus and declared there was “as much foundation for praying to the Virgin Mary and other dead saints as to Jesus Christ.” He was in consequence accused of Judaising and thrown into prison at Deva, where he died 6 June, 1579.

Davies (John C.), of Stockport, an English Jacobin, who in 1797 published a list of contradictions of the Bible under the title of The Scripturian’s Creed, for which he was prosecuted and imprisoned. The work was republished by Carlile, 1822, and also at Manchester, 1839.

Davidson (Thomas), bookseller and publisher, was prosecuted by the Vice Society in Oct. 1820, for selling the Republican and a publication of his own, called the Deist’s Magazine. For observations made in his defence he was summoned and fined £100, and he was sentenced to two years’ imprisonment in Oakham Gaol. He died 16 Dec. 1826.

Debierre (Charles), French writer, author of Man Before History, 1888.

De Dominicis. See Dominicis.

De Felice (Francesco), Italian writer, b. Catania, Sicily, 1821, took part in the revolution of ’43, and when Garibaldi landed in Sicily was appointed president of the provisional council of war. Has written on the reformation of elementary schools.

De Greef (Guillaume Joseph), advocate at Brussels Court of Appeal, b. at Brussels, 9 Oct. 1842. Author of an important Introduction to Sociology, 1886. Wrote in La Liberté, 1867–73, and now writes in La Societé Nouvelle.

De Gubernatis (Angelo), Italian Orientalist and writer, b. Turin, 7 April, 1840; studied at Turin University and became doctor of philosophy. He studied Sanskrit under Bopp and Weber at Berlin. Sig. de Gubernatis has adorned Italian literature with many important works, of which we mention his volumes on Zoological Mythology, which has been translated into English, ’72: and on the Mythology of Plants. He has compiled and in large part written a Universal History of Literature, 18 vols. ’82–85; edited La Revista Europea and the Revue Internationale, and contributed to many publications. He is a brilliant writer and a versatile scholar.

De Harven (Emile Jean Alexandre), b. Antwerp, 23 Sept. 1837, the anonymous author of a work on The Soul: its Origin and Destiny (Antwerp, 1879).

Dekker (Eduard Douwes), the greatest Dutch writer and Freethinker of this century, b. Amsterdam, 2 March, 1820. In ’39 he accompanied his father, a ship’s captain, to the Malayan Archipelago. He became officer under the Dutch government in Sumatra, Amboina, and Assistant-Resident at Lebac, Java. He desired to free the Javanese from the oppression of their princes, but the government would not help him and he resigned and returned to Holland, ’56. The next four years he spent, in poverty, vainly seeking justice for the Javanese. In ’60 he published under the pen name of “Multatuli” Max Havelaar, a masterly indictment of the Dutch rule in India, which has been translated into German, French and English. Then follow his choice Minnebrieven (Love Letters), ’61; Vorstenschool (A School for Princes), and Millioenen Studiën (Studies on Millions). His Ideën, 7 vols. ’62–79, are full of the boldest heresy. In most of his works religion is attacked, but in the Ideas faith is criticised with much more pungency and satire. He wrote “Faith is the voluntary prison-cell of reason.” He was an honorary member of the Freethought Society, De Dageraad, and contributed to its organ. During the latter years of his life he lived at Wiesbaden, where he died 19 Feb. 1887. His corpse was burned in the crematory at Gotha.

De Lalande (see Lalande).

Delambre (Jean Baptiste Joseph), French astronomer, b. Amiens, 19 Sept. 1749, studied under Lalande and became, like his master, an Atheist. His Tables of the Orbit of Uranus were crowned by the Academy, 1790. In 1807 he succeeded Lalande as Professor of Astronomy at the Collége de France. He is the author of a History of Astronomy in five volumes, and of a number of astronomical tables and other scientific works He was appointed perpetual secretary of the Academy of Sciences. Died 19 Aug. 1822, and was buried at Père la Chaise. Cuvier pronouncing a discourse over his grave.

De la Ramee. See Ramée.

Delbœuf (Joseph Remi Léopold), Belgian writer, b. Liège, 30 Sept. 1831; is Professor at the University of Liège, and has written Psychology as a Natural Science, its Present and its Future; Application of the Experimental Method to the Phenomena of the Soul, ’73, and other works. In his Philosophical Prolegomena to Geometry he suggests that even mathematical axioms may have an empirical origin.

Delbos (Léon), linguist, b. 20 Sept. 1849 of Spanish father and Scotch mother. Educated in Paris, Lycée Charlemagne. Is an M.A. of Paris and officier d’Académie. Speaks many languages, and is a good Arabic and Sanskrit scholar. Has travelled widely and served in the Franco-German War. Besides many educational works, M. Delbos has written L’Athée, the Atheist, a Freethought romance ’79, and in English The Faith in Jesus not a New Faith, ’85. He has contributed to the Agnostic Annual, and is a decided Agnostic.

Delepierre (Joseph Octave), Belgian bibliophile, b. Bruges, 12 March, 1802. Was for thirty-five years secretary of Legation to England. His daughter married N. Truebner, who published his work L’Enfer, 1876, and many other bibliographical studies. Died London, 18 Aug. 1879.

Delescluze (Louis Charles), French journalist and revolutionary, b. Dreux, 2 Oct. 1809, was arrested in ’34 for sedition. Implicated in a plot in ’35, he took refuge in Belgium. In ’48 he issued at Paris La Revolution Démocratique et Sociale, but was soon again in prison. He was banished, came to England with Ledru Rollin, but returning to France in ’53 was arrested. In ’68 he published the Réveil, for which he was again fined and sentenced to prison for ten years. In ’59 he was amnestied and imprisoned. He became head of the Commune Committee of Public Safety, and died at the barricade, 25 May, 1871.

Deleyre (Alexandre), French writer, b. Porbats, near Bordeaux, 6 Jan. 1726. Early in life he entered the order of Jesuits, but changed his faith and became the friend of Rousseau and Diderot. He contributed to the Encyclopédie, notably the article “Fanatisme,” and published an analysis of Bacon and works on the genius of Montesquieu and Saint Evremond, and a History of Voyages. He embraced the Revolution with ardor, was made deputy to the Convention, and in 1795 was made member of the Institute. Died at Paris, 27 March, 1797.

Delisle de Sales. See Isoard Delisle (J. B. C.)

Dell (John Henry), artist and poet, b. 11 Aug. 1832. Contributed to Progress, wrote Nature Pictures, ’71, and The Dawning Grey, ’85, a volume of vigorous verse, imbued with the spirit of democracy and freethought. Died 31 Jan. 1888.

Deluc (Adolphe), Professor of Chemistry at Brussels, b. Paris, 1 Sept. 1811. Collaborated on La Libre Recherche.

De Maillet. See Maillet (Benoît de).

Democritus, a wealthy Atheistic philosopher, b. Abdera, Thrace, B.C. 460. He travelled to Egypt and over a great part of Asia, and is also said to have visited India. He is supposed to have been acquainted with Leucippus, and sixty works were ascribed to him. Died B.C. 357. He taught that all existence consisted of atoms, and made the discovery of causes the object of scientific inquiry. He is said to have laughed at life in general, which Montaigne says is better than to imitate Heraclitus and weep, since mankind are not so unhappy as vain. Democritus was the forerunner of Epicurus, who improved his system.

Demonax, a cynical philosopher who lived in the second century of the Christian era and rejected all religion. An account of him was written by Lucian.

Demora (Gianbattista), director of the Libero Pensatore of Milan, and author of some dramatic works.

Denis (Hector), Belgian advocate and professor of political economy and philosophy at Brussels University, b. Braine-le-Comte, 29 April, 1842. Has written largely on social questions and contributed to La Liberté, la Philosophie Positive, etc. Is one of the Council of the International Federation of Freethinkers.

Denslow (Van Buren), American writer, author of essays on Modern Thinkers, 1880, to which Colonel Ingersoll wrote an introduction. He contributed a paper on the value of irreligion to the Religio Philosophic journal of America, Jan. ’78, and has written in the Truthseeker and other journals.

Denton (William F.), poet, geologist, and lecturer, b. Darlington, Durham, 8 Jan. 1823. After attaining manhood he emigrated to the United States, ’48, and in ’56 published Poems for Reformers. He was a prolific writer, and constant lecturer on temperance, psychology, geology, and Freethought. In ’72 he published Radical Discourses on Religious Subjects (Boston, ’72), and Radical Rhymes, ’79. He travelled to Australasia, and died of a fever while conducting scientific explorations in New Guinea 26 Aug. 1883.

De Paepe (César) Dr., Belgian Socialist, b. Ostend, 12 July, 1842. He was sent to the college of St. Michel, Brussels. He obtained the Diploma of Candidate of Philosophy, but on the death of his father became a printer with Désiré Brismée (founder of Les Solidaires, a Rationalist society). Proudhon confided to him the correction of his works. He became a physician and is popular with the workmen’s societies. He was one of the foremost members of the International and attended all its congresses, as well as those of the International Federation of Freethinkers. He has written much on public hygiene, political economy, and psychology, collaborating in a great number of the most advanced journals. Dr. De Paepe is a short, fair, energetic man, capable both as a speaker and writer.

Depasse (Hector), French writer, b. at Armentières in 1843, is editor of La République Française, and member of the Paris Municipal Council. He has written a striking work on Clericalism, in which he urges the separation of Church and State, 1877; and is author of many little books on Contemporary Celebrities, among them are Gambetta, Bert, Ranc, etc.

De Ponnat. See Ponnat (—de), Baron.

De Pontan. See Ponnat.

De Potter (Agathon Louis), Belgian economist, b. Brussels, 11 Nov. 1827. Has written many works on Social Science, and has collaborated to La Ragione (Reason), ’56, and La Philosophie de l’Avenir.

De Potter (Louis Antoine Joseph), Belgian politician and writer, father of the above, b. of noble family, Bruges, 26 April, 1786. In 1811 he went to Italy and lived ten years at Rome. In ’21 he wrote the Spirit of the Church, in 6 vols., which are put on the Roman Index. A strong upholder of secular education in Belgium, he was arrested more than once for his radicalism, being imprisoned for eighteen months in ’28. In Sept. ’30 he became a member of the provisional government. He was afterwards exiled and lived in Paris, where he wrote a philosophical and anti-clerical History of Christianity, in 8 vols., 1836–37. He also wrote a Rational Catechism, 1854, and a Rational Dictionary, 1859, and numerous brochures. Died Bruges, 22 July, 1859.

Deraismes (Maria), French writer and lecturer, b. Paris, 15 Aug. 1835. She first made her name as a writer of comedies. She wrote an appeal on behalf of her sex, Aux Femmes Riches, ’65. The Masonic Lodge of Le Pecq, near Paris, invited her to become a member, and she was duly installed under the Grand Orient of France. The first female Freemason, was president of the Paris Anti-clerical Congress of 1881, and has written much in her journal, Le Républicain de Seine et Oise.

De Roberty (Eugene). See Roberty.

Desbarreaux (Jacques Vallée), Seigneur, French poet and sceptic, b. Paris, 1602, great-nephew of Geoffrey Vallée, who was burnt in 1574. Many stories are related of his impiety, e.g. the well-known one of his having a feast of eggs and bacon. It thundered, and Des Barreaux, throwing the plate out of window, exclaimed, “What an amount of noise over an omelette.” It was said he recanted and wrote a poem beginning, “Great God, how just are thy chastisements.” Voltaire, however, assigns this poem to the Abbé Levau. Died at Chalons, 9 May, 1673.

Descartes (René), French philosopher, b. at La Haye, 31 March, 1596. After leaving college he entered the army in ’16, and fought in the battle of Prague. He travelled in France and Italy, and in ’29 settled in Holland. In ’37 he produced his famous Discourses upon the Method of Reasoning Well, etc., and in ’41 his Meditations upon First Philosophy. This work gave such offence to the clergy that he was forced to fly his country “parce qu’il y fait trop chaud pour lui.” He burnt his Traite du Monde (Treatise on the World) lest he should incur the fate of Gallilei. Though a Theist, like Bacon, he puts aside final causes. He was offered an asylum by Christina, Queen of Sweden, and died at Stockholm 11 Feb. 1650.

Deschamps (Léger-Marie), known also as Dom Deschamps, a French philosopher, b. Rennes, Poitiers, 10 Jan. 1716. He entered the Order of Benedictines, but lost his faith by reading an abridgment of the Old Testament. He became correspondent of Voltaire, Rousseau, d’Alembert, Helvetius, and other philosophers. “Ce prêtre athée,” as Ad. Franck calls him, was the author of a treatise entitled La Vérité, ou le Vrai Système, in which he appears to have anticipated all the leading ideas of Hegel. God, he says, as separated from existing things, is pure nothingness. An analysis of his remarkable work, which remained in manuscript for three-quarters of a century, has been published by Professor Beaussire (Paris, 1855). Died at Montreuil-Bellay, 19 April 1774.

Deslandes (André François Boureau), b. Pondichery, 1690. Became member of the Berlin Academy and wrote numerous works, mostly under the veil of anonymity, the principal being A Critical History of Philosophy, 3 vols(1737). His Pygmalion, a philosophical romance, was condemned by the parliament of Dijon, 1742. His Reflexions sur les grands hommes qui sont mort en Plaisantant (Amsterdam, 1732) was translated into English and published in 1745 under the title, Dying Merrily. Another work directed against religion was On the certainty of Human Knowledge, a philosophical examination of the different prerogatives of reason and faith (London, 1741). Died Paris, 11 April, 1757.

Des Maizeaux (Pierre), miscellaneous writer, b. Auvergne, 1673. He studied at Berne and Geneva, and became known to Bayle who introduced him to Lord Shaftesbury, with whom he came to London, 1699. He edited the works of Bayle, Saint Evremond and Toland, whose lives he wrote, as well as those of Hales and Chillingworth. Anthony Collins was his friend, and at his death left him his manuscripts. These he transferred to Collins’s widow and they were burnt. He repented and returned the money, 6 Jan. 1730, as the wages of iniquity. He became Secretary of the Royal Society of London, where he died, 11 July, 1745.

Desmoulins (Lucié Simplice Camille Benôit), French revolutionary writer, b. Guise, 2 March, 1760. He was a fellow-student of Robespierre at Paris, and became an advocate and an enthusiastic reformer. In July ’89 he incited the people to the siege of the Bastille, and thus began the Revolution. On 29 Dec. 1790 he married Lucile Laridon-Duplessis. He edited Le Vieux Cordelier and the Révolutions de France et de Brabant, in which he stated that Mohammedanism was as credible as Christianity. He was a Deist, preferring Paganism to Christianity. Both creeds were more or less unreasonable; but, folly for folly, he said, I prefer Hercules slaying the Erymanthean boar to Jesus of Nazareth drowning two thousand pigs. He was executed with Danton, 5 April 1794. His amiable wife, Lucile, who was an Atheist (b. 1770), in a few days shared his fate (April 13). Carlyle calls Desmoulins a man of genius, “a fellow of infinite shrewdness, wit—nay, humor.”

Des Periers (Jean Bonaventure), French poet and sceptic, b. Arnay le Duc, about 1510. He was brought up in a convent, only to detest the vices of the monks. In 1535 he lived in Lyons and assisted Dolet. He probably knew Rabelais, whom he mentions as “Francoys Insigne.” Attached to the court of Marguerite of Valois, he defended Clement Marot when persecuted for making a French version of the Psalms. He wrote the Cymbalum Mundi, a satire upon religion, published under the name of Thomas de Clenier à Pierre Tryocan, i.e., Thomas Incrédule à Pierre Croyant, 1537. It was suppressed and the printer, Jehan Morin, imprisoned. Des Periers fled and died (probably by suicide, to escape persecution) 1544. An English version of Cymbalum Mundi was published in 1712. P. G. Brunet, the bibliographer, conjectures that Des Periers was the author of the famous Atheistic treatise, The Three Impostors.

Destriveaux (Pierre Joseph), Belgian lawyer and politician, b. Liége, 13 March, 1780. Author of several works on public right. Died Schaerbeck (Brussels), 3 Feb. 1853.

Destutt de Tracy (Antoine Louis de Claude) Count, French materialist philosopher, b. 20 July, 1754. His family was of Scotch origin. At first a soldier, he was one of the first noblemen at the Revolution to despoil himself of his title. A friend of Lafayette, Condorcet, and Cabanis, he was a complete sceptic in religion; made an analysis of Dupuis’ Origine de tous les Cultes (1804), edited Montesquieu and Cabanis, was made a member of the French Academy (1808), and wrote several philosophical works, of which the principal is Elements of Ideology. He was a great admirer of Hobbes. Died Paris, 9 March, 1836.

Des Vignes (Pietro), secretary to Frederick II. (1245–49). Mazzuchelli attributes to him the treatise De Tribus Impostoribus.

Detrosier (Rowland), social reformer and lecturer, b. 1796, the illegitimate son of a Manchester man named Morris and a Frenchwoman. In his early years he was “for whole days without food.” Self-educated, he established the first Mechanics’ Institute in England at Hulme, gave Sunday scientific lectures, and published several discourses in favor of secular education. He became secretary of the National Political Union. He was a Deist. Like Bentham, who became his friend, he bequeathed his body for scientific purposes. Died in London, 23 Nov. 1834.

Deubler (Konrad). The son of poor parents, b. Goisern, near Ischl, Upper Austria, 26 Nov. 1814. Self-taught amid difficulties, he became the friend of Feuerbach and Strauss, and was known as “the Peasant Philosopher.” In 1854 he was indicted for blasphemy, and was sentenced to two years’ hard labor and imprisonment during pleasure. He was incarcerated from 7 Dec. ’54, till Nov. ’56 at Brünn, and afterwards at Olmutz, where he was released 24 March, 1857. He returned to his native place, and was visited by Feuerbach. In ’70 he was made Burgomaster by his fellow-townsmen. Died 30 March, 1884.

Deurhoff (Willem), Dutch writer, b. Amsterdam, March 1650. Educated for the Church, he gave himself to philosophy, translated the works of Descartes, and was accused of being a follower of Spinoza. Forced to leave his country, he took refuge in Brabant, but returned to Holland, where he died 10 Oct. 1717. He left some followers.

De Wette. (See Wette M. L. de).

D’Holbach. See Holbach (P. H. D. von), Baron.

Diagoras, Greek poet, philosopher, and orator, known as “the Atheist,” b. Melos. A pupil of Democritus, who is said to have freed him from slavery. A doubtful tradition reports that he became an Atheist after being the victim of an unpunished perjury. He was accused (B.C. 411) of impiety, and had to fly from Athens to Corinth, where he died. A price was put upon the Atheist’s head. His works are not extant, but several anecdotes are related of him, as that he threw a wooden statue of Hercules into the fire to cook a dish of lentils, saying the god had a thirteenth task to perform; and that, being on his flight by sea overtaken by a storm, hearing his fellow-passengers say it was because an Atheist was on board, he pointed to other vessels struggling in the same storm without being laden with a Diagoras.

Di Cagno Politi (Niccola Annibale), Italian Positivist, b. Bari, 1857. Studied at Naples under Angiulli, has written on modern culture and on experimental philosophy in Italy, and contributed articles on Positivism to the Rivista Europea.

Diderot (Denis), French philosopher, b. Langres, 6 Oct. 1713. His father, a cutler, intended him for the Church. Educated by Jesuits, at the age of twelve he received the tonsure. He had a passion for books, but, instead of becoming a Jesuit, went to Paris, where he supported himself by teaching and translating. In 1746 he published Philosophic Thoughts, which was condemned to be burnt. It did much to advance freedom of opinion. Three years later his Letters on the Blind occasioned his imprisonment at Vincennes for its materialistic Atheism. Rousseau, who called him “a transcendent genius,” visited Diderot in prison, where he remained three years. Diderot projected the famous Encyclopédie, which he edited with Alembert, and he contributed some of the most important articles. With very inadequate recompense, and amidst difficulties that would have appalled an ordinary editor, Diderot superintended the undertaking for many years (1751–65). He also contributed to other important works, such as Raynal’s Philosophic History, L’Esprit, by Helvetius, and The System of Nature and other works of his friend D’Holbach. Diderot’s fertile mind also produced dramas, essays, sketches, and novels. Died 30 July, 1784. Comte calls Diderot “the greatest thinker of the eighteenth century.”

Diercks (Gustav), German author of able works on the History of the Development of Human Spirit (Berlin, 1881–2) and on Arabian Culture in Spain, 1887. Is a member of the German Freethinkers’ Union.

Dilke (Ashton Wentworth), b. 1850. Educated at Cambridge, travelled in Russia and Central Asia, and published a translation of Turgenev’s Virgin Soil. He purchased and edited the Weekly Dispatch; was returned as M.P. for Newcastle in 1880, but, owing to ill health, resigned in favor of John Morley, and died at Algiers 12 March, 1883.

Dinter (Gustav Friedrich), German educationalist, b. Borna, near Leipsic, 29 Feb. 1760. His Bible for Schoolmasters is his best-known work. It sought to give rational notes and explanations of the Jew books, and excited much controversy. Died at Konigsberg, 29 May, 1831.

Dippel (Johann Konrad), German alchemist and physician, b. 10 Aug. 1672, at Frankenstein, near Darmstadt. His Papismus vapulans Protestantium (1698) drew on him the wrath of the theologians of Giessen, and he had to flee for his life. Attempting to find out the philosopher’s stone, he discovered Prussian blue. In 1705 he published his satires against the Protestant Church, Hirt und eine Heerde, under the name of Christianus Democritos. He denied the inspiration of the Bible, and after an adventurous life in many countries died 25 April, 1734.

Dobrolyubov (Nikolai Aleksandrovich), Russian author, b. 1836, at Nijni Novgorod, the son of a priest. Educated at St. Petersburg, he became a radical journalist. His works were edited in four vols. by Chernuishevsky. Died 17 Nov. 1861.

Dodel-Port (Prof. Arnold), Swiss scientist, b. Affeltrangen, Thurgau, 16 Oct. 1843. Educated at Kreuzlingen, he became in ’63 teacher in the Oberschule in Hauptweil; then studied from ’64–’69 at Geneva, Zürich, and Munich, becoming privat docent in the University of Zürich, ’70. In ’75 he published The New History of Creation. In ’78 he issued his world-famous Botanical Atlas, and was in ’80 made Professor of Botany in the Zürich University and Director of the Botanical Laboratory. He has also written Biological Fragments (1885), the Life and Letters of Konrad Deubler, “the peasant philosopher” (1886), and has just published Moses or Darwin? a School Question, 1889. Dr. Dodel-Port is an hon. member of the London Royal Society and Vice-President of the German Freethinkers’ Union.

Dodwell (Henry), eldest son of the theologian of that name, was b. Shottesbrooke, Berkshire, about the beginning of the eighteenth century. He was educated at Magdalen Hall, when he proceeded B.A., 9 Feb. 1726. In ’42 he published a pamphlet entitled Christianity not Founded on Argument, which in a tone of grave irony contends that Christianity can only be accepted by faith. He was brought up to the law and was a zealous friend of the Society for the Promotion of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce. Died 1784.

Doebereiner (Johann Wolfgang), German chemist, b. Bavaria, 15 Dec. 1780. In 1810 he became Professor of Chemistry at Jena, where he added much to science. Died 24 March, 1849. He was friend and instructor to Goethe.

Dolet (Etienne), a learned French humanist, b. Orleans 3 Aug. 1509. He studied in Paris, Padua and Venice. For his heresy he had to fly from Toulouse and lived for some time at Lyons, where he established a printing-press and published some of his works, for which he was imprisoned. He was acquainted with Rabelais, Des Periers, and other advanced men of the time. In 1543 the Parliament condemned his books to be burnt, and in the next year he was arrested on a charge of Atheism. After being kept two years in prison he was strangled and burnt, 3 Aug. 1546. It is related that seeing the sorrow of the crowd, he said: “Non dolet ipe Dolet, sed pia turba dolet.”—Dolet grieves not, but the generous crowd grieves. His goods being confiscated, his widow and children were left to beggary. “The French language,” says A. F. Didot, “owes him much for his treatises, translations, and poesies.” Dolet’s biographer, M. Joseph Boulmier, calls him “le Christ de la pensée libre.” Philosophy has alone the right, says Henri Martin, to claim Dolet on its side. His English biographer, R. C. Christie, says he was “neither a Catholic nor a Protestant.”

Dominicis (Saverio Fausto de), Italian Positivist philosopher, b. Buonalbergo, 1846. Is Professor of Philosophy at Bari, and has written on Education and Darwinism.

Dondorf (Dr. A.), See Anderson (Marie) in Supplement.

Doray de Longrais (Jean Paul), French man of letters. b. Manvieux, 1736. Author of a Freethought romance, Faustin, or the Philosophical Age. Died at Paris, 1800.

Dorsch (Eduard), German American Freethinker, b. Warzburg 10 Jan. 1822. He studied at Munich and Vienna. In ’49 he went to America and settled in Monroe, Michigan, where he published a volume of poems, some being translations from Swinburne. Died 10 Jan. 1887.

Dorsey (J. M.), author of the The True History of Moses, and others, an attack on the Bible, published at Boston in 1855.

Draparnaud (Jacques Philippe Raymond), French doctor, b. 3 June, 1772, at Montpelier, where he became Professor of Natural History. His discourses on Life and Vital Functions, and on the Philosophy of the Sciences and Christianity (1801), show his scepticism. Died 1 Feb. 1805.

Draper (John William), scientist and historian, b. St. Helens, near Liverpool, 5 May 1811. The son of a Wesleyan minister, he was educated at London University. In ’32 he emigrated to America, where he was Professor of Chemistry and Natural History in New York University. He was one of the inventors of photography and the first who applied it to astronomy. He wrote many scientific works, notably on Human Physiology. His history of the American Civil War is an important work, but he is chiefly known by his History of the Intellectual Development of Europe and History of the Conflict of Religion and Science, which last has gone through many editions and been translated into all the principal languages. Died 4 Jan. 1882.

Dreyfus (Ferdinand Camille), author of an able work on the Evolution of Worlds and Societies, 1888.

Droysen (Johann Gustav), German historian, b. Treptoir, 6 July, 1808. Studied at Berlin; wrote in the Hallische Jahrbücher; was Professor of History at Keil, 1840; Jena ’51 and Berlin ’59. Has edited Frederick the Great’s Correspondence, and written other important works, some in conjunction with his friend Max Duncker. Died 15 June, 1882.

Drummond (Sir William), of Logie Almond, antiquary and author, b. about 1770; entered Parliament as member for St. Mawes, Cornwall, 1795. In the following year he became envoy to the court of Naples, and in 1801 ambassador to Constantinople. His principal work is Origines, or Remarks on the Origin of several Empires, States, and Cities (4 vols. 1824–29). He also printed privately The Œdipus Judaicus, 1811. It calls in question, with much boldness and learning, many legends of the Old Testament, to which it gave an astronomical signification. It was reprinted in ’66. Sir William Drummond also wrote anonymously Philosophical Sketches of the Principles of Society, 1795. Died at Rome, 29 March, 1828.

Duboc (Julius) German writer and doctor of philosophy b. Hamburg, 10 Oct. 1829. Educated at Frankfurt and Giessen, is a clever journalist, and has translated the History of the English Press. Has written an Atheistic work, Das Leben Ohne Gott (Life without God), with the motto from Feuerbach “No religion is my religion, no philosophy my philosophy,” 1875. He has also written on the Psychology of Love, and other important works.

Dubois (Pierre), a French sceptic, who in 1835 published The True Catechism of Believers—a work ordered by the Court of Assizes to be suppressed, and for which the author (Sept. ’35) was condemned to six months’ imprisonment and a fine of one thousand francs. He also wrote The Believer Undeceived, or Evident Proofs of the Falsity and Absurdity of Christianity; a work put on the Index in ’36.

Du Bois-Reymond (Emil), biologist, of Swiss father and French mother, b. Berlin, 7 Nov. 1818. He studied at Berlin and Bonn for the Church, but left it to follow science, ’37. Has become famous as a physiologist, especially by his Researches in Animal Electricity, ’48–60. With Helmholtz he has done much to establish the new era of positive science, wrongly called by opponents Materialism. Du Bois-Reymond holds that thought is a function of the brain and nervous system, and that “soul” has arisen as the gradual results of natural combinations, but in his Limits of the Knowledge of Nature, ’72, he contends that we must always come to an ultimate incomprehensible. Du Bois-Reymond has written on Voltaire and Natural Science, ’68; La Mettrie, ’75; Darwin versus Galiani, ’78; and Frederick II. and Rousseau, ’79. Since ’67 he has been perpetual secretary of the Academy of Sciences, Berlin.

Dubuisson (Paul Ulrich), French dramatist and revolutionary, b. Lauat, 1746. A friend of Cloots he suffered with him on the scaffold, 24 March, 1794.

Dubuisson (Paul), living French Positivist, author of Grand Types of Humanity.

Du Chatelet Lomont. See Chastelet.

Duclos (Charles Pinot), witty French writer, b. Dinan, 12 Feb. 1704. He was admitted into the French Academy, 1747 and became its secretary, 1755. A friend of Diderot and d’Alembert. His Considerations sur les Mœurs is still a readable work. Died 27 March, 1772.

Ducos (Jean François), French Girondist, b. Bordeaux in 1765. Elected to the Legislative Assembly, he, on the 26th Oct. 1791, demanded the complete separation of the State from religion. He shared the fate of the Girondins, 31 Oct. 1793, crying with his last breath, “Vive la Republique!”

Du Deffand (Marie), Marchioness, witty literary Frenchwoman, b. 1697. Chamfort relates that when young and in a convent she preached irreligion to her young comrades. The abbess called in Massillon, to whom the little sceptic gave her reasons. He went away saying “She is charming.” Her house in Paris was for fifty years the resort of eminent authors and statesmen. She corresponded for many years with Horace Walpole, D’Alembert and Voltaire. Many anecdotes are told of her; thus, to the Cardinal de Polignac, who spoke of the miracle of St. Denis walking when beheaded, she said “Il n’y a que le premier pas qui coûte.” Died 24 Sept. 1780. To the curé of Saint Sulpice, who came to her death-bed, she said “Ni questions, ni raisons, ni sermons.” Larousse calls her “Belle, instruite, spirituelle mais sceptique et materialiste.”

Dudgeon (William), a Berwickshire Deist, whose works were published (privately printed at Edinburgh) in 1765.

Dudnevant (A. L. A. Dupin), Baroness. See Sand (Georges).

Duehring (Eugen Karl), German writer, b. Berlin, 12 Jan. 1833; studied law. He has, though blind, written many works on science and political economy, also a Critical History of Philosophy, ’69–78, and Science Revolutionized, ’78. In Oct. 1879, his death was maliciously reported.

Dulaure (Jacques Antoine), French archæologist and historian, b. Clermont-Ferrand, 3 Dec. 1755. In 1788–90 he published six volumes of a description of France. He wrote many pamphlets, including one on the private lives of ecclesiastics. Elected to the Convention in 1792, he voted for the death of the King. Proscribed as a Girondist, Sept. 1793, he fled to Switzerland. He was one of the Council of Five Hundred, 1796–98. Dulaure wrote a learned Treatise on Superstitions, but he is best known by his History of Paris, and his Short History of Different Worships, 1825, in which he deals with ancient fetishism and phallic worship. Died Paris, 9 Aug. 1835.

Dulaurens (Henri Joseph). French satirist, b. Douay, 27 March, 1719. He was brought up in a convent, and made a priest 12 Nov. 1727. Published a satire against the Jesuits, 1761, he was compelled to fly to Holland, where he lived in poverty. He edited L’Evangile de la Raison, a collection of anti-Christian tracts by Voltaire and others, and wrote L’Antipapisme révelé in 1767. He was in that year condemned to perpetual imprisonment for heresy, and shut in the convent of Mariabaum, where he died 1797. Dulaurens was caustic, cynical and vivacious. He is also credited with the Portfolios of a Philosopher, mostly taken from the Analysis of Bayle, Cologne, 1770.

Dulk (Albert Friedrich Benno), German poet and writer, b. Konigsberg, 17 June, 1819; he became a physician, but was expelled for aiding in the Revolution of ’48. He travelled in Italy and Egypt. In ’65 he published Jesus der Christ, embodying rationalism in prose and verse. He has also written Stimme der Menschheit, 2 vols., ’76, ’80, and Der Irrgang des Lebens Jesu, ’84, besides numerous plays and pamphlets. Died 29 Oct. 1884.

Dumont (Léon), French writer, b. Valenciennes, 1837. Studied for the bar, but took to philosophy and literature. He early embraced Darwinism, and wrote on Hæckel and the Theory of Evolution, ’73. He wrote in La Revue Philosophique, and other journals. Died Valenciennes, 17 Jan. 1877.

Dumarsais (César Chesneau), French grammarian and philosopher, b. Marseilles, 17 July, 1676. When young he entered the congregation of the oratory. This society he soon quitted, and went to Paris, where he married. A friend of Boindin and Alembert, he wrote against the pretensions of Rome and contributed to the Encyclopédie. He is credited with An Analysis of the Christian Religion and with the celebrated Essai sur les Préjugés, par Mr. D. M., but the latter was probably written by Holbach, with notes by Naigeon. Le Philosophe, published in L’Evangile de la Raison by Dulaurens, was written by Voltaire. Died 11 June, 1756. Dumarsais was very simple in character, and was styled by D’Alembert the La Fontaine of philosophers.

Dumont (Pierre Etienne Louis), Swiss writer, b. Geneva, 18 July, 1759. Was brought up as a minister, but went to France and became secretary to Mirabeau. After the Revolution he came to England, where he became acquainted with Bentham, whose works he translated. Died Milan, 29 Sept. 1829.

Duncker (Maximilian Wolfgang), German historian, b. Berlin, 15 Oct. 1811. His chief work, the History of Antiquity, 1852–57, thoroughly abolishes the old distinction of sacred and profane history, and freely criticises the Jewish records. A translation in six volumes has been made by E. Abbot. Duncker took an active part in the events of ’48 and ’50, and was appointed Director-General of the State Archives. Died 24 July, 1886.

Dupont (Jacob Louis), a French mathematician and member of the National Convention, known as the Abbé Dupont, who, 14 Dec. 1792, declared himself an Atheist from the tribune of the Convention. Died at Paris in 1813.

Dupont de Nemours (Pierre Samuel), French economist, b. Paris, 14 Dec. 1739. He became President of the Constituent Assembly, and was a Theophilantrophist. Died Delaware, U.S.A., 6 Aug. 1817.

Dupuis (Charles François), French astronomer and philosopher, b. Trie-le-Chateau, 16 Oct. 1742. He was educated for the Church, which he left, and married in 1775. He studied under Lalande, and wrote on the origin of the constellations, 1781. In 1788 he became a member of the Academy of Inscriptions. At the Revolution he was chosen a member of the Convention. During the Reign of Terror he saved many lives at his own risk. He was afterwards one of the Council of Five Hundred, and president of the legislative body. His chief work is on the Origin of Religions, 7 vols., 1795, in which he traces solar worship in various faiths, including Christianity. This has been described as “a monument of the erudition of unbelief.” Dupuis died near Dijon, 29 Sept. 1809.

Dutrieux (Pierre Joseph), Belgian physician, b. Tournai, 19 July, 1848. Went to Cairo and became a Bey. Died 1 Jan. 1889.

Dutton (Thomas), M.A., theatrical critic, b. London, 1767. Educated by the Moravians. In 1795 he published a Vindication of the Age of Reason by Thomas Paine. He translated Kotzebue’s Pizarro in Peru, 1799, and edited the Dramatic Censor, 1800, and the Monthly Theatrical Reporter, 1815.

Duvernet (Théophile Imarigeon), French writer, b. at Ambert 1730. He was brought up a Jesuit, became an Abbé, but mocked at religion. Duvernet became tutor to Saint Simon. For a political pamphlet he was imprisoned in the Bastille. While here he wrote a curious and rare romance, Les Devotions de Mme. de Bethzamooth. He wrote on Religious Intolerance, 1780, and a History of the Sorbonne, 1790, but is best known by his Life of Voltaire (1787). In 1793 he wrote a letter to the Convention, in which he declares that he renounces the religion “born in a stable between an ox and an ass.” Died in 1796.

Dyas (Richard H.), captain in the army. Author of The Upas. He resided long in Italy and translated several of the works of C. Voysey.

Eaton (Daniel Isaac), bookseller, b. about 1752, was educated at the Jesuits’ College, St. Omer. Being advised to study the Bible, he did so, with the result of discarding it as a revelation. In 1792 he was prosecuted for publishing Paine’s Rights of Man, but the prosecution fell through. He afterwards published Politics for the People, which was also prosecuted, 1793, as was his Political Dictionary, 1796. To escape punishment, he fled to America, and lived there for three years and a half. Upon returning to England, his person and property were seized. Books to the value of £2,800 were burnt, and he was imprisoned for fifteen months. He translated from Helvetius and sold at his “Rationcinatory or Magazine for Truths and Good Sense,” 8 Cornhill, in 1810, The True Sense and Meaning of the System of Nature. The Law of Nature had been previously translated by him. In ’11 he issued the first and second parts of Paine’s Age of Reason, and on 6 March, ’12, was tried before Lord Ellenborough on a charge of blasphemy for issuing the third and last part. He was sentenced to eighteen months’ imprisonment and to stand in the pillory. The sentence evoked Shelley’s spirited Letter to Lord Ellenborough. Eaton translated and published Freret’s Preservative against Religious Prejudices, 1812, and shortly before his death, at Deptford, 22 Aug. 1814, he was again prosecuted for publishing George Houston’s Ecce Homo.

Eberhard (Johann August), German Deist, b. Halberstadt, 31 Aug. 1739, was brought up in the church, but persecuted for heresy in his New Apology for Socrates, 1772, was patronised by Frederick the Great, and appointed Professor of Philosophy at Halle, where he opposed the idealism of Kant and Fichte. He wrote a History of Philosophy, 1788. Died Halle, 7 Jan. 1809.

Eberty (Gustav), German Freethinker, b. 2 July, 1806. Author of some controversial works. Died Berlin, 10 Feb. 1887.

Echtermeyer (Ernst Theodor), German critic, b. Liebenwerda, 1805. He studied at Halle and Berlin, and founded, with A. Ruge, the Hallische Jahrbücher, which contained many Freethought articles, 1837–42. He taught at Halle and Dresden, where he died, 6 May, 1844.

Edelmann (Johann Christian), German Deist, b. Weissenfels, Saxony, 9 July, 1698; studied theology in Jena, joined the Moravians, but left them and every form of Christianity, becoming an adherent of Spinozism. His principal works are his Unschuldige Wahrheiten, 1735 (Innocent Truths), in which he argues that no religion is of importance, and Moses mit Aufgedecktem Angesicht (Moses Unmasked), 1740, an attack on the Old Testament, which, he believed, proceeded from Ezra; Die Göttlichkeit der Vernunft (The Divinity of Reason), 1741, and Christ and Belial. His works excited much controversy, and were publicly burnt at Frankfort, 9 May, 1750. Edelmann was chased from Brunswick and Hamburg, but was protected by Frederick the Great, and died at Berlin, 15 Feb. 1767. Mirabeau praised him, and Guizot calls him a “fameux esprit fort.”

Edison (Thomas Alva), American inventor, b. Milan, Ohio, 10 Feb. 1847. As a boy he sold fruit and papers at the trains. He read, however, Gibbon, Hume and other important works before he was ten. He afterwards set up a paper of his own, then became telegraph operator, studied electricity, invented electric light, the electric pen, the telephone, microphone, phonograph, etc. Edison is known to be an Agnostic and to pay no attention to religion.

Eenens (Ferdinand), Belgian writer, b. Brussels, 7 Dec. 1811. Eenens was an officer in the Belgian army, and wrote many political and anti-clerical pamphlets. He also wrote La Vérité, a work on the Christian faith, 1859; Le Paradis Terrestre, ’60, an examination of the legend of Eden, and Du Dieu Thaumaturge, ’76. He used the pen names “Le Père Nicaise,” “Nicodème Polycarpe” and “Timon III.” Died at Brussels in 1883.

Effen (Justus van), Dutch writer, b. Utrecht, 11 Feb. 1684. Edited the Misanthrope, Amsterdam, 1712–16; translated Robinson Crusoe, Swift’s Tale of a Tub, and Mandeville’s Thoughts on Religion, 1722; published the Dutch Spectator, 1731–35. Died at Bois-le-Duc, 18 Sept. 1735.

Eichhorn (Johann Gottfried), German Orientalist and rationalist, b. 16 Oct. 1752, became Professor of Oriental Literature and afterwards Professor of Theology at Gottingen. He published Introductions to the Old and New Testaments and A Commentary on the Apocalypse, in which his criticism tends to uproot belief in the Bible as a divine revelation. He lectured every day for fifty-two years. Died 25 June, 1827.

“Elborch (Conrad von),” the pseudonym of a living learned Dutch writer, whose position does not permit him to reveal his true name. Born 14 Jan. 1865, he has contributed to De Dageraad (The Daybreak), under various pen-names, as “Fra Diavolo,” “Denis Bontemps,” “J. Van den Ende,” etc. He has given, in ’88, a translation of the rare and famous Latin treatise, De Tribus Impostoribus (On Three Impostors) [Jesus, Moses, and Muhammad], with an important bibliographic and historical introduction.

“Eliot (George),” the pen-name of Mary Ann Lewes (née Evans) one of the greatest novelists of the century, b. at Arbury Farm, near Griff, Warwickshire, 22 Nov. 1819. In ’41 the family removed to Foleshill, near Coventry. Here she made the friendship of the household of Charles Bray, and changed her views from Evangelical Christianity to philosophical scepticism. Influenced by The Inquiry into the Origin of Christianity, by C. C. Hennell (Bray’s brother-in-law), she made an analysis of that work. Her first literary venture was translating Strauss’ Leben Jesu, published in 1846. After the death of her father (’49) she travelled with the Brays upon the Continent, and upon her return assisted Dr. Chapman in the editorship of the Westminster Review, to which she contributed several articles. She translated Feuerbach’s Essence of Christianity, ’54, the only work published with her real name, and also translated from Spinoza’s Ethics. Introduced by Herbert Spencer to George Henry Lewes, she linked her life with his in defiance of the conventions of society, July, ’54. Both were poor, but by his advice she turned to fiction, in which she soon achieved success. Her Scenes of Clerical Life, Adam Bede, Mill on the Floss, Silas Marner, Romola, Felix Holt, Middlemarch, Daniel Deronda, and Theophrastus Such have become classics. As a poet, “George Eliot” does not rank so high, but her little piece, “Oh, may I join the choir invisible,” well expresses the emotion of the Religion of Humanity, and her Spanish Gipsy she allowed was “a mass of Positivism.” Lewes died in 1878, and within two years she married his friend, J. W. Cross. Her new happiness was short-lived. She died 22 Dec. 1880, and is buried with Lewes at Highgate.

Ellero (Pietro) Italian jurisconsult, b. Pordenone, 8 Oct. 1833, Counsellor of the High Court of Rome, has been Professor of Criminal Law in the University of Bologna. Author of many works on legal and social questions. His Scritti Minori, Scritti Politici and La Question Sociale have the honor of a place on the Roman Index.

Elliotson (John, M.D., F.R.S.), an eminent medical man, b. London, 1791. He became physician at St. Thomas’s Hospital in 1822, and made many contributions to medical science. By new prescriptions of quinine, creasote, etc., he excited much hostility in the profession. He was the first in this country to advocate the use of the stethoscope. He was also the first physician to discard knee-breeches and silk stockings, and to wear a beard. In ’31 he was chosen Professor at University College, but, becoming an advocate of curative mesmerism, he resigned his appointments, ’38. He was founder and President of the London Phrenological Society, and, in addition to many medical works, edited the Zoist (thirteen vols.), translated Blumenbach’s Physiology, and wrote an introduction to Engledue’s Cerebral Physiology, defending materialism. Thackeray dedicated Pendennis to him, ’50, and he received a tribute of praise from Dickens. Died at London, 29 July, 1868.

Eichthal (Gustave d’), French writer, b. of Jewish family, Nancy, 22 March, 1804. He became a follower of Saint Simon, was one of the founders of the Société d’Ethnologie, and published Les Evangiles, a critical analysis of the gospels, 2 vols, Paris, ’63. This he followed by The Three Great Mediterranean Nations and Christianity and Socrates and our Time, ’84. He died at Paris, April, 1886, and his son published his Mélanges de Critique Biblique (Miscellanies of Biblical Criticism), in which there is an able study on the name and character of “Jahveh.”

Emerson (Ralph Waldo), American essayist, poet, and philosopher, b. Boston 25 May, 1803. He came of a line of ministers, and was brought up like his father, educated at Harvard College, and ordained as a Unitarian minister, 1829. Becoming too broad for the Church, he resigned in ’32. In the next year he came to Europe, visiting Carlyle. On his return he settled at Concord, giving occasional lectures, most of which have been published. He wrote to the Dial, a transcendentalist paper. Tending to idealistic pantheism, but without systematic philosophy, all his writings are most suggestive, and he is always the champion of mental freedom, self-reliance, and the free pursuit of science. Died at Concord, 27 April, 1882. Matthew Arnold has pronounced his essays “the most important work done in prose” in this century.

Emerson (William), English mathematician, b. Hurworth, near Darlington, 14 May, 1701. He conducted a school and wrote numerous works on Mathematics. His vigorous, if eccentric, individuality attracted Carlyle, who said to Mrs. Gilchrist, “Emerson was a Freethinker who looked on his neighbor, the parson, as a humbug. He seems to have defended himself in silence the best way he could against the noisy clamor and unreal stuff going on around him.” Died 21 May, 1782. He compiled a list of Bible contradictions.

Emmet (Robert), Irish revolutionist, b. in Dublin 1778, was educated as a barrister. Expelled from Dublin University for his sympathy with the National Cause in 1798; he went to the Continent, but returned in 1802 to plan an ill-starred insurrection, for which he was executed 20 Sept. 1803. Emmet made a thrilling speech before receiving sentence, and on the scaffold refused the services of a priest. It is well known that his desire to see once more his sweetheart, the daughter of Curran, was the cause of his capture and execution.

Engledue (William Collins), M.D., b. Portsea 1813. After taking his degree at Edinburgh, he became assistant to Dr. Lizars and was elected President of the Royal Medical Society of Edinburgh. He returned to Portsmouth in 1835; originated the Royal Portsmouth Hospital and established public baths and washhouses. He contributed to the Zoist and published an exposition of materialism under the title of Cerebral Physiology, 1842, republished by J. Watson, 1857. Died Jan. 1859.

English (George Bethune), American writer and linguist, b. Cambridge, Mass., 7 March, 1787. He studied law and divinity, and graduated at Harvard, 1807, but becoming sceptical published Grounds of Christianity Examined, 1813. The work excited some controversy, and has been reprinted at Toronto, 1839. He joined the Egyptian service and became General of Artillery. He had a variable genius and a gift of languages. At Marseilles he passed for a Turk with a Turkish ambassador; and at Washington he surprised a delegation of Cherokees by disputing with them in their own tongue. He wrote a reply to his critics, entitled Five Smooth Stones out of the Brook, and two letters to Channing on his sermons against infidelity. Died at Washington, 20 Sept. 1828.

Ense (Varnhagen von). See Varnhagen.

Ensor (George), an Irish writer, b. Loughgall, 1769. Educated at Trinity College; he became B.A. 1790. He travelled largely, and was a friend of liberty in every country. Besides other political works he published, The Independent Man, 1806; On National Government, 1810; A Review of the Miracles, Prophecies and Mysteries of the Old and New Testaments, first printed as Janus on Sion, 1816, and republished 1835; and Natural Theology Examined, 1836, the last being republished in The Library of Reason. Bentham described him as clever but impracticable. Died Ardress, Co. Armagh, 3 Dec. 1843.

Epicurus, Greek philosopher, b. Samos, B.C. 342. He repaired to Athens, B.C. 323. Influenced by the works of Demokritos, he occupied himself with philosophy. He purchased a garden in Athens, in which he established his school. Although much calumniated, he is now admitted to have been a man of blameless life. According to Cicero, he had no belief in the gods, but did not attack their existence, in order not to offend the prejudices of the Athenians. In physics he adopted the atomic theory, and denied immortality. He taught that pleasure is the sovereign good; but by pleasure he meant no transient sensation, but permanent tranquility of mind. He wrote largely, but his works are lost. His principles are expounded in the great poem of Lucretius, De Rerum Natura. Died B.C. 270, leaving many followers.

“Erdan (Alexandre),” the pen-name of Alexandre Andre Jacob, a French writer, b. Angles 1826. He was the natural son of a distinguished prelate. Educated at Saint Sulpice for the Church, he read Proudhon, and refused to take holy orders. He became a journalist and an advocate of phonography. His work, La France Mystique (1855), in which he gives an account of French religious eccentricities, was condemned for its scepticism which appears on every page. Sentenced to a year’s imprisonment and a fine of three thousand francs, he took refuge in Italy. Died at Frascati, near Rome, 24 Sept. 1878.

Ernesti (Johann August), German critic, b. Tennstadt, 4 Aug. 1707. Studied at Wittenberg and Leipsic, where he was appointed professor of classical literature. Renowned as a philologist, he insisted that the Bible must be interpreted like any other book. Died Leipsic, 11 Sept. 1781.

Escherny (François Louis d’) Count, Swiss litterateur, b. Neufchatel, 24 Nov. 1733. He spent much of his life in travel. At Paris he became the associate of Helvetius, Diderot, and particularly Rousseau, whom he much admired. He wrote Lacunes de la Philosophie (Amsterdam, 1783) and a work on Equality (1795), in which he displays his Freethought. Died at Paris, 15 July, 1815.

Espinas (Alfred), French philosopher, b. Saint-Florentin, 1844. Has translated, with Th. Ribot, H. Spencer’s Principles of Psychology, and has written studies on Experimental Philosophy in Italy, and on Animal Societies (1877).

Espronceda (José), popular Spanish poet, b. Almendralejo (Estremadura) in 1810. After the War of Independence he went to Madrid and studied under Alberto Lista, the poet and mathematician. He became so obnoxious to the government by his radical principles that he was imprisoned about the age of fifteen, and banished a few years later. He passed several years in London and Paris, and was brought under the influence of Byron and Hugo. He fought with the people in the Paris Revolution of July, 1830. On the death of the Spanish King in ’33 he returned to Madrid, but was again banished for too free expression of his opinions. He returned and took part in the revolutionary contest of ’35–36. He was elected to the Cortes in ’41, and appointed secretary of embassy to The Hague. Died 23 May, 1842. Among his works are lyrical poems, which often remind us of Heine; an unfinished epic, El Pelayo; and El Diablo-Mundo (the Devil-World), a fine poem, due to the inspiration of Faust and Don Juan. Espronceda was a thorough sceptic. In his Song of the Pirate he asks, “Who is my God?—Liberty”; and in his concluding lines to a star he says:

I unheedingly follow my path,

At the mercy of winds and of waves.

Wrapt thus within the arms of Fate,

What care I if lost or saved.

Estienne (Henri), the ablest of a family of learned French printers, known in England as Stephens; b. Paris, 1528. At the age of eighteen he assisted his father in collating the MSS. of Dionysius of Halicarnassus. In 1557 he established a printing office of his own, and issued many Greek authors; and in 1572 the Thesaurus Linguæ Græcæ. His Apologie pour Herodote (Englished as a World of Wonders) is designed as a satire on Christian legends, and directed against priests and priestcraft. He was driven from place to place. Sir Philip Sidney highly esteemed him, and “kindly entertained him in his travaile.” Died 1598. Garasse classes him with Atheists.

Esteve (Pierre), French writer, b. Montpelier at the beginning of the eighteenth century. He wrote a History of Astronomy and an anonymous work on the Origin of the Universe explained from a Principle of Matter; Berlin, 1748.

Ettel (Konrad), Austrian Freethinker, b. 17 Jan. 1847, at Neuhof, Sternberg. Studied at the Gymnasium Kremsier, and at the wish of his parents at the Theological Seminary Olmütz, which he left to study philosophy at Vienna. He has written many poems and dramas. His Grundzuge der Natürlichen Weltanschauung (Sketch of a Natural View of the World), a Freethinker’s catechism, 1886, has reached a fourth edition.

Evans (George Henry), b. at Bromyard, Herefordshire, 25 March, 1803. While a child, his parents emigrated to New York. He set up as a printer, and published the Correspondent, the first American Freethought paper. He also published the Working Man’s Advocate, Man, Young America, and the Radical. He labored for the transportation of mails on Sundays, the limitation of the right to hold lands, the abolition of slavery, and other reforms. His brother became one of the chief elders of the Shakers. Died in Granville, New Jersey, 2 Feb. 1855.

Evans (William), b. Swansea, 1816, became a follower of Robert Owen. He established The Potter’s Examiner and Workman’s Advocate, ’43, and wrote in the Co-operative journals under the anagram of “Millway Vanes.” Died 14 March, 1887.

Evanson (Edward), theological critic, b. Warrington, Lancashire, 21 April, 1731. He graduated at Cambridge, became vicar of South Mimms, and afterwards rector of Tewkesbury. Entertaining doubts on the Trinity, he submitted them to the Archbishop of Canterbury without obtaining satisfaction. He made some changes in reading the Litany, and for expressing heretical opinions in a sermon in 1771, he was prosecuted, but escaped in consequence of some irregularity in the proceedings. In 1772 he published an anonymous tract on the Trinity. In 1797 he addressed a letter to the Bishop of Lichfield on the Prophecies of the New Testament, in which he tried to show that either Christianity was false or the orthodox churches. In the following year he resigned both his livings and took pupils. In 1792 he published his principal work, The Dissonance of the Four Generally-Received Evangelists, in which he rejected all the gospels, except Luke, as unauthentic. This work involved him in a controversy with Dr. Priestley, and brought a considerable share of obloquy and persecution from the orthodox. Died 25 Sept. 1805.

Eve’merus or Euhemerus ( Εὐήμερος), a Sicilian author of the time of Alexander the Great, who sought to rationalise religion, and treated the gods as dead heroes. He is usually represented as an Atheist.

Eudes (Emile François Désiré), French Communist, b. Roncey, 1844. He became a chemist, and was condemned, with Régnard, to three months’ imprisonment for writing in La Libre Pensée, ’67, of which he was director. He joined the ranks of the Commune and became a general. When the Versailles troops entered Paris he escaped to Switzerland. On his return after the Amnesty, he wrote with Blanqui. Died at a public meeting in Paris, 5 Aug. 1888.

Ewerbeck (August Hermann), Dr., b. Dantzic. After the events of 1848, he lived at Paris. He translated into German Cabet’s Voyage en Icarie, and in an important work entitled Qu’est ce que La Religion? (What is Religion), ’50, translated into French Feuerbach’s “Essence of Religion,” “Essence of Christianity,” and “Death and Immortality.” In a succeeding volume What is the Bible? he translated from Daumer, Ghillany, Luetzelberger and B. Bauer. Ewerbeck also wrote in French an historical work on Germany and the Germans; Paris, 1851.

Fabre D’Eglantine (Philippe François Nazaire), French revolutionist and playwriter, b. Carcassonne, 28 Dec. 1755. After some success as a poet and playwright he was chosen as deputy to the National Convention. He voted for the death of Louis XVI., and proposed the substitution of the republican for the Christian calendar, Sept. 1793. He was executed with his friend Danton, 5 April, 1794.

Fabricatore (Bruto), Italian writer, b. Sarno, Naples, 1824. His father Antonio had the honor of having a political work placed on the Index, 1821. He took part in the anti-papal Freethought Council of 1869, and has written works on Dante, etc.

Farinata. See Uberti (Farinata degli).

Fauche (Hippolyte), French Orientalist, b. Auxerre, 22 May, 1797. Translations of the Mahabharata, the Ramayana, and the plays of Kalidasa, attest his industry and erudition. He contributed to La Liberté de Penser. Died at Juilly, 28 Feb. 1869.

Fausto (Sebastiano), Da Longiano, Italian of the beginning of the 16th century, who is said to have projected a work The Temple of Truth, with the intention of overturning all religions. He translated the Meditations of Antoninus, also wrote observations on Cicero, 1566.

Feer (Henri Léon), French Orientalist, b. Rouen, 27 Nov. 1830, is chiefly known by his Buddhistic Studies, 1871–75.

Fellens (Jean Baptiste), Professor of History, b. Bar-sur-Aube, 1794. Author of a work on Pantheism, Paris, 1873.

Fellowes (Robert), LL.D., b. Norfolk 1771, educated at Oxford. He took orders in 1795, and wrote many books, but gradually quitted the doctrines of the Church and adopted the Deistic opinions maintained in his work entitled The Religion of the Universe (1836). Dr. Fellowes was proprietor of the Examiner and a great supporter of the London University. Died 5 Feb. 1847.

Fenzi (Sebastiano), Italian writer, b. Florence, 22 Oct. 1822. Educated by the Jesuits in Vienna, England and Paris. Founded in ’49 the Revista Britannica, writer on the journal L’Italiano, and has written a credo which is a non-credo.

Feringa (Frederik), Dutch writer, b. Groningen, 16 April, 1840. Studied mathematics. A contributor to De Dageraad (The Daybreak) over the signature, “Muricatus”; he has written important studies, entitled Democratie en Wetenschap (Democracy and Science), 1871, also wrote in De Vrije Gedachte (Freethought).

Fernau (Rudolf), Dr., German author of Christianity and Practical Life, Leipsic, 1868; The Alpha and Omega of Reason, Leipsic, 1870; Zoologica Humoristica, 1882; and a recent work on Religion as Ghost and God Worship.

Feron (Emile), Belgian advocate, b. Brussels, 11 July, 1841. Councillor of the International Freethought Federation.

Ferrari (Giuseppe), Italian philosopher, b. Milan 7 March, 1811. A disciple of Romagnosi, a study of whose philosophical writings he published ’35. He also published the works of Vico, and in ’39 a work entitled Vico and Italy, and in the following year another on the Religious Opinions of Campanella. Attacked by the Catholic party, he was exiled, living in Paris, where he became a collaborator with Proudhon and a contributor to the Revue de Deux Mondes. In ’42 he was made Professor of Philosophy at Strasbourg, but appointment was soon cancelled on account of his opinions. He wrote a History of the Revolution of Italy, ’55, and a work on China and Europe. His history of the Reason of the State, ’60, is his most pronounced work. In ’59, he was elected to the Italian Parliament, where he remained one of the most radical members until his death at Rome 1 July, 1876.

Ferri (Enrico), Member of the Italian Parliament, formerly professor of criminal law at the University of Siena, studied at Mantua under Professor Ardigo. Has written a large work on the Non-Existence of Free Will, and is with Professor Lombroso, leader of the new Italian school of criminal law reform.

Ferri (Luigi), Italian philosopher, b. Bologna, 15 June 1826. Studied in Paris and became licentiate of letters in 1850. Author of History of Philosophy in Italy, Paris 1868; The Psychology of Pomponazzi, etc.

Ferrière (Emile), French writer and licentiate of letters, b. Paris, 1830; author of Literature and Philosophy, 1865; Darwinism, 1872, which has gone through several editions; The Apostles, a work challenging early Christian Morality, 1879; The Soul the Function of the Brain, a scientific work of popular character in two vols., 1883; and Paganism of the Hebrews until the Babylonian Captivity, 1884. All these are works of pronounced Freethought. M. Ferrière has also announced a work Jesus bar Joseph.

Feuerbach (Friedrich Heinrich), son of a famous German jurist, was b. at Ansbach 29 Sept. 1806. He studied philology, but set himself to preach what his brother Ludwig taught. He wrote Theanthropos, a series of Aphorisms (Zurich, ’38), and an able work on the Religion of the Future, ’43–47; and Thoughts and Facts, Hamburg, ’62. Died Nurenberg, 24 Jan. 1880.

Feuerbach (Ludwig Andreas), brother of the preceding, b. Landshut, Bavaria, 28 July 1804. He studied theology with a view to the Church, but under the influence of Hegel abandoned it for philosophy. In ’28 he was made professor at Erlangen, but was dismissed in consequence of his first published work, Thoughts upon Death and Immortality, ’30, in which he limited immortality to personal influence on the human race. After a wandering life he married in ’37, and settled near Anspach. He published there a history of modern philosophy from Bacon to Spinoza. This was followed by a work on Peter Bayle. In ’38 he wrote on philosophy and Christianity, and in ’41 his work called the The Essence of Christianity, in which he resolves theology into anthropology. This book was translated by Mary Ann Evans, ’53. He also wrote Principles of the Philosophy of the Future. After the revolution of ’48 he was invited to lecture by the students of Heidelberg, and gave his course on The Essence of Religion, published in ’51. In ’57 he published Theogony from the Sources of Classical, Hebrew, and Christian Antiquity, and in ’66 Theism, Freedom, and Immortality from the Standpoint of Anthropology. Died at Rechenberg, near Nurenberg, 13 Sept. 1872. His complete works were published at Leipsic in 1876. He was a deep thinker and lucid writer.

Fichte (Johann Gottlieb), one of the greatest German thinkers, b. 19 May, 1762. He studied at the Universities of Jena, Leipsic, and Wittenberg, embraced “determinism,” became acquainted with Kant, and published anonymously, A Criticism of all Revelation. He obtained a chair of philosophy at Jena, where he developed his doctrines of science, asserting that the problem of philosophy is to seek on what foundations knowledge rests. He gave moral discourses in the lecture-room on Sunday, and was accused of holding atheistical opinions. He was in consequence banished from Saxony, 1799. He appears to have held that God was not a personal being, but a system of intellectual, moral, and spiritual laws. Fichte took deep interest in the cause of German independence, and did much to rouse his countrymen against the domination of the French during the conquest which led to the fall of Napoleon. Besides many publications, in which he expounds his philosophy, he wrote eloquent treatises on The Vocation of Man, The Nature and Vocation of the Scholar, The Way Towards the Blessed Life, etc. Died Berlin 27 Jan. 1814.

“Figaro.” See Larra (Mariano José de).

Figuiera (Guillem), Provençal troubadour and precursor of the Renaissance, b. Toulouse about 1190. His poems were directed against the priests and Court of Rome.

Filangieri (Gaetano), an Italian writer on legislation, b. Naples, 18 Aug. 1752. He was professor at that city. His principal work is La Scienza della Legislazione, 1780. In the fifth volume he deals with pre-Christian religions. The work was put on the Index. Died 21 July, 1788.

Fiorentino (Francesco), Italian philosopher, b. Sambiasa, Nicastro, 1 May, 1834. In 1860 he became Professor of Philosophy at Spoletto, in ’62 at Bologna, and in ’71 at Naples. He was elected deputy to Parliament, Nov. ’70. A disciple of Felice Tocco, he paid special attention to the early Italian Freethinkers, writing upon The Pantheism of Giordano Bruno, Naples, ’61; Pietro Pomponazzi, Florence, ’68; Bernardius Telesio, Florence, 2 vols., ’72–74. He has also written on Strauss and Spinoza. In the Nuova Antologia he wrote on J. C. Vanini, and on Cæsalpinus, Campanella, and Bruno. A friend of Bertrando Spaventa, he succeeded to his chair at Naples in ’83. Died 22 Dec. 1884.

Fischart (Johann), German satirist called Mentzer, b. Strasbourg about 1545. His satires in prose and verse remind one of Rabelais, whom he in part translated, and are often directed against the Church. Died at Forbach in 1614.

Fischer (J. C.), German materialist, author of a work on the freedom of the will 1858, a criticism of Hartmann’s Philosophy of the Unconscious, ’72; Das Bewusstsein, ’74. Died 1888.

Fischer (Kuno), German philosopher, b. 23 July, 1824, at Sandewald, Silesia. Educated at Leipsic and Halle, in 1856 he was appointed Professor of Philosophy at Jena. His chief works are History of Modern Philosophy, ’52–72; Life and Character of Spinoza; Francis Bacon, ’56; and Lessing, ’81.

Fiske (John), American author, b. Hartford, Connecticut, 30 March, 1842. Graduated at Harvard, ’63. In ’69–71 was Lecturer on Philosophy at that University, and from ’72–9 Librarian. Mr. Fiske has lectured largely, and has written Myths and Mythmakers, ’72; Outlines of Cosmic Philosophy, 2 vols. ’74; Darwinism, and other essays, ’79; Excursions of an Evolutionist, ’83; The Idea of God as Affected by Modern Knowledge, ’85.

Flaubert (Gustave), French novelist, b. Rouen, 12 Dec. 1821. The son of a distinguished surgeon, he abandoned his father’s profession for literature. His masterpiece, Madame Bovary, published in ’56 in the Revue de Paris, drew a prosecution upon that journal which ended in a triumph for the author. For his next great work, Salammbô, ’62, an epic of Carthage, he prepared himself by long antiquarian studies. His intellectual tendencies are displayed in The Temptation of Saint Anthony. He stands eminent among the naturalist school for his artistic fidelity. He was a friend of Théophile Gautier, Ivan Turgenev, Emile Zola and “George Sand.” His correspondence with the last of these has been published. He distinctly states therein that on subjects like immortality men cheat themselves with words. Died at Rouen, 9 May, 1880.

Flourens (Marie Jean Pierre), French scientist, b. near Béziers, 15 April, 1794. In 1828 he was admitted into the Academy of Sciences, after having published a work on the nervous system of vertebrates; he became perpetual secretary in ’33. A work on Human Longevity and the Quantity of Life on the Globe was very popular. Died near Paris, 6 Dec. 1867.

Flourens (Gustave), eldest son of the preceding, b. Paris, 4 Aug. 1838. In ’63 he took his father’s chair at the College of France, and his course on “Ethnography” attracted much attention. In the following year he published his work on The Science of Man. His bold heresy lost him his chair, and he collaborated on Larousse’s Grand Dictionnaire. In ’65 he left France for Crete, where for three years he fought in the mountains against the Turkish troops. Upon his return he was arrested for presiding at a political meeting. He showed himself an ardent Revolutionist, and was killed in a skirmish near Nanterre, 3 April, 1871.

Fonblanque (Albany William), English journalist, b. London, 1793; the son of an eminent lawyer. In 1820 he was on the staff of the Times, and contributed to the Westminster Review. In ’30 he became editor of the Examiner, and retained his post until ’47. His caustic wit and literary attainments did much to forward advanced liberal views. A selection of his editorials was published under the title, England under Seven Administrations. Died 13 Oct. 1872.

Fontanier (Jean), French writer, who was burnt at the Place de Grève, 1621, for blasphemies in a book entitled Le Tresor Inestimable. Garasse, with little reason, calls him an Atheist.

Fontenelle (Bernard le Bovier de), nephew of Corneille, called by Voltaire the most universal genius of the reign of Louis XIV., b. Rouen, 11 Feb. 1657. Dedicated to the Virgin and St. Bernard, he was educated at the Jesuits’ College. He went to Paris in 1674; wrote some plays and Dialogues of the Dead, 1683. In 1686 appeared his Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds, and in the following year his History of Oracles, based on the work of Van Dale, for which he was warmly attacked by the Jesuit Baltus, as impugning the Church Fathers. He was made secretary to the Academy of Sciences in 1699, a post he held forty-two years. He wrote Doubts on the Physical System of Occasional Causes, and is also credited with a letter on the Resurrection of the Body, a piece on The Infinite, and a Treatise on Liberty; “but,” says l’Abbé Ladvocat, “as these books contain many things contrary to religion, it is to be hoped they are not his.” Fontenelle nearly reached the age of one hundred. A short time before he died (9 Jan. 1757), being asked if he felt any pain, “I only feel,” he replied, “a difficulty of existing.”

Foote (George William), writer and orator, b. Plymouth, 11 Jan. 1850. Was “converted” in youth, but became a Freethinker by reading and independent thought. Came to London in 1868, and was soon a leading member of the Young Men’s Secular Association. He taught in the Hall of Science Sunday School, and became secretary of the Republican League. Devoting his time to propagating his principles, he wrote in the Secular Chronicle and National Reformer, and in ’76 started the Secularist in conjunction with Mr. G. J. Holyoake, and after the ninth number conducting it alone. This afterwards merged in the Secular Review. In ’79 Mr. Foote edited the Liberal, and in Sept. ’81, started the Freethinker, which he still edits. In the following year a prosecution was commenced by the Public Prosecutor, who attempted to connect Mr. Bradlaugh with it. Undaunted, Mr. Foote issued a Christmas number with an illustrated “Comic Life of Christ.” For this a prosecution was started by the City authorities against him and his publisher and printer, and the trial came on first in March, ’83. The jury disagreed, but Judge North refused to discharge the prisoners, and they were tried again on the 5th March; Judge North directing that a verdict of guilty must be returned, and sentencing Mr. Foote to one year’s imprisonment as an ordinary criminal subject to the same “discipline” as burglars. “I thank you, my lord; your sentence is worthy of your creed,” he remarked. On 24 April, ’83, Mr. Foote was brought from prison before Lord Coleridge and a special jury on the first charge, and after a splendid defence, upon which he was highly complimented by the judge, the jury disagreed. He has debated with Dr. McCann, Rev. A. J. Harrison, the Rev. W. Howard, the Rev. H. Chapman, and others. Mr. Foote has written much, and lectures continually. Among his works we mention Heroes and Martyrs of Freethought (1876); God, the Soul, and a Future State; Secularism the True Philosophy of Life (1879); Atheism and Morality; The Futility of Prayer; Bible Romances; Death’s Test, afterwards enlarged into Infidel Death-Beds; The God Christians Swear by; Was Jesus Insane? Blasphemy No Crime; Arrows of Freethought; Prisoner for Blasphemy (1884); Letters to Jesus Christ; What Was Christ? Bible Heroes; and has edited The Bible Hand-book with Mr. W. P. Ball, and the Jewish Life of Christ with the present writer, in conjunction with whom he has written The Crimes of Christianity. From 1883–87 he edited Progress, in which appeared many important articles from his pen. Mr. Foote is President of the London Secular Federation, and a Vice-President of the National Secular Society.

Fouillee (Alfred), French philosopher, b. La Pouëze, near Angers, 18 Oct. 1838. Has been teacher at several lyceums, notably at Bordeaux. He was crowned by the Academy of Moral Sciences for two works on the Philosophy of Plato and Socrates. Elected Professor of Philosophy at the Superior Normal School, Paris, he sustained a thesis at the Sorbonne on Liberty and Determinism, which was violently attacked by the Catholics. This work has gone through several editions. M. Fonillée has also written an able History of Philosophy, 1875, Contemporary Social Science, and an important Critique of Contemporary Moral Systems (1883). He has written much in the Revue des Deux Mondes, and is considered, with Taine, Ribot, and Renan, the principal representative of French philosophy. His system is known as that of idèes-forces, as he holds that ideas are themselves forces. His latest work expounds the views of M. Guyau.

Forberg (Friedrich Karl), German philosopher, b. Meuselwitz, 30 Aug. 1770, studied theology at Leipsic, and became private docent at Jena. Becoming attached to Fichte’s philosophy, he wrote with Fichte in Niethammer’s Philosophical Journal on “The Development of Religious Ideas,” and an article on “The Ground of our Faith in Divine Providence,” which brought on them a charge of Atheism, and the journal was confiscated by the Electorate of Saxony. Forberg held religion to consist in devotion to morality, and wrote An Apology for Alleged Atheism, 1799. In 1807 he became librarian at Coburg, and devoted himself to the classics, issuing a Manuel d’Erotologie Classique. Died Hildburghausen 1 Jan. 1848.

Forder (Robert), b. Yarmouth, 14 Oct. 1844. Coming to to Woolwich, he became known as a political and Freethought lecturer. He took part in the movement to save Plumstead Common from the enclosers, and was sent to trial for riotous proceedings, but was acquitted. In ’77 he was appointed paid secretary to the National Secular Society, a post he has ever since occupied. During the imprisonment of Messrs. Foote, Ramsey, and Kemp, in ’83, Mr. Forder undertook charge of the publishing business. He has lectured largely, and written some pamphlets.

Forlong (James George Roche). Major General, H.B.A., b. Lanarkshire, Scotland, Nov. 1824. Educated as an engineer, joined the Indian army ’43, fought in the S. Mahrata campaign ’45–6, and in the second Burmese war. On the annexation of Barma he became head of the Survey, Roads and canal branches. In ’58–9 he travelled extensively through Egypt, Palestine, Turkey, Greece, Italy, Spain, etc. From ’61–71 was a superintending engineer of Calcutta, and in Upper Bengal, North-west Provinces, and Rajputana, and ’72–76 was Secretary and Chief Engineer to the Government of Oudh. He retired in ’77 after an active service of 33 years, during which he frequently received the thanks of the Indian and Home Governments. In his youth he was an active Evangelical, preaching to the natives in their own tongues. He has, however, given his testimony that during his long experience he has known no one converted solely by force of reasoning or “Christian evidences.” A great student of Eastern religions, archæology, and languages, he has written in various periodicals of the East and West, and has embodied the result of many years researches in two illustrated quarto volumes called Rivers of Life, setting forth the evolution of all religions from their radical objective basis to their present spiritualised developments. In an elaborate chart he shows by streams of color the movements of thought from 10,000 B.C. to the present time.

Fourier (François Marie Charles), French socialist, b. Besançon, 7 April, 1772. He passed some of the early years of his life as a common soldier. His numerous works amid much that is visionary have valuable criticisms upon society, and suggestions for its amelioration. He believed in the transmigration of souls. Died at Paris, 8 Oct. 1837.

Fox (William Johnson), orator and political writer, b. near Wrentham, Suffolk, 1786. Intended for the Congregational Ministry, he became a Unitarian, and for many years preached at South Place, Finsbury, where he introduced the plan of taking texts from other books besides the Bible. One of his first published sermons was on behalf of toleration for Deists at the time of the Carlile prosecutions 1819. He gradually advanced from the acceptance of miracles to their complete rejection. During the Anti-Corn Law agitation he was a frequent and able speaker. In 1847 he became M.P. for Oldham, and retained his seat until his retirement in ’61. He was a prominent worker for Radicalism, contributing to the Westminster Review, Weekly Dispatch, and Daily News. For some years he edited the Monthly Repository. His works, which include spirited Lectures to the Working Classes, and a philosophical statement of Religions Ideas, were published in twelve volumes, ’65–68. Died 3 June, 1864.

“Franchi (Ausonio),” the pen name of Francesco Cristoforo Bonavino, Italian ex-priest, b. Pegli, 24 Feb. 1821. Brought up in the Church and ordained priest in ’44, the practice of the confessional made him sceptical and he quitted it for philosophy, having ceased to believe in its dogmas, ’49. In ’52 he published his principal work, entitled The Philosophy of the Italian Schools. The following year he published The Religion of the Nineteenth Century. He established La Razione (Reason) and Il Libero Pensiero at Turin, ’54–57; wrote on the Rationalism of the People, Geneva, ’56, and became an active organiser of anti-clerical societies. In ’66 he published a criticism of Positivism, and has since written Critical and Polemical Essays, 3 vols. Milan, ’70–72. In ’68 was appointed Professor of Philosophy in the Academy of Milan by Terenzio Mamiani.

Francis (Samuel), M.D., author of Watson Refuted, published by Carlile, 1819.

Francois de Neufchateau (Nicolas Louis), Count, French statesman, poet, and academician, b. Lorraine, 17 April, 1750. In his youth he became secretary to Voltaire, who regarded him as his successor. He favored the Revolution, and was elected to the Legislative Assembly in ’91. As Member of the Directory, ’97, he circulated d’Holbach’s Contagion Sacrée. He became President of the Senate, ’14–16. He wrote numerous pieces. Died at Paris 10 Jan. 1828.

Franklin (Benjamin), American patriot and philosopher, b. Boston 17 Jan. 1706. He was apprenticed to his uncle as a printer, came to England and worked at his trade ’24–26; returned to Philadelphia, where he published a paper and became known by his Poor Richard’s Almanack. He founded the public library at Philadelphia, and made the discovery of the identity of lightning with the electric fluid. He became member of the Provincial Assembly and was sent to England as agent. When examined before the House of Commons he spoke boldly against the Stamp Act. He was active during the war with this country, and was elected member of Congress. Became envoy to France, and effected the treaty of alliance with that country, 6 Feb. ’78, which secured the independence of the American colonies. Turgot summed up his services in the fine line Eripuit cælo fulmen, sceptrumque tyrannis. “He wrested the thunderbolt from heaven and the sceptre from kings.” Died at Philadelphia, 17 April, 1790.

Fransham (John), a native of Norwich, b. 1730, became a teacher of mathematics, renounced the Christian religion, and professed Paganism, writing several treatises in favor of disbelief. Died 1810.

Frauenstaedt (Christian Martin Julius), Dr., philosopher and disciple of Schopenhauer, b. 17 April, 1813, at Bojanowo, Posen. He studied philosophy and theology at Berlin, but meeting Schopenhauer at Frankfort in ’47 he adopted the views of the pessimist, who made him his literary executor. Among Frauenstädt’s works are Letters on Natural Religion, ’58, The Liberty of Men and the Personality of God, ’38; Letters on the Philosophy of Schopenhauer, ’54, etc. Died at Berlin, 13 Jan. 1879.

Frederick II. (Emperor of Germany), the greatest man of the thirteenth century and founder of the Renaissance, b. 26 Dec. 1194. Was elected to the throne in 1210. He promoted learning, science, and art, founded the Universities of Vienna and Naples, had the works of Aristotle and Averroes translated, and was the patron of all the able men of his time. For his resistance to the tyranny of the Church he was twice excommunicated. He answered by a letter attacking the Pope (Gregory IX.), whom he expelled from Rome in ’28. He made a treaty with the Sultan of Egypt, by which he became master of Jerusalem. For some heretical words in his letter, in which he associates the names of Christ, Moses, and Mohammed, he was reported author of the famous work De Tribus Impostoribus. He addressed a series of philosophical questions to Ibn Sabin, a Moslem doctor. He is said to have called the Eucharist truffa ista, and is credited also with the saying “Ignorance is the mother of devotion.” Died at Florence, 13 Dec. 1250.

Frederick the Great (King of Prussia), b. 24 Jan. 1712, was educated in a very rigid fashion by his father, Frederick William I. He ascended the throne and soon displayed his political and military ability. By a war with Austria he acquired Silesia. He wrote several deistical pieces, and tolerated all religions and no religion saying “every man must get to heaven his own way.” He attracted to his court men like Lamettrie, D’Argens, Maupertuis, and Voltaire, who, says Carlyle, continued all his days Friedrich’s chief thinker. In 1756 France, Austria, Sweden, and Russia united against him, but he held his own against “a world in arms.” After a most active life Frederick died at Potsdam, 17 Aug. 1786. The Philosophical Breviary attributed to him was really written by Cérutti.

Fredin (Nils Edvard), Swedish writer, b. 1857. Has published translation of modern poets, and also of Col. Ingersoll’s writings. In ’80 he was awarded first prize by the Swedish Academy for an original poem.

Freeke (William), b. about 1663, wrote A Brief but Clear Confutation of the Trinity, which being brought before the notice of the House of Lords it was on 3 Jan. 1693 ordered to be burnt by the common hangman, and the author being prosecuted by the Attorney General was fined £500.

Freiligrath (Ferdinand) German poet, b. Detmold 17 June, 1810. In ’35 he acquired notice by some poems. In ’44 he published his profession of faith Mein Glaubensbekenntniss, and was forced to fly the country. In ’48 he returned and joined Karl Marx on the Neue Rheinische Zeitung. Again prosecuted he took refuge in London, devoting his leisure to poetry and translation. Freiligrath holds a high place among the poets of his time. Died Kannstadt, near Stuttgart, 18 March 1876.

Fréret (Nicolas), French historical critic, b. 15 Feb. 1688. He was a pupil of Rollin, and was patronised by Boulainvilliers. Distinguished by his attainments in ancient history, philosophy and chronology, he became member of the Academy of Inscriptions 1714. For a Discourse on the “Origin of the Franks,” he was incarcerated for four months in the Bastille. While here he read Bayle so often that he could repeat much from memory. He was an unbeliever, and the author of the atheistic Letters from Thrasybulus to Leucippe on Natural and Revealed Religion, and perhaps of La Moisade, a criticism of the Pentateuch, translated by D. I. Eaton, as A Preservative against Religious Prejudices. The Letters to Eugenie, attributed to Fréret, were written by D’Holbach, and the Critical Examination of the Apologists of the Christian Religion by J. Levesque de Burigny. A Critical Examination of the New Testament, 1777 which long circulated in MS. has also been wrongly attributed to Fréret. Died at Paris, 8 March, 1749.

Frey (William), the adopted name of a Russian Positivist and philanthropist, b. of noble family, the son of a general, 1839. Educated at the higher military school, St. Petersburg, he became teacher in a Government High School, and disgusted with the oppression and degradation of his country he went to New York in 1866 where he established co-operative communities and also Russian colonies in Kansas and Oregon. In 1884 he came to London in order to influence his countrymen. In ’87 he revisited Russia. Died 6 Nov. 1888.

Fries (Jacob Friedrich), German philosopher, b. Barby, 23 Aug. 1773. Brought up as a Moravian, he became a Deist. Fries is of the Neo-Kantian rationalistic school. Among his writings are a System of Metaphysics, 1824; a Manual of the Philosophy of Religion and Philosophical Æsthetics, Heidelberg ’32; in which he resolves religion into poetry. He criticised Kant’s proofs of God and immortality, and wrote a History of Philosophy. Died Jena, 10 Aug. 1843.