Abbreviations in Common Use

Abbreviations given are those which are frequently used. For complete list of abbreviations, the reader is referred to any unabridged dictionary.

A. B. or B. A.—Bachelor of Arts.

A. D.—In the Year of Our Lord.

Agt.—agent.

A. M. or M. A.—Master of Arts.

bbl.—barrel.

B. Agr.—Bachelor of Agriculture.

B. C.—Before Christ.

B. D.—Bachelor of Divinity.

B. L.—Bachelor of Laws.

B. M. or B. Mus.—Bachelor of Music.

B. Pd.—Bachelor of Pedagogy.

B. Ph.—Bachelor of Philosophy.

B. S.—Bachelor of Surgery.

B. S. or B. Sc.—Bachelor of Science.

Capt.—Captain.

C. E.—Civil Engineer.

C. O. D.—Cash (collect) on Delivery.

Col.—Colonel.

D. C.—District of Columbia, District Court.

D. C. L.—Doctor of Canon Law.

D. D. S. or D. M. D.—Doctor of Dental Surgery.

D.D.—Doctor of Divinity.

D. Litt.—Doctor of Literature.

D. M. or D. Mus.—Doctor of Music.

D. Ph.—Doctor of Philosophy.

Dr.—Doctor.

D. Sc.—Doctor of Science.

D. V. S.—Doctor of Veterinary Surgery.

E. D.—Doctor of Electricity.

E. E.—Electrical Engineer.

F. O. B.—Free on board.

G. A. R.—Grand Army of the Republic.

Gen. or Gen'l—General.

Gov.—Governor.

Hon.—Honorable.

i. e.—that is.

int.—interest.

J. C. D.—Doctor of Civil Law.

J. D.—Doctor of Laws.

J. P.—Justice of the Peace.

Jr. or Jun.—Junior.

lat.—latitude.

lb.—pound.

Lieut. or Lt.—Lieutenant.

Litt. B. or Lit. B.—Bachelor of Literature.

Litt. D. or Lit. D.—Doctor of Literature.

LL. B.—Bachelor of Laws.

LL. D.—Doctor of Laws.

M. Agr.—Master of Agriculture.

Maj.—Major.

M. C.—Member of Congress.

M. D.—Doctor of Medicine.

M. P.—Member of Parliament

M. P. C.—Member of Parliament in Canada.

M. S.—Master of Science.

ms.—manuscript

Mus. B.—Bachelor of Music.

Mus. D.—Doctor of Music.

Pd. B.—Bachelor of Pedagogy.

Pd. D.—Doctor of Pedagogy.

Ph. B.—Bachelor of Philosophy.

Ph. D.—Doctor of Philosophy.

P. M.—Postmaster.

P. O.—Post Office.

Prof.—Professor.

P. S.—Postscript.

Rev.—Reverend.

S. B. or Sc. B.—Bachelor of Science.

Sc. D.—Doctor of Science.

S. T. B.—Bachelor of Sacred Theology.

S. T. D.—Doctor of Sacred Theology.

Rt. Hon.—Right Honorable.

Rt. Rev.—Right Reverend.

V. Rev.—Very Reverend.

yd.—yard.

yr.—year.

Acetylene Gas.—Acetylene gas is used largely for the search-lamps on automobiles. It is composed of carbon and hydrogen.

Adventists.—A religious sect whose members believe that the second coming of Christ is near at hand. There are over 100,000 communicants and ministers.

Æolian Harp.—This instrument was invented in the 17th century and was named after Æolus, the god of the winds. It is of the simplest construction, and its music is produced by the vibration of the strings automatically moved by the winds. In construction it is a rectangular box of thin boards of a few inches in depth and width and of sufficient length to extend across a window so that the breeze may pass through it. The strings are stretched lengthwise across the top of the box, and may be tuned by increasing or decreasing their tension.

Age.—About 50 per cent. of the persons living in the United States are under 20 years of age, 45 per cent. from 20 to 60 years, and 5 per cent. over 60 years, the average age being about 25 years. This average seems low, and is due largely to infant mortality. If the percentage was taken excluding those under 15 years of age it would be very much higher.

Agricultural Implement Industry.—Capital invested, about $260,000,000, and an annual output of about $150,000,000. About 60,000 people are employed.

Alaska.—Alaska is the only territory of the United States, the Hawaiian Islands, Porto Rico, and the Philippines being known as Possessions. It has an area of over 590,000 square miles, and a population of about 65,000. Its climate is semipolar.

Algebra.—The discoverer or the first user of algebra is unknown. It is said that Diophantus wrote it in 170 A. D., and he may have been its inventor. It was brought into Spain in about 900. Its signs are said to have been used first in 1544, but algebra did not come into common use until 1590. Descartes applied algebra to geometry in 1637.

Almanacs.—The word "almanac" is of Saxon origin, and probably the first almanac was published in 1470, and the first in English in 1673.

Amazons.—An ancient body of warlike women, ruled by a queen, who allowed no man to live with them. They were opposed to marriage and resolved to form a female state. They burned off their right breasts that they might better use the bow and javelin. This custom is the origin of the name "Amazons" or "breastless ones."

Apostles' Creed.—Considered by most Biblical students as the earliest form of Christian creed. It is attributed directly to the Apostles. It is doubtless the formula of belief that existed in all the early Latin churches. It was made a part of public worship of the Christian church at Antioch, and introduced into the Roman Catholic Church in the eleventh century, and subsequently into the Church of England.

April Fool's Day.—Its origin is unknown, but it is supposed to follow an ancient pageant custom of playing tricks on the first day of April.

Arbor Day.—A few years ago the United States and Canada officially set apart one day in the year for the planting of trees, shrubs, etc. It was the intention to have this day observed chiefly by the children of the public schools. Its observance has resulted in the planting of millions of trees.

Arithmetic.—While the inventor or discoverer of arithmetic is unknown, it is said that it was brought from Egypt into Greece in 600 B. C. Euclid is the author of the oldest treatise upon arithmetic and wrote it about 300 B. C. The arithmetic of decimals began in 1482, and the first arithmetic in English was printed in 1522.

Artesian Wells.—An artesian well is one made by boring perpendicularly into the earth. The oldest known well of this kind was sunk in Europe in 1126. Probably the most famous one is near Paris, which was bored in 1833, bringing water from a depth of 1792 feet. From this well 516 gallons of water flow per minute. In Missouri there is one well 2197 feet deep, and another nearly 4000 feet deep. The invention of the artesian well is undoubtedly due to the Chinese.

Artificial Ice.—The artificial manufacture of ice is of somewhat recent origin, and there are over 2,000 ice-making plants in the United States, exclusive of those used by breweries, packers, and others for the making of their own ice. Artificial ice-making showed an increase of 81 per cent. during the last few years.

Atlantic Cable.—The original or, rather, the first permanent cable, was laid in July, 1866, connecting Ireland with Newfoundland; but an earlier cable was laid between the foregoing points, which was lost in construction. This lost cable, however, was recovered and completed.

In 1868 a cable was laid from France to Duxbury, Mass. In 1873 the fourth Atlantic cable connected Ireland and Trinity Bay, New Foundland. Several cables have been subsequently laid, and are maintained.

Considerable difficulty was experienced in obtaining the right kind, and a sufficient current, of electricity, which would carry the message several thousand miles under water, and not pass from the cable into the water itself.

Two keys are used, which, when depressed, transmit respectively positive and negative currents coming from the connected batteries. The current does not pass directly into the cable, but enters what is known as a condenser, and from there reaches the wire itself. This increases the force of the current and overcomes interfering earth currents.

Originally the messages were received by a reflecting galvanometer. Upon the magnet of this instrument was placed a small curved mirror, and in front of it was a lighted lamp behind a frame with a vertical slit. The light from the lamp passed through the slit and fell upon the surface of the mirror. The flashes of light moving with the movements of the suspended needle, indicated the message sent. Because of the delicacy of the instrument, it was difficult to translate the telegraphic code. The system has been entirely superseded by the use of the syphon galvanometer. This needle is affected by the currents, and moves in response to the opening and closing of the telegraphic key. It consists of a small hollow needle, which swings between two fixed magnets. A very soluble analine ink is allowed to flow through the tube. The mouth of this tube is suspended a very small fraction above a strip or roll of white paper, which moves automatically. The vibration or movements of the needle allow the ink to flow in irregular lines or curves upon the moving paper. These irregularities or curves indicate letters, which are easily read by the receiving operator.

Cable dispatches now are recorded, when formerly they had to be read as they were seen, with the impossibility of retaining an automatic record of them.

Professor Morse, the inventor of telegraphy, may be considered the inventor of the cable, although he had little to do with its mechanical construction. To Mr. Cyrus W. Field must be given much of the credit, for its accomplishment was largely due to his foresight and energy.

The cable consists of several copper wires imbedded in gutta percha or similar substance, which is one of the best nonconductors of electricity. The cable, with its several wires and coverings or insulation, has a circumference equal to that of the old-fashioned three-cent piece. Several wires are imbedded into the insulation, so as to insure better connection.

The cable is laid by steamers built for the purpose. They travel over a charted route, and, unscientifically speaking, throw the cable overboard. Of course, no cable could be constructed of a length that would reach across the ocean. New pieces are, therefore, spliced in as conditions require. If the sea is too rough for the laying of the cable, the end is buoyed and picked up when the weather changes. The cable lies upon the bottom of the ocean, and, as the bottom of the ocean is as irregular as the surface of the earth, with its mountains, plateaus, and valleys, there is always danger of the cable being broken or injured, although there is, of course, absolute quiet at the bottom of the ocean. Then, many feet, or even a mile, of cable may be stretched between two projecting points, and the strain may part it in time.

The process of locating a break or injury is very interesting. The cable fails to work. The operator stationed at either end discharges electricity into the cable, and, although it does not reach the other side, he can, by a delicate instrument, locate approximately the place of parting or where injury has occurred. The repair steamer sails for the place. With grappling irons it brings the cable to the surface; but as the location of the break cannot be determined accurately, the electrician on board must determine which way to sail to locate the place of the trouble. He attaches the cable to a battery on board, and opens connection with the land. If the break, for example, is between him and Europe, the European operator will not respond, but he will receive a reply from the American operator. He then directs the vessel's course towards Europe. The cable, when it is taken on board, is run on pulley wheels, one in the bow and one in the stern of the vessel, and the vessel sails slowly under the cable. As the vessel is two or three hundred feet long, several hundred feet of cable will be exposed. The cable is watched carefully, and the break or injury will be easily located. When it is, the operator connects the cable with the batteries, and then telegraphs in the direction opposite to that from which he received a reply. If his message goes through, the receiving operator will respond. If a reply comes, he knows he has located the break; if no reply is received, there must be other breaks in the same direction. The break is repaired, and the steamer sails on until it finds another break or injury. I have attempted to explain this in the simplest words. It is obvious that a scientific explanation would be unintelligible to the average reader.

Atmosphere.—While accurate figures are impossible, and while astronomers somewhat differ, it is generally conceded that the earth's atmosphere extends from the surface to an altitude of about 40 miles. It is theoretically or scientifically accepted that the density of the atmosphere at only a few miles from the surface of the earth is not sufficient to support life.

Aurora Borealis.—Until electricity was discovered, the origin of the aurora borealis was unknown, and was supposed to be of supernatural origin. Even to-day its exact composition or source is more or less of a mystery, but it is generally supposed that it is caused by the recomposition of positive and negative electricity. It exists only in the regions of the poles, although its light is seen to a moderate degree over the greater part of the earth.

Automobiles.—All vehicles used on the common highway, and propelled by any mechanical power, whether it be by steam, gasoline, or electricity, are known as automobiles or motor cars, and are frequently called "autos" for short. The invention of the automobile is very recent, although steam-propelled carriages were in existence more than 50 years ago. Exceeding a million are in daily use in the United States.

Bank of England.—Established in the city of London in 1694. Although a private institution, it is under Government control, and constitutes the Treasury of the Empire, England having no national treasury like that of the United States. It is managed by a governor, deputy-governor, and twenty-four directors.

Bastile.—The name given to a French prison, built between 1370 and 1383, originally as a fortress, but later used as a regular prison. It was destroyed by a mob in 1789. It was the seat of the terrible cruelties practiced in the early days.

Bayreuth Festival.—A musical festival held at the National Theatre in Bayreuth, Bavaria, which was built for the performance of the works of Wagner. The foundation stone of the building was laid in 1872, and Wagner himself opened the theatre in 1876 with a grand production of the "Nibelungen Trilogy."

Bible.—Between the eighth and tenth centuries parts of the Bible were translated into Anglo-Saxon, and in 1290 appeared an English version of the Psalms. In 1380 the New Testament was finished, and a little later the Old Testament was fully translated. The so-called King James Bible was published in 1610, and remained in common use until the present revisions were made.

Bible Statistics

Old Testatment New Testament Total

Books 39 27 66

Chapters 929 260 1,189

Verses 33,214 7,959 41,173

Words 593,493 181,253 774,746

Letters 2,728,100 838,380 3,566,480

The shortest chapter is Psalm cxvii; Ezra vii, 21, contains all the letters of the alphabet except j; Esther viii, 9, is the longest verse; John xi, 35, is the shortest verse. There is no word of more than six syllables in the Bible.

Bi-Metallism.—A monetary system in which gold and silver are put on the same plane as regards mintage and legal-tender.

Birth Stones.—January, garnet; February, amethyst; March, bloodstone or jasper; April, diamond or sapphire; May, emerald or carnelian; June, agate or chalcedony; July, ruby or onyx; August, sardonyx; September, chrysolite; October, opal or beryl; November, topaz; December, turquoise.

Blind.—In the United States there are about 65,000 blind persons, a little more than half of whom are totally blind. Of this number about 37,000 are males, and about 28,000 females.

Blood-heat.—The normal temperature of man is about 98-1/2° Fahrenheit. This temperature is maintained with a variation of not more than two degrees, whether one lives on the Equator or in the Arctic regions. Any great deviation is likely to prove fatal. Animals have about the same temperature as man, while the blood of birds is from eight to ten degrees warmer. Reptiles, fishes, and all invertebrates maintain temperatures about the same as that of their environment.

Blue-Grass Region.—An undulating plateau in the north-central part of Kentucky, covering about 10,000 square miles, is known as the Blue-Grass Region. The underlying rock for 150 or more feet is blue limestone, very rich in phosphate of lime. This rock crumbles on exposure to the air and enriches the soil. Tobacco and hemp have two crops a year and grow to a great height. Meadow grass grows continuously. The Blue-Grass Region for many years has been the centre of the blooded stock of America.

Boxers.—A Chinese secret society supposed to be semireligious and semipatriotic. The Boxers originally believed that they were immune from death or physical injury, and that they could, with safety, attack any foreign foe.

Brain.—As the action of the brain has not, as yet, been seen by man, no one, at the present day, knows just what it is, beyond its merely physiological or mechanical substance. It is said that the brain of the normal man contains over 300,000,000 cells, and that about 3,000 are destroyed every minute. If this is the case, then a new brain appears once in 60 days. The normal brain has a volume of from 58 to 105 cubic inches. The brain of the Anglo-Saxon and German, and of other civilized nations, averages the larger number, while the negro brain occupies a space of about 96 cubic inches, and some Australian natives have brains of only about 58 cubic inches. The male brain is about ten per cent. heavier or larger than that of the female. The most intelligent animals have only about 16 ounces of brains. The size of the brain, if it is not below normal, does not appear to influence the intellectuality of its possessor. Men with small brains may have larger mind capacity than some of those possessing brains weighing several ounces more. It would appear, then, that the size of the brain, unless it be unusually small, has little to do with its quality.

Bread.—It is said that the Chinese were the first bread makers, and that they made bread from wheat and rice as early as 1998 B. C. Probably the first bread made from yeast was baked in England in about 1634. Aërated bread, which rises from carbolic acid gas injected into the dough, became somewhat common in 1857, but practically all bread, bakery-made or home-made, owes its leavening to yeast or baking powder.

Breakfast Foods.—Breakfast foods in the main are composed of either corn, wheat, or oat products, a few being made of barley, starch, and tapioca. They are sold under trade names, and most of them need no cooking by the consumer, as they were properly cooked at the mill. Usually they are made of only one grain, and to some of them is added a small quantity of salt. Most of them are pure products and are unadulterated, but few, if any of them, are any better than the grain sold in bulk, which can be purchased for about 4 cents per pound.

Brook Farm.—A famous socialistic community, originated by George Ripley and others in 1841 and located near West Roxbury, Massachusetts. The estate consisted of two hundred acres, and a company of educated men and women settled here to work out an experiment, in which each person performed a certain share of necessary manual labor. The enterprise was abandoned as an utter failure in 1846. Among the persons connected with the movement were George Ripley, Charles A. Dana, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Nathaniel Hawthorne, George William Curtis, Theodore Parker, Margaret Fuller, and Dr. Channing.

Calculating Interest

To find the interest on any sum, at any rate per cent., and for any length of time: 1st. Multiply the principal by the rate per cent., expressed in hundredths; this will give the interest for one year. 2nd. Find the number of days remaining by consulting the calendar; and multiply the principal by as many hundredths as there are days, and for 3 per cent., divide the product by 120; for 4 per cent., divide by 90; for 5 per cent., divide by 72; for 6 per cent., divide by 60; for 7 per cent., divide by 52; for 8 per cent., divide by 45; for 9 per cent., divide by 40; for 10 per cent., divide by 36; and for 12 per cent., divide by 30. This will give the interest for the days. 3rd. Add the two items of interest, and the sum will be the entire interest.

To find the number of days from any day of any one month to the same day of any other month.

From Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June

To January 365 334 306 275 245 214

February 31 365 337 306 276 245

March 59 28 365 334 304 273

April 90 59 31 365 335 304

May 120 89 61 30 365 334

June 151 120 92 61 31 365

July 181 150 122 91 61 30

August 212 181 153 122 92 61

September 243 212 184 153 123 92

October 273 242 214 183 153 122

November 304 273 245 214 184 153

December 334 303 275 244 214 183

N. B.—In leap year, if the last day of February comes between, add one day to the number in the table.

From July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

To January 184 153 122 92 61 31

February 215 184 153 123 92 62

March 243 212 181 151 120 90

April 274 243 212 182 151 121

May 304 273 242 212 181 151

June 335 304 273 243 212 182

July 365 334 303 273 242 212

August 31 365 334 304 273 243

September 62 31 365 335 304 274

October 92 61 30 365 334 304

November 123 92 61 31 365 335

December 153 122 91 61 30 365

N. B.—In leap year, if the last day of February comes between, add one day to the number in the table.

Canals.—The Suez Canal is 90 miles long with a depth of 35 feet, and is 108 feet wide at the bottom. It cost $100,000,000. The Manchester Canal, between Manchester and Liverpool, is 35-1/2 miles long, with a depth of 28 feet, and 120 feet wide at the bottom. It cost $85,000,000. The canal connecting the Baltic and North Seas is 61 miles long, 29-1/2 feet deep, and has a bottom width of 72 feet. It cost $40,000,000. The Panama Canal, which is not yet completed, will be about 50 miles in length, with a width of 300 feet, and a minimum depth of 41 feet. The United States Government paid $50,000,000 to the new French Canal Company and the Republic of Panama, for property rights and franchises, and the total cost of the canal will not be far from $375,000,000. At the present time nearly 50,000 men are at work upon the canal, and the official opening is announced for January 1, 1915. When completed, it will be the largest work of its class in the world, although not the longest canal.

Capacity of Cisterns or Wells.—For each ten inches in depth, a cistern 2 feet in diameter will hold 19 gallons; 2-1/2 ft., 30 g.; 3 ft., 44 g.; 3-1/2 ft., 60 g.; 4 ft., 78 g.; 4-1/2 ft., 97 g.; 5 ft., 122 g.; 5-1/2 ft., 148 g.; 6 ft., 176 g.; 6-1/2 ft., 207 g.; 7 ft., 240 g.; 7-1/2 ft., 275 g.; 8 ft., 313 g.; 8-1/2 ft., 353 g.; 9 ft., 396 g.; 9-1/2 ft., 461 g.; 10 ft., 489 g.; 11 ft., 592 g.; 12 ft., 705 g.; 13 ft., 827 g.; 14 ft., 959 g.; 15 ft.; 1101 g.; 20 ft., 1958 g.; 25 ft., 3059 g.

Capitol at Washington.—The Capitol is situated in latitude 38° 53´ 20´´.4 north and longitude 77° 00´ 35´´.7 west from Greenwich. It fronts east, and stands on a plateau eighty-eight feet above the level of the Potomac. The entire length of the building from north to south is 751 feet 4 inches, and its greatest dimension from east to west 350 feet. The area covered by the building is 153,112 square feet. The dome of the original central building was constructed of wood, covered with copper. This was replaced in 1856 by the present structure of cast iron. The entire weight of iron used is 8,909,200 pounds. The dome is crowned by a bronze statue of Freedom, which is nineteen feet, six inches, high and weighs 14,985 pounds. The height of the dome above the base line of the east front is 287 feet 5 inches. The height from the top of the balustrade of the building is 217 feet 11 inches. The greatest diameter at the base is 135 feet 5 inches. The rotunda is 97 feet 6 inches in diameter, and its height from the floor to the top of the canopy is 217 feet 3 inches. The Senate Chamber is 113 feet 3 inches in length, 83 feet 3 inches in width, and 36 feet in height. The galleries will accommodate 1,000 persons. The Representatives' Hall is 139 feet in length, by 93 feet in width, and 36 feet in height. The room now occupied by the Supreme Court was, until 1859, the Senate Chamber. Previous to that time the court occupied the room immediately beneath, now used as a law library.

Celluloid.—Celluloid, from which many toilet articles and imitations of ivory are made, is composed from the cellulose found in cotton cloth or raw cotton. It is treated with a solution of nitric acid which forms it into a pulp very much like paper pulp. It is then washed with water, which removes most of the acid. It is partially hardened and camphor gum mixed with it, when it is rolled into sheets and thoroughly dried. In order to manipulate it, it is softened by steam and then hardened by drying. Celluloid is very inflammable. Wearers of celluloid combs and other ornaments should not expose themselves to fire.

Certified Checks.—A personal check becomes certified when across it is written "certified," with the name of the bank and the signature of the cashier or other official. The bank, then, becomes liable for the amount of the check. If the maker of a check has his check certified, he is jointly responsible with the bank for its payment, but if the receiver of the check has it certified, the maker of the check is released from all responsibility.

Chemical Composition of Man

Huxley's table on the chemical composition of man of the average weight of 154 pounds was for years the standard, but it has recently been superseded by a new one compiled by the French Academy of Sciences. The table is appended:

Elements Pounds Ounces Grains

Oxygen 111 8 0

Hydrogen 21 6 0

Carbon 21 0 0

Nitrogen 3 10 0

Phosphorus 1 2 88

Calcium 2 0 0

Sulphur 0 0 219

Chlorine 0 2 47

Sodium (salt) 0 2 116

Iron 0 0 100

Potassium 0 0 290

Magnesium 0 0 12

Silica 0 0 2

—World Almanac.

Chess.—Chess is one of the oldest, and probably the most scientific, game known. Its origin is mysterious. It was mentioned in Oriental literature about 2000 B. C. It was originally played in India, Persia, and Arabia, and subsequently was known in Spain and Western Europe. It is said that it was invented in order to teach the art of war.

Christmas.—A festival commemorating the birth of Christ. Said to have been observed as early as 98. Some of the early Christians celebrated the event in May; others in April and in June. In the fifth century, it was generally observed on the 25th of December.

Circulation of the Blood.—Although even the savage had seen and spilled blood, the circulation of the blood, and the part that it plays in the human machine, was not discovered until about 1616, by the English physiologist, William Harvey.

Climate and Temperature.—Climatic conditions are dependent upon heat, moisture, and altitude. The greatest heat is at the equator and diminishes as one approaches either pole, but a place of high altitude near the equator may be cooler than another farther removed from it and occupying a shut-in or low position. It is warm at times, even near the poles. The climate is also affected by the winds, and very greatly by the ocean, and especially by ocean currents. Take England, for example: it is considerably further north than Boston or New York City, and yet its climate is much warmer or milder, due to its proximity to the Gulf Stream. Land near the ocean is likely to be cooler in summer on account of its prevailing winds, and warmer in winter because a large body of water reduces the cold. It is well-known that towns on the seashore do not suffer from extreme cold as much as do those in the same latitude further inland. The altitude has much to do with climate. Even in the warmest countries, where the heat is intense, the tops of high mountains are clothed with snow. Forests, by their shade, reduce the temperature.

Coal Industry.—In the United States the coal fields have an area of exceeding 160,000 square miles, but it is supposed that there are at least 310,000 square miles which contain coal. The estimated quantity of the available coal is exceeding 3,000,000,000,000 tons.

Cocoa Industry.—The world produces about 530,000,000 pounds of cocoa annually. The United States consumes about 130,000,000 pounds; Germany about 112,000,000; France about 60,000,000; England about 56,000,000; the total consumption being about 507,000,000.

Coffee Industry.—Brazil, about 1,300,000,000, Central America, about 201,000,000, Venezuela, about 97,000,000, other South American countries about 78,000,000, Hayti and Santo Domingo, about 84,000,000, Mexico, about 43,000,000, Porto Rico, about 34,000,000, Jamaica, about 10,000,000; a total of nearly 2,000,000,000 pounds annually. The United States consumes about 881,000,000 pounds a year.

Coin.—Money, in the form of metallic coins, probably superseded all other legal tenders. The first record of the coining of silver was in 869 B. C., and it was made in Rome as early as 269 B. C., and in Great Britain 25 years before the Christian Era. Gold was first coined in England in 1087. Copper money was introduced by James I of England in 1620. The United States mint began to coin money in 1793.

Colosseum.—The building of the Colosseum at Rome began in A. D. 80. It covers about five acres of ground, and has a seating capacity for nearly 90,000 persons. It was built in the form of an oval, with a diameter varying from 312 to 515 feet, the height being from 160 to 180 feet. In its arena, the gladiators fought among themselves and with wild beasts. At its dedication by Titus, 5,000 wild beasts were killed, and the celebration lasted for nearly a hundred days. Occasionally the arena was flooded with water, and sea fights took place.

Comets.—Comets are supposed to be made up of an innumerable number of meteors, with millions of miles of burning gas. They have regular orbits, but they have not been fully established and are more or less eccentric. They are not supposed to shine by their own light, but to obtain it by reflection. The orbit of comets was discovered by Hadley in 1682, who predicted their return. Sometimes the head and tail part, and remain so. Their number is unknown, but there are supposed to be thousands of them. The comet formerly was looked upon as a source of danger, and it was supposed that the near approach of one of them would destroy the earth or any other celestial body. Recent research, however, indicates that comets have not sufficient density to cause damage, although they might affect the atmosphere. The principal thing to be feared, however, if there is any danger, is that the envelopment of the earth by the comet's gas would destroy life, but most astronomers have agreed that the atmosphere of the earth would be sufficient protection. So far as is known, no comet has ever caused any injury, and as they have existed from time immemorial, there would appear to be no reason for alarm.

Common Measurements

Diameter of a circle × 3.1416 = Circumference.

Radius of a circle × 6.283185 = Circumference.

Square of the radius of a circle × 3.1416 = Area.

Square of the diameter of a circle × .7854 = Area.

Square of the circumference of a circle × .07958 = Area.

Half the circumference of a circle × half its diameter = Area.

Circumference of a circle × .159155 = Radius.

Square root of the area of a circle × .56419 = Radius.

Circumference of a circle × 31831 = Diameter.

Square root of the area of a circle × 1.12839 = Diameter.

Diameter of a circle × .86 = Side of inscribed equilateral triangle.

Diameter of a circle × .7071 = Side of an inscribed square.

Circumference of a circle × .226 = Side of an inscribed square.

Circumference of a circle × .282 = Side of square of equal area.

Diameter of a circle × .8862 = Side of a square of equal area.

Base of a triangle × one-half the altitude = Area.

The product of both diameters × .7854 = Area of an ellipse.

Surface of a sphere × one-sixth of its diameter = Solidity.

Circumference of a sphere × its diameter = Surface.

Square of the circumference of a sphere × .3183 = Surface.

Square root of the surface of a sphere × 1.772454 = Circumference.

Square of one of its sides × 6 = Surface of a cube.

Area of the base of a square, round or triangular pyramid, or of a cone, × one-third of its altitude = Solidity.

Area of square × .7854 = Area of largest circle within it.

Area of circle × .625 = Area of largest square within it.

Spheres.—Square of circumference × .3183 = Surface of sphere.

Square of diameter × 3.1416 = Surface of sphere.

Square root of surface × .5642 = Diameter of sphere.

Cube of diameter × .5236 = Solidity of sphere.

Cube of circumference × .0169 = Solidity of sphere.

Cube root of solidity × 1.2407 = Diameter of sphere.

Diameter of sphere × .5774 = Side of inscribed cube.

Square root of solidity × .2821 = Radius.

Square root of solidity × 1.7725 = Circumference.

Cube of radius × 4.1888 = Solidity.

Cube root of solidity × .6204 = Radius.

Cube root of solidity × 3.8978 = Circumference.

Communism and Socialism.—Communism is a doctrine which would abolish individual rights, including the ownership of property. It began in England and France, but has never made any great progress. Socialism is allied to Communism, but is a milder form. It does not suggest the abolition of individual rights, but to make all rights subordinate to the good of the people. An acceptable definition of either has never been presented, and members of both parties differ materially. Socialism, however, has grown very rapidly, and the Socialistic Party in the United States is frequently successful. Some of our ablest scholars and investigators believe that Socialism will become prevalent, and that in it is vested many of the solutions to our economic problems.

Comparative Population of the United States

Increase Over Preceding Census. Adjusted P. C. of Inc.

Census Year Population Number P. C.

1910 91,972,266 15,977,691 21.0 21.0

1900 75,994,575 13,046,861 20.7 20.7

1890 62,947,714 12,791,931 25.5 24.9

1880 50,155,783 11,597,412 30.1 26.0

1870 38,558,371 7,115,050 22.6 26.6

1860 31,443,321 8,251,445 35.6 35.6

1850 23,191,876 6,122,423 35.9 35.9

1840 17,069,453 4,203,433 32.7 32.7

1830 12,866,020 3,227,567 33.5 33.5

1820 9,638,453 2,398,572 33.1 33.1

1810 7,239,881 1,931,398 36.4 36.4

1800 5,308,483 1,379,269 35.1 35.1

1790 3,929,214 ... ... ...

Comparative Population of the Large Cities and Towns of the United States

1910

CLASS OF PLACES Number of Places Population

Continental United States ... 91,972,266

All incorporated places 13,985 49,307,414

Places of 1,000,000 inhabitants or more 3 8,501,174

Places of 500,000 to 1,000,000 inhabitants 5 3,010,667

Places of 250,000 to 500,000 inhabitants 11 3,949,839

Places of 100,000 to 250,000 inhabitants 31 4,840,458

Places of 50,000 to 100,000 inhabitants 59 4,178,915

Places of 25,000 to 50,000 inhabitants 117 3,971,624

Places of 10,000 to 25,000 inhabitants 346 5,215,820

Places of 5,000 to 10,000 inhabitants 551 3,829,740

Places of 2,500 to 5,000 inhabitants 1,041 3,642,610

Places of less than 2,500 inhabitants 11,821 8,166,567

Compass.—The compass was unknown to civilization until the close of the twelfth century, but there appears to be good authority for the statement that it was used in China centuries before the European nations were aware of its power. The compass consists of a piece of steel, usually in the form of a needle, which has been magnetized so as to maintain its magnetism indefinitely. It is set on a piece of cork or rests lightly on a pivot, and if allowed to move freely, it will point towards the North Magnetic Pole, the opposite end of the needle indicating the South Magnetic Pole. The needle does not point to the Geographical Pole, but to the North Magnetic Pole, which is some degrees south of the former. The earth is a magnet, and the magnetic needle is influenced by the currents of the earth, and, therefore, points to the North under the influence of these currents. No compass is absolutely correct, for the needle does not always point to the North with a full degree of accuracy. It is subject to variations, which are caused by outside influences, like the presence of metallic substances. Without the compass, navigation would be unsafe, if not impossible, for no mariner, without it, would know the direction he is sailing in at night or during a cloudy day.

Corsets.—The corset, or something similar to what is now worn, appeared in France and Germany in the 13th century, and a 100 years later was introduced into England. The cloth was interwoven with rods of whalebone or steel, but when the price of whalebone increased, other stiffening rods were used.

Cosmetics.—Vaseline, cold cream, and glycerine are perfectly safe to use, although the latter irritates some skins. Most of the cosmetics upon the market, including many of those advertised to produce a good complexion, are practically worthless, and undoubtedly quite a number of them contain poisonous drugs and chemicals. The writer does not recall a cosmetic which contains any virtue not found in cold cream, vaseline, or glycerine. Most cosmetics are made of cold cream or vaseline, highly perfumed, and are claimed to possess special virtues. The only way to obtain a good complexion is to keep the skin in a healthy state by constant bathing and by massage, either with the hands or with a towel, with a moderate use of cold cream or other similar article. Nothing has ever been discovered which will restore the bloom of youth, and all articles advertised for that purpose are practically worthless. If they contain any "bloom," it is in the form of a dye or color. No one should use any concoction or salve other than cold cream, vaseline, glycerine, or an almond preparation, without the advice of a physician.

Cost of the British Royal Family.—The annuities paid by the British people to the Royal family for its support are as follows: The King and Queen, $2,350,000; Queen Alexandra, $350,000; Princess Christian, $30,000; Princess Louise (Duchess of Argyll), $30,000; Duke of Connaught, $125,000; Duchess of Edinburgh, $30,000; Princess Beatrice, $30,000; Duchess of Albany, $30,000; Duchess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, $15,000; Trustees for King Edward VII's Daughters, $90,000; total, $2,790,000. The King also receives the revenues of the Duchy of Lancaster. During recent years these have amounted to about $350,000 per annum. The Prince of Wales has an income also from the revenues of the Duchy of Cornwall, amounting to about $500,000 per annum. When the Royal children marry dowries are usually provided for them. The last of the children of the late Queen Victoria to marry, Princess Beatrice, received $150,000 as dowry from the British people by Parliamentary grant.

Cotton Gin.—One of the three or four greatest inventions of civilization. It was invented by Eli Whitney in 1793. The machine separates the cotton wool from the seed, and automatically cleans it with great rapidity. Previously, the work was done by hand, a most tedious process.

Cotton Industry.—From 16,000,000 to 17,000,000 bales of cotton are sold each year, each bale weighing about 490 lbs.

Cradle of American Liberty.—A name given to Faneuil Hall, in Boston, Massachusetts, from the fact that many meetings were held here during Revolutionary days for the purpose of declaring the citizens' rights and protesting against the interference of England.

Credit Mobilier.—This consisted of a stock company, organized in 1863, for the purpose of constructing public works, including principally the building of the Union Pacific Railroad. Without going into the merits of the case, it may be said that this organization received much criticism, as it developed that many of the members of Congress were supposed to be connected with it. It is said that some of these members were corrupt and used this organization to feather their nest. It constituted, perhaps, the greatest national scandal, placing under suspicion, as it did, many of our so-called statesmen.

Crusades.—The name of wars carried on at intervals from 1095 to 1270 by the Christian nations of Europe against the Saracens, for the purpose of gaining possession of the Holy Land. There were eight Crusades, and the soldiers who engaged in them wore a cross on their breast or right shoulder as a sign of their religious faith. Hence the name Crusades from the Latin crux, cross.

Crust of the Earth.—Very little is known of the interior of the earth, except that it is supposed to be a molten mass. The aggregate thickness of the strata or rock-layers, as far as known, is less than thirty miles.

Daguerreotypes.—Early photography owes its origin to the discovery of the daguerreotype. A plate, made of thin copper or other metal, was covered with a silver preparation. This was placed directly in the camera, and there was no method of transfer, as there is from the ordinary photographic plate, from which innumerable prints may be taken. It went out of common use with the invention of the photographic plates and paper, and with the discovery of instantaneous photography. The taking of the daguerreotype required long exposure, which was decidedly objectionable, and the result was coarse and tame. After taking, the daguerreotype passed through acid solutions for the development and permanency of the picture.

Damage by Lightning.—Statistics vary, but considerably more than 6,000 buildings are injured by lightning every year, causing a loss of about $3,000,000. About 700 people are killed every year, and more than 800 are injured. It is said that lightning kills between 4,000 and 5,000 domestic animals a year, valued at about $130,000.

Deaf and Dumb.—About 90,000 of the inhabitants of the United States are deaf and dumb, more than half of that number being born with this affliction. Of this number about 47,000 are males, and somewhat over 43,000 females.

Deeds.—A deed is an instrument in writing, conveying real estate, with or without buildings upon it, from one party to another. All deeds should be registered. Printed forms, to be filled out, are for sale at stationers. It is better to employ a good lawyer or conveyancer.

Dictionaries.—Probably the first dictionary was produced in China, and was said to contain 40,000 characters. In the 15th and 16th centuries, encyclopedias were published. The first authoritative dictionary was in Latin, and was translated into eight languages about the year 1500. Chamber's Encyclopedia was published in 1728, and Johnson's famous English dictionary in 1755. Webster's American dictionary was first issued in 1828.

Digestibility of Foods.—Apples, sweet, raw, 1 hour, 30 minutes; Asparagus, boiled, 1 h., 30 m.; Beans, boiled, 2 h., 30 m.; Lean beef, roasted, 3 h.; Fresh salted beef, boiled 2 h., 45 m.; Old salted beef, boiled, 6 h.; Beets, boiled, 3h., 45 m.; Bread, fresh, 3h., 30 m.; Cabbage, pickled, 4 h., 30 m.; Celery, boiled, 1 h., 30 m.; Chicken, boiled, 2h.; Chicken, roasted, 4 h.; Cheese, old, 3h., 30 m.; Duck, roasted, 2 h.; Eggs, raw, 2h; Eggs, soft boiled, 3 h.; Eggs, hard boiled, 4 h.; Fish, boiled, 1 h., 30 m.; Fish, fried, 3 h.; Game (most kinds), roasted, 4 h., 15 m.; Liver (calves), fried, 2 h., 30 m.; Lamb, grilled, 2 h., 30 m.; Milk, raw, 3 h., 15 m.; Milk, boiled, 2 h.; Mutton, boiled and broiled, 3 h.; Nuts, 5 h.; Oysters, raw, 2 h., 55 m.; Oysters, stewed, 3 h., 30 m.; Onions, stewed, 3 h., 30 m.; Pork, fat, roasted, 5 h., 15 m.; Pork, salt, boiled, 3 h., 15 m.; Potatoes, fried or baked, 2 h., 30 m.; Rice, boiled, 1 h.; Sausage, grilled, 3 h., 30 m.; Tripe, boiled, 1 h.; Trout, boiled, 1 h., 30 m.; Turkey, roasted, 2 h., 30 m.; Veal, roast or grilled, 5 h.

Distances Between Cities in the United States

(Not air-line distances, but traveling distances.)

From New York Chicago Philadelphia St. Louis

To Mls. Mls. Mls. Mls.

Atlanta 876 733 785 611

Baltimore 188 802 97 934

Boston 217 1,034 321 1,230

Buffalo 442 525 416 731

Chicago 912 ... 821 284

Cincinnati 757 298 666 341

Cleveland 584 357 493 548

Denver 1,934 1,022 1,843 916

Detroit 693 272 669 488

Galveston 1,792 1,144 1,691 860

Indianapolis 825 183 734 240

Jacksonville, Fla. 983 1,097 892 975

Kansas City 1,342 458 1,251 277

Los Angeles 3,149 2,265 3,058 2,084

Louisville 871 304 780 274

Memphis 1,157 527 1,066 311

Milwaukee 997 85 906 369

Minneapolis 1,332 420 1,241 586

Montreal 386 841 477 1,051

New Orleans 1,372 912 1,281 699

New York ... 912 91 1,065

Omaha 1,405 493 1,314 413

Philadelphia 91 821 ... 974

Pittsburgh 444 468 353 621

Portland, Ore. 3,204 2,292 3,113 2,212

Quebec 530 1,013 621 1,343

St. Louis 1,065 284 974 ...

San Francisco 3,186 2,274 3,095 2,194

Seattle 3,151 2,239 3,060 2,332

Washington 228 790 137 894

From Boston Baltimore Cleveland Buffalo

To Mls. Mls. Mls. Mls.

Atlanta 1,106 688 736 919

Baltimore 418 ... 474 398

Boston ... 418 682 499

Buffalo 499 398 183 ...

Chicago 1,034 802 357 525

Cincinnati 926 593 244 427

Cleveland 682 474 ... 183

Denver 2,056 1,850 1,379 1,537

Detroit 750 649 173 251

Galveston 2,012 1,594 1,408 1,591

Indianapolis 965 704 283 466

Jacksonville, Fla. 1,213 795 1,085 1,193

Kansas City 1,466 1,211 755 967

Los Angeles 3,273 3,018 2,562 2,774

Louisville 1,040 703 358 541

Memphis 1,387 969 738 921

Milwaukee 1,119 887 442 610

Minneapolis 1,454 1,222 777 945

Montreal 330 574 623 434

New Orleans 1,602 1,184 1,073 1,256

New York 217 188 584 442

Omaha 1,527 1,295 1,750 1,018

Philadelphia 321 97 493 416

Pittsburgh 674 334 135 270

Portland, Ore. 3,326 3,094 2,649 2,817

Quebec 402 718 795 612

St. Louis 1,230 934 548 731

San Francisco 3,308 2,076 2,631 2,799

Seattle 3,273 2,941 2,596 2,764

Washington 458 40 437 438

From San Francisco Pittsburgh Cincinnati Milwaukee

To Mls. Mls. Mls. Mls.

Atlanta 2,805 805 492 818

Baltimore 3,076 334 593 887

Boston 3,308 674 926 1,119

Buffalo 2,799 270 427 610

Chicago 2,274 468 298 85

Cincinnati 2,572 313 ... 383

Cleveland 2,631 135 244 442

Denver 1,371 1,490 1,257 1,107

Detroit 2,546 321 263 357

Galveston 2,157 1,481 1,157 1,229

Indianapolis 2,457 381 111 268

Jacksonville, Fla. 3,098 1,057 841 1,182

Kansas City 1,981 898 618 543

Los Angeles 475 2,705 2,425 2,350

Louisville 2,468 427 114 389

Memphis 2,439 807 494 612

Milwaukee 2,359 553 383 ...

Minneapolis 2,096 888 718 335

Montreal 3,115 704 826 926

New Orleans 2,482 1,142 829 997

New York 3,186 444 757 997

Omaha 1,781 961 791 578

Philadelphia 3,095 353 666 906

Pittsburgh 2,742 ... 313 553

Portland, Ore. 772 2,760 2,590 2,378

Quebec 3,287 876 1,039 1,098

St. Louis 2,194 621 341 369

San Francisco ... 2,742 2,572 2,359

Seattle 957 2,707 2,537 2,154

Washington 3,064 302 553 875

From New Orleans Washington Minneapolis

To Mls. Mls. Mls.

Atlanta 496 648 1,153

Baltimore 1,184 40 1,222

Boston 1,602 458 1,454

Buffalo 1,256 438 945

Chicago 912 790 420

Cincinnati 829 553 718

Cleveland 1,073 437 777

Denver 1,347 1,810 884

Detroit 1,092 655 692

Galveston 410 1,554 1,340

Indianapolis 888 664 603

Jacksonville, Fla. 616 755 1,517

Kansas City 880 1,171 573

Los Angeles 2,007 2,978 2,301

Louisville 778 663 727

Memphis 396 929 897

Milwaukee 997 875 335

Minneapolis 1,285 1,210 ...

Montreal 1,655 614 1,125

New Orleans ... 1,144 1,285

New York 1,372 228 1,332

Omaha 1,080 1,283 381

Philadelphia 1,281 137 1,241

Pittsburgh 1,142 302 888

Portland, Ore. 2,746 3,082 2,042

Quebec 1,827 786 1,433

St. Louis 699 894 586

San Francisco 2,482 3,064 2,096

Seattle 2,931 3,029 1,818

Washington 1,144 ... 1,210

Diving Bells.—The diving bell is simply a covering made of metal, which is securely fastened to a water-proof suit, the diving bell itself being an enclosure for the head. The diver dons his suit, the neck of which has a collar in the form of a screw. The diving bell is placed over his head and screwed on. It is connected with a rubber pipe, through which air is forced by an air pump, the air escaping through a valve in the belt itself. If properly constructed and manipulated, one may remain under water for considerable time, although he is likely to be uncomfortable until he becomes used to it. It was invented about 1715.

Drama.—During 1912, 97 new plays were presented; 36 were musical comedies; 36 of the plays were serious or sentimental; 13 were melodramas; 13 were comedies; one was a pantomime; two were tragedies, and 14 were farces.

Drugs.—The safest and best rule to follow is never to take any drug without the advice of a physician. Drugs have their place, and without drugs many diseases would be incurable. But drugs taken promiscuously derange the system and give but temporary relief. Hundreds of thousands of people have contracted chronic ailments from drug-taking. Headache powders, cough mixtures, sleeping potions, and practically all of the advertised remedies should be strenuously avoided, notwithstanding that some of them are pure and would be efficacious if administered intelligently. Because one particular drug or medicine benefits a certain person should not be considered as evidence that it will aid another. The habit of borrowing prescriptions is dangerous. The intelligent physician writes a prescription, which will benefit his patient, and the same prescription would be of no benefit, and might be of positive injury, to another. Many of the testimonials given to patent medicines are genuine and are written by honest persons. The effect of many of the advertised nostrums is to give immediate or transient relief. They stimulate the system, and may make it feel better for a short time, but re-action is likely to set in, and the taker of them is worse off than he was in the first place.

Dying Sayings, Real or Traditional.—Addison. "See how a Christian dies!" or, "See in what a peace a Christian can die!"

Anaxagoras. "Give the boys a holiday."

Byron. "I must sleep now."

Cæsar (Julius). "Et tu, Brute!"

Charlemagne. "Lord, into Thy hands I commend my spirit!"

Charles II (of England). "Don't let poor Nelly starve!"

Chesterfield. "Give Day Rolles a chair."

Cromwell. "My desire is to make what haste I may to be gone."

Franklin. "A dying man can do nothing easy."

Goethe. "More light!"

Hobbes. "Now I am about to take my last voyage—a great leap in the dark."

James V (of Scotland). "It came with a lass, and will go with a lass."

Jesus Christ. "It is finished!"

Knox. "Now it is come."

Mahomet. "Oh Allah, be it so! Henceforth among the glorious host of Paradise."

Mirabeau. "Let me die to the sounds of delicious music."

Napoleon I. "Mon Dieu! La nation Française! Fête d'armée."

Napoleon III. "Were you at Sedan?"

Nelson. "I thank God I have done my duty."

Rabelais. "Let down the curtain, the farce is over."

Scott, Sir Walter. "God bless you all!"

Sidney, Algernon. "I know that my Redeemer liveth. I die for the good old cause."

Socrates. "Crito, we owe a cock to Aesculapius."

Talma. "The worst is, I cannot see."

Tasso. "Lord, into Thy hands I commend my spirit!"

Vespasian. "A king should die standing."

William III of England. "Can this last long?"

Wolfe, General. "What! do they run already? Then I die happy."

—Brewer's "Reader's Handbook."

Dynamite.—This is one of the strongest explosives, and is used for blasting, and even for guns, although it has not, as yet, been successful for the firing of projectiles. It consists of infusorial and porcelain earth, mixed with coal dust and siliceous ashes, saturated with about three times its weight of nitro-glycerine. It is of a grayish-brown or reddish color, damp, and greasy. It has an explosive power nearly eight times greater than that of gun powder. It is dangerous to make, because the nitro-glycerine which it contains will explode if not handled carefully.

Earth Facts

The distance from the surface of the earth to its center is estimated to be 20,926,202 feet; or about 3,963, miles; and the distance from the poles to the center of the earth is 20,854,895 feet, or about 3,951 miles. One degree of latitude at the equator is about 68.7 miles, and at the poles about 69-1/2 miles.

The circumference at the equator measures 24,902 statute miles.

The total area of the earth is 196,940,400 statute square miles, and its volume is 259,880 million cubic miles.

The land area of the earth covers 54,807,420 square miles.

The ocean, including the inland seas, covers 142,132,980 square miles, or about 72 per cent. of the total surface of the earth.

The Arctic Ocean, including Hudson Bay, contains 5,785,000 square miles; the Atlantic Ocean, 34,301,400 square miles; the Indian Ocean, 28,615,000 square miles; the Pacific Ocean, 67,699,630 square miles; and the Antarctic Ocean, 5,731,350 square miles.

The mean height of the land has been estimated at 2,440 feet, and the mean depth of the sea 11,470 feet. The highest mountain (Mt. Everest) is 29,000 feet high, and the greatest depth of the ocean is supposed to be 31,614 feet.

The North American continent has an area of 6,446,000 square miles, with exceeding 115,000,000 inhabitants, or a little less than 18 to the square mile.

The South American continent has an area of 6,837,000 square miles, with over 45,000,000 inhabitants, or about 6-1/2 per square mile.

Europe has an area of about 3,555,000 square miles, with a population of somewhat less than 400,000,000, or about 107 per square mile.

Africa has an area of 11,514,000 square miles, and a population of about 127,000,000, or 11 to the square mile.

Asia has an area of 14,710,000 square miles, with a population estimated at about 850,000,000, or a little less than 58 to the square mile.

Australia, New Zealand, and contingent islands, have an area of 3,288,000 square miles, with a population of exceeding 5,200,000, or about 27 to the square mile.

It is estimated that the surface of the earth is divided into somewhat more than 28,000,000 square miles of fertile soil, about 14,000,000 square miles of steppe, a little more than 4,000,000 square miles of desert, with the polar regions occupying nearly 5,000,000 square miles of land, most of which is covered with ice.

At the time of Emperor Augustus, there were said to be between 54,000,000 and 55,000,000 people upon the earth, but as the earth undoubtedly supported millions of inhabitants unknown to civilization, these figures are of little consequence.

The greatest measured depth of the Atlantic Ocean is a little over 27,000 feet; a depth of 30,000 feet has been found in the Pacific Ocean; 18,582 feet in the Indian Ocean; and 25,200 feet in the Southern Ocean. Soundings in the Arctic Ocean have failed to find a depth exceeding 9,000 feet.

Earthquakes.—The earthquake is caused, undoubtedly, by the cooling of the earth. The interior of the earth is a molten mass of fire and is slowly cooling. As it cools, it contracts, and if the contraction is near the surface of the earth, the surface is rocked and crevices may open, doing considerable damage, although most earthquakes cause but slight shocks and injure no one. Earthquakes appear principally in or near the tropics, but are occasionally felt all over the temperature zones. Earthquakes appear to have belts, and there is little to be feared from them outside of these territories.

Earthquake Areas of the Earth

Major de Montessus de Balore has compiled a catalogue of 130,000 shocks, and this indicates with scientific accuracy how the symptoms of seismic activity are manifested. The period of observation includes generally the last fifty years; but there is no reason to suppose that a longer time would materially affect the proportionate numbers.

Area Earthquakes

Scandinavia 646

British Isles 1,139

France 2,793

Spain and Portugal 2,656

Switzerland 3,895

Italy 27,672

Holland and North Germany 2,326

Sicily 4,331

Greece 10,306

Russia 258

Asia Minor 4,451

India 813

Japan 27,562

Africa 179

Atlantic islands 1,704

United States, Pacific coast 4,467

Atlantic coast 937

Mexico 5,586

Central America 2,739

West Indies 2,561

South America 8,081

Java 2,155

Australia and Tasmania 83

New Zealand 1,925

The most shaken countries of the world are Italy, Japan, Greece, South America (the Pacific coast), Java, Sicily, and Asia Minor. The lands most free from these convulsions are Africa, Australia, Russia, Siberia, Scandinavia, and Canada. As a rule, where earthquakes are most frequent they are most severe. But to this general statement there are exceptions—Indian shocks, though less numerous, being often very disastrous. Loss of life in many cases depends, however, on density of population rather than on the intensity of the earth movement. Numerically, also, France has registered more seismic tremors than Spain and Portugal, but France in historic times has experienced no earthquake disaster approaching the havoc wrought by the one calamity at Lisbon.

Electrical and Other Beautifiers.—So far as is known to the writer, none of these contrivances or concoctions possess any merit, other than what may be obtained by ordinary massage or rubbing. Electricity, as a medicinal agent, is rapidly going out of use, as it has been proved that it has very little effect, except in special cases. The reader is advised against the purchase of any electrical appliance for beautifying or other purposes without the advice of a physician.

Electricity.—This peculiar and all-powerful energy has never been analyzed, and no one knows exactly what it is. It is produced by friction, either mechanically or by chemicals. It is transmitted through wires or other metallic conductors. Electricity is usually produced mechanically by what is known as the dynamo, but can be made chemically by the use of galvanic batteries. The former, however, is much more economical. Electricity and magnetism are closely allied, and yet they are commercially different.

Embezzlement.—From 1896 to 1911 the total embezzlement in the United States amounted to nearly $164,000,000, the majority of embezzlers stealing the money for gambling in stocks, and not on account of increased personal expenses or desire to live beyond their means.

Errors of History

The following list of "Curious Errors of History" is taken from Conklin's "Vest Pocket Argument Settler":

William Tell was a myth.

Coriolanus never allowed his mother to intercede for Rome.

Blondel, the harper, did not discover the prison in which Richard I was confined.

Nero was not a monster; he did not kill his mother nor fiddle over burning Rome.

Alfred never allowed the cakes to burn, nor ventured into the Danish camp disguised as a minstrel.

Fair Rosamond was not poisoned by Queen Eleanor, but died in the odor of sanctity in the convent of Godstow.

The Duke of Wellington, at Waterloo, never uttered the famous words, "Up, Guards, and at them!"

Charles Kingsley gave up his chair of modern history at Oxford because he said he considered history "largely a lie."

Chemists have proved that vinegar will not dissolve pearls nor cleave rocks, in spite of the fabled exploits of Cleopatra and Hannibal.

Charles IX did not fire upon the Huguenots with an arquebus from the window of the Louvre during the massacre of St. Bartholomew.

The siege of Troy is largely a myth, even according to Homer's own account. Helen must have been 60 years old when Paris fell in love with her.

The crew of Le Vengeur, instead of going down with the cry of "Vive la République!" shrieked for help.

The number of Xerxes's army has been grossly exaggerated, and it was not stopped at Thermopylæ by 300 Spartans, but 7,000, or even, as some authorities compute, 12,000.

The Abbé Edgeworth frankly acknowledged to Lord Holland that he had never made the famous invocation to Louis XVI on the scaffold: "Son of St. Louis, ascend to heaven."

Philip VI, flying from the field of Crécy, and challenged late at night before the gates of the castle of Blois, did not cry out, "It is the fortune of France." What he really said was: "Open, open; it is the unfortunate king of France."

Voltaire, on being asked where he had heard the story that when the French became masters of Constantinople in 1204 they danced with the women in the sanctuary of the Church of Santa Sophia, replied calmly: "Nowhere; it is a frolic of my imagination."

There is no evidence that Romulus ever lived, that Tarquín outraged Lucretia, that Brutus shammed idiocy and condemned his sons to death, that Mucius Scaevola thrust his hand into the fire, that Cloelia swam the Tiber, that Horatius defended a bridge against an army.

Esperanto.—Some years ago several educators attempted to develop an international language, to be used by the speaking and writing world at large. This auxiliary language is made from the roots of other languages, including the Latin. Its pronunciation is wholly phonetic. Theoretically, at least, it has tremendous advantages, for should it be generally adopted by the civilized nations, who would, undoubtedly, retain their native language, there would be a common basis for international communication, and people could get together socially and otherwise without being linguists. The growth of Esperanto is slow, although encouraged by many educators. It is problematical whether or not it will make sufficient strides to be generally accepted. It has its faults, and it is quite probable that, if an international language, or auxiliary language, is to be obtained, some other form of common speech will take its place; or, Esperanto may be changed, modified, or enlarged, so as to be more acceptable. Civilization, however, demands a universal language, one which will eventually take the place of all modern languages, the present languages to be relegated to the dead class; but natural conditions, association, and patriotism, or the semblance of them, will, undoubtedly, make it extremely difficult to introduce any other form of speech, or of writing, which would interfere with native tongues.

Failures

During 1912, 3,781 manufacturers failed, with liabilities of nearly $88,500,000. During the same year 10,918 business men or partnership concerns went into bankruptcy, with liabilities exceeding $90,000,000. Eighty-four banking houses failed, with liabilities of over $23,500,000; and 600 brokers and transporters failed, with liabilities of nearly $24,000,000.

According to the commercial agencies the causes of failures during the last two years may be tabulated as follows:

Failures due to 1912 1911

Incompetence 4,176 3,419

Inexperience 641 522

Lack of capital 4,110 3,970

Unwise credits 281 252

Extravagance 91 108

Neglect 275 277

Speculation 112 94

Fraud 1,423 1,341

Failures of others 177 171

Competition 264 360

Specific conditions 2,262 2,132

The year 1912 stands distinguished from some others years, in that the excess in failures over the other years is credited to the increased amount of harm wrought by incompetence and inexperience, two essentially personal faults.

For the first time since the records were compiled in the year 1890, the percentage ascribed to incompetence stands first in injuriousness with 30.2 per cent of all failures, as against 29.7 per cent attributed to lack of capital, hitherto the most hurtful source of trouble, but which fell from 31.4 in 1911 and 33.9 in 1910.

Incompetency, on the other hand, moved up from 27 per cent in 1911 and 26.6 per cent in 1910 to the figure of 30.2 given above. Inexperience (without other incompetence) rose to 4.6 per cent in 1912 from 4.1 per cent in 1911, and these two causes together accounted for the increased failures; while fraud, the third most important personal cause, fell to 10.3 per cent from 10.6 per cent in 1911.

Famous Diamonds.—The following is a list of the most famous diamonds of the world: (1) The Braganza, (2) the Dudley, (3) the Florentine, (4) the Great Mogul, (5) the Hope, (6) the Koh-i-nur, (7) the Nassac, (8) the Orloff, (9) the Pigott, (10) the Pitt or Regent, (11) the Sancy, (12) the Shah, (13) the Star of the South.

Farm Production

The figures are given in round numbers: Animals, over 206,000,000, valued at over $5,000,000,000; Apples, over 147,000,000 bushels, valued at over $83,000,000; Apricots, over 4,000,000 bushels, valued at over $2,800,000; Beans (Dry), over 11,200,000 bushels, valued at about $22,000,000; Bees, over 3,445,000 swarms, valued at over $10,300,000; Broom Corn, over 78,900,000 pounds, valued at over $5,130,000; Butter, over 531,000,000 pounds, valued at over $113,000,000; Cereals, over 4,280,000,000 bushels, valued at over $2,694,000,000; Cheese, over 317,000,000 pounds, valued at over $28,600,000; Chicory, about 21,500,000 pounds, valued at over $73,000; Cotton, over 8,000,000,000 pounds, valued at over $730,000,000; Cotton Seed, over 6,900,000 tons, valued at over $127,400,000; Flaxseed, over 19,300,000 bushels, valued at over $35,000,000; Flowers, plants, valued at over $18,700,000; Forest Products, valued at over $109,800,000; Fruits, (small), valued at over $29,900,000; Fruits, (subtropical), valued at over $24,700,000; Grapes, over 2,500,000,000 pounds, valued at over $22,000,000; Hay, about 55,000,000 tons, valued at over $784,900,000; Hemp, over 11,750,000 pounds, valued at over $540,000; Honey, over 62,800,000 pounds, valued at over $6,600,000; Hops, over 40,700,000 pounds, valued at over $7,800,000; Milk, over 7,265,000,000 gallons; Molasses, over 6,300,000 gallons, valued at over $788,000; Nursery products, valued at over $10,100,000; Nuts, valued at over $4,400,000; Onions, over 11,700,000 bushels, valued at over $6,600,000; Orchard products, over 216,000,000 bushels, valued at over $140,800,000; Peaches, over 35,400,000 bushels, valued at over $28,700,000; Peanuts, over 19,400,000 bushels, valued at over $18,200,000; Pears, over 8,800,000 bushels, valued at over $7,900,000; Peas, dry, over 7,500,000 bushels, valued at over $11,100,000; Plums, and Prunes, over 15,400,000 bushels, valued at about $10,300,000; Potatoes (Irish), about 292,800,000 bushels, valued at over $233,700,000; Potatoes (Sweet), over 59,200,000 bushels, valued at over $35,300,000; Rice, over 22,900,000 bushels, valued at over $18,200,000; Seeds, Clover, over 1,000,000 bushels, valued at over $6,900,000; Seeds, Grass, over 3,500,000 bushels, valued at over $2,800,000; Sugar, Beet, about 12,300,000,000 pounds, valued at over $23,800,000; Sugar, Cane, over 1,100,000 tons, valued at over $28,800,000; Sugar, Maple, over 11,900,000 pounds, valued at over $1,000,000; Syrup, Cane, over 12,200,000 gallons, valued at about $4,300,000; Syrup, Maple, over 2,000,000 gallons, valued at over $1,500,000; Syrup, Sorghum, over 16,900,000 gallons, valued at over $5,200,000; Tobacco, over 900,100,000 pounds, valued at over $85,200,000; Vegetables (miscellaneous), valued at over $113,600,000; Wool, over 318,500,000 pounds, valued at over $66,500,000.

First Trans-Atlantic Steamship.—The "Savannah," a vessel of only 350 tons, and measuring 100 feet, was the first steamship to cross the Atlantic Ocean. She was launched in New York in 1818. She was propelled with paddles and ship-rigged. She crossed the Atlantic in 26 days, her engine being used only 16 days. The rest of the time she was under sail.

Flour Industry.—There are nearly 12,000 flour mills in the United States, requiring a capital of about $350,000,000. These mills use nearly $770,000,000 worth of material a year, and pay salaries and wages of about $35,000,000. The annual market value of the flour milled annually is nearly $900,000,000.

Food Nutriment.—On a basis of 1,000 parts, the nutriment value of foods may be listed as follows:

Cucumber 25 Cherries 250

Melons 30 Veal 250

Turnips 42 Beef 260

Milk 72 Potatoes 260

Cabbage 73 Apricots 260

Carrots 98 Grapes 270

White of egg 140 Chicken 270

Pears 160 Plums 290

Apples 170 Mutton 290

Haddock 180 Oats 742

Gooseberries 190 Rye 792

Peaches 200 Rice 880

Codfish 210 Barley 920

Pork 240 Wheat 950

Forests.—About one-quarter of the United States is covered with forests, with a total acreage of about 550,000,000, about one-fifth of which are owned by the Government. At the present rate of cutting, and the forest fires, the forests are decreasing at a very alarming rate, and a lumber famine is to be expected within the next century, if the lands are not properly reforested.

Foretelling the Weather

Several years ago the United States Government established a Weather Bureau and placed it in charge of scientific men and observers who were expert in this direction. Weather Bureau stations are maintained throughout the United States, and each station communicates daily with the head office at Washington. By following the law of averages, by the use of the barometer and other instruments, by scientific research and experiment, and because of the receipt of hourly or daily reports, the Weather Bureau experts are able to foretell the weather with a considerable degree of accuracy. Practically all of the great storms, tornadoes, and hurricanes are announced in advance. While this science is still in its infancy, it has made rapid strides, and each year shows much improvement in the result. There are a few simple rules, which may be used for foretelling the weather, if one possesses a barometer.

The rapid rise of the barometer indicates unsettled weather. The gradual rise foretells settled weather.

When the air is dry and cold, a rising barometer indicates wind from the north; and if it has been raining, better weather may occur.

When the air is moist and at a low temperature, a rising barometer may foretell wind and rain from the north.

When there is a northerly wind, and the barometer falls rapidly, there is likely to be a storm with snow in winter, and heavy rain or hail in summer.

When the air is dry and the temperature seasonable, a steady barometer indicates a continuance of fine weather.

A rapidly falling barometer may foretell stormy weather.

When the wind is westerly, a rapid fall may precede a storm coming from the north.

When the wind is southerly, a rise in the barometer may precede fine weather.

When there is much moisture in the air and considerable heat, a falling barometer may indicate that a wind and rain storm is coming from the south.

When the air is dry and cold in winter a falling barometer may indicate snow. When the weather is calm and warm, a falling barometer may be taken to mean rain or squally weather.

Freemasonry.—Its origin is unknown, but it is very ancient. It has been traced to the Knights Templars, to the Crusaders, and others. It is said that the workmen upon Solomon's Temple were Masons and that Masonry was the original trade union or protective association for workmen, each workman by signs being able to prove that he had reached a certain stage of proficiency; but this has not been substantiated. Some authorities state that Masonry was introduced into England in 674 A. D. The first record of the establishment of a Grand Lodge was at York in 926. Freemasonry was introduced into France in 1725, and into America in 1730. Freemasons are found throughout the entire world, there being more than a million of them in the United States and Canada. Other fraternal or mystic orders, known as Odd Fellows, Knights of Pythias, Red Men, etc., are in purpose similar to Masons, and most of them were founded upon Masonry, Masonry ante-dating all of them.

French Academy.—Founded by Cardinal Richelieu in 1635. It has a membership of forty, known as the "Forty Immortals." Its principal object is to prepare a dictionary of the French language and to keep the Gallic tongue pure and capable of treating the arts and sciences. The first dictionary appeared in 1694. The Academy has been very severely criticised, especially in the selection of its members, many well-known men of letters having failed to be elected.

Gold in California.—John W. Marshall, in 1848, in connection with a man named Sutter, maintained a mill in California. Accidentally he picked up a small piece of metal which he discovered to be gold, and immediately the gold fever became epidemic, and California was overrun with gold miners.

Government

The Constitution of the United Stales is the basic law of the country, and all other laws and statutes are framed in a similar manner, each State, county, town, and city having its own laws or statutes.

Government, including that of the United States, is divided into three distinctive departments: Executive, Legislative, and Judicial.

The Executive head is known as President, Governor, Mayor, etc., and it is his duty to execute the laws.

The Legislative department is usually subdivided into two bodies,—a Senate or Upper House and a House of Representatives or Lower House. State Governments are formed similar to that of the National Government, the Upper House being known as the Senate, and the Lower House as the House of Representatives or Assembly. Most bills are presented to the Lower House, and do not become laws until they pass both the Upper and Lower Houses.

The Legislative authority of a city is usually vested in a board of Aldermen and a Council or Common Council, but occasionally there is only one legislative body, known as a Council.

The Commission Form of Government is becoming somewhat prevalent. It consists of a committee elected by the citizens, who have absolute control of the government, and this body is both executive and judicial.

The Judicial department consists of several courts: first, the Supreme Court, and a lower court, usually known as the Superior Court, and District or Police Courts. Ordinary cases are tried by the Police or District Courts and may be appealed to the Superior Court and even to the Supreme Court. Besides these courts there are several courts known as Probate Court, Court of Equity, etc. The Supreme Court, as a rule, deals only with questions at law, and few cases reach it which have not been appealed from the lower courts.

Grain Industry.—There was raised in the United States during last year over 3,000,000,000 bushels of Indian corn, about 730,000,000 bushels of wheat, 1,500,000,000 bushels of oats, about 224,000,000 bushels of barley, about 36,000,000 bushels of rye, and about 19,000,000 bushels of buckwheat.

Gravity.—The force of gravity, unscientifically speaking, is the influence which one body has upon another, commonly known as attraction. All material substances attempt to draw others to them, and the larger the substance, the greater its attractiveness or drawing power. The earth, being larger than anything near it, draws everything to it. A ball thrown into the air returns to the earth as soon as the force which propelled it upward is exhausted. If the ball were larger than the earth, the earth would move toward the ball, or rather each would move toward the other, but the smaller body would go the greater distance. The entire universe would, undoubtedly, come together in one solid mass if the bodies were not held apart by laws and energies, which are not yet fully understood by men. Sir Isaac Newton discovered the action of gravity, but no one knows exactly what it is.

Great American Inventions

The following list of fifteen great American inventions is taken from Killikelly's "Curious Questions":

The Cotton Gin.

The Planting Machine.

The Grass Mower and Reaper.

The Rotary Printing-Press.

Steam Navigation.

The Hot-Air Engine.

The Sewing-Machine.

The India-Rubber Industry.

The Machine Manufacture of Horseshoes.

The Sand-Blast for Carving.

The Gauge Lathe.

The Grain Elevator.

Artificial Ice-Making on Large Scale.

The Electric Magnet and Its Practical Application.

The Telephone.

"Great Eastern."—The "Great Eastern" was, in her time, the largest vessel in the world, but would be considered small compared with the giant ocean liners of to-day. She was built in London and launched in 1858. She cost $300,000. She had a length of 680 ft., breadth of 82-1/2 ft., or 118 ft. including the paddle boxes, and a height of 58 ft. Her motive power consisted of eight engines with a total of 11,000 horse power. She was slow and unwieldy, and was not a success except for the laying of the Atlantic cable.

Great Libraries.—The Congressional Library, Washington, contains 1,800,000 volumes; Boston Public Library and New York Public Library, each 900,000; Harvard University Library, 800,000; New York State Library, 520,000; Yale University Library, 400,000; Bibliothèque nationale, Paris, 2,600,000; British Museum, London, 2,000,000; Imper. publicnaja biblioteka, St. Petersburg, 1,330,000; Königliche Bibliothek, Berlin, 1,200,000; Kön. Hof-u. Staatsbibliothek, Munich, 1,000,000; K. u. k. Hofbibliothek, Vienna, 900,000.

Great Tunnels.—The Arlberg tunnel under the Alps is 6-3/4 miles long. The Gunnison tunnel in Colorado is 6 miles long. The Hoosac tunnel in Massachusetts is 4-3/4 miles long. The Mont Cenis in Italy and France is 8 miles long. The New Croton water tunnel in New York is 33-1/8 miles long. The Otira in New Zealand is 5 1-3 miles long. The tunnel which drains the Freiberg mines, Saxony, is 31-1/2 miles long.

The St. Clair tunnel, connecting Sarnia, Ont., with Port Huron, Mich., is 2 miles long. The St. Gotthard tunnel in the Alps is 9 1-3 miles long. The Strawberry tunnel in the Wasatch Mountains is 50 miles long.

Hair Growers.—Notwithstanding the claims made by advertisers of patent nostrums, the writer has not as yet heard of a preparation or treatment which will restore hair after the hair cells are dead. It appears to be utterly impossible to grow hair upon a bald head, or upon a bald spot, unless the roots of the hair remain, notwithstanding the claims made by sellers of hair tonics. Falling hair may be prevented in many cases by the use of a good hair tonic, but as different people require different preparations, it is inadvisable to give any prescription here. A physician should be consulted, and a prescription obtained from him, adapted to conditions. Many of the advertised hair tonics contain lead and other poisonous drugs. So far as is known, there is not a preparation or contrivance of any kind which will restore gray hair to its former color. All nostrums advertised to do it are simply hair dyes. The medical profession has not discovered a method of preventing gray hair. Most of the advertised hair dyes contain lead and other poisons, and are dangerous to use, and the dyeing of the hair is not to be recommended even though a nonpoisonous dye is used. As the dye can only cover the hair in sight, it must be used constantly, or each separate hair will be of two colors.

Half-Century of Life.—A French statistician states that a man fifty years of age has spent 6000 days in sleep, has worked 6500 days; walked 800 days; enjoyed some amusement 4000 days; spent 1500 days in bed; and was sick 500 days. He further estimates that this man has eaten 17,000 pounds of bread; 16,000 pounds of meat; 4600 pounds of vegetables, eggs, and fish; and has drank 7000 gallons of liquid.

Hawaii.—The Hawaiian Islands have a total area of 6,740 square miles, and a population of about 160,000. The climate is semitropical, and pineapple growing and sugar making are the principal industries.

Hay Industry.—Over 48,000,000 acres are devoted to hay, producing nearly 4,500,000 tons, of a value not far from $50,000,000 a year.

Health.—Ninety per cent. of common ailments, and fully one-half of serious diseases, may be prevented if one gives a reasonable amount of attention to the care of his health. It would be out of place to present, in this book, any rules or regulations for the maintenance of health, assuming that it is possible to do so. Any good physician is competent to advise in the majority of cases, and will prescribe beneficial exercise and proper food. Most of us eat too much, and exercise too little. The province of the physician is as much to keep people well as it is to cure them. Good sense and economy suggest that a physician be consulted at least once a year, even by those in apparent health. So-called "doctors' books" should be avoided, unless recommended by regular practitioners.

Historical Data

State or Territory. Admitted to the Union Population, 1910 Area, Sq. M.

Alabama Dec. 14, 1819 2,138,093 52,250

Alaska Territory July 27, 1868 64,356 590,884

Arizona Feb. 24, 1863 204,354 113,020

Arkansas June 15, 1836 1,574,449 53,850

California Sept. 9, 1850 2,377,549 158,360

Colorado Aug. 1, 1876 799,024 103,925

CONNECTICUT Jan. 9, 1788 1,114,756 4,990

DELAWARE Dec. 7, 1787 202,322 2,050

District of Columbia July 16, 1790 331,069 70

Florida March 3, 1845 752,619 58,680

GEORGIA Jan. 2, 1788 2,609,121 59,475

Hawaii April 30, 1900 191,909 6,449

Idaho July 3, 1890 325,594 84,800

Illinois Dec. 3, 1818 5,638,591 56,650

Indiana Dec. 11, 1816 2,700,876 36,350

Iowa March 3, 1845 2,224,771 56,025

Kansas Jan. 29, 1861 1,690,949 82,080

Kentucky Feb. 4, 1792 2,289,905 40,400

Louisiana April 8, 1812 1,656,388 48,720

Maine March 3, 1820 742,371 33,040

MARYLAND April 28, 1788 1,295,346 12,210

MASSACHUSETTS Feb. 6, 1788 3,366,416 8,315

Michigan Jan. 26, 1837 2,810,173 58,915

Minnesota May 11, 1858 2,075,708 83,365

Mississippi Dec. 10, 1817 1,797,114 46,810

Missouri March 2, 1821 3,293,335 69,415

Montana Nov. 8, 1889 376,053 146,080

Nebraska March 1, 1867 1,192,214 77,510

Nevada Oct. 13, 1864 81,875 110,700

NEW HAMPSHIRE June 21, 1788 430,572 9,305

NEW JERSEY Dec. 18, 1787 2,537,167 7,815

New Mexico Sept. 9, 1850 327,301 122,580

NEW YORK July 26, 1788 9,113,614 49,170

NORTH CAROLINA May 23, 1785 2,206,287 52,250

North Dakota Nov. 2, 1889 577,056 70,795

Ohio Nov. 29, 1802 4,767,121 41,060

Oklahoma Nov. 16, 1907 1,657,155 70,430

Oregon Feb. 14, 1859 672,765 96,030

PENNSYLVANIA Dec. 12, 1787 7,665,111 45,215

Philippines Nov. 28, 1898 7,000,000 114,000

Porto Rico Aug. 12, 1898 1,118,012 3,600

RHODE ISLAND May 29, 1790 542,610 1,250

SOUTH CAROLINA May 23, 1788 1,515,400 30,570

South Dakota Nov. 2, 1889 583,888 77,650

Tennessee June 1, 1796 2,184,789 42,050

Texas Dec. 29, 1845 3,896,542 265,780

Utah Jan. 4, 1896 373,351 84,970

Vermont Feb. 18, 1791 355,956 9,565

VIRGINIA June 26, 1788 2,061,612 42,450

Washington Nov. 11, 1889 1,141,990 69,180

West Virginia Dec. 31, 1862 1,221,119 24,780

Wisconsin May 29, 1848 2,333,860 56,040

Wyoming July 11, 1890 145,965 97,890

State or Territory. Settled at Date. By whom Electoral Vote

Alabama Mobile 1702 French 12

Alaska Territory Sitka 1801 Russians ...

Arizona Tucson 1580 Spaniards 3

Arkansas Arkansas Post 1685 French 9

California San Diego 1769 Spaniards 13

Colorado Near Denver 1858 Americans 6

CONNECTICUT Windsor 1635 Puritans 7

DELAWARE Cape Henlopen 1627 Swedes 3

District of Columbia ... 1660 English ...

Florida St. Augustine 1565 Spaniards 6

GEORGIA Savannah 1733 English 14

Hawaii ... ... ... ...

Idaho Cœur d'Alene 1842 Americans 4

Illinois Kaskaskia 1720 French 29

Indiana Vincennes 1730 ... 15

Iowa Burlington 1788 French 13

Kansas ... 1831 Americans 10

Kentucky Lexington 1765 From Va. 13

Louisiana Iberville 1699 French 10

Maine Bristol 1624 English 6

MARYLAND St. Mary's 1634 English 8

MASSACHUSETTS Plymouth 1620 Puritans 18

Michigan Near Detroit 1650 French 15

Minnesota St. Peter's R. 1805 Americans 12

Mississippi Natchez 1716 From S. C. 10

Missouri St. Louis 1764 French 18

Montana ... 1809 Americans 4

Nebraska Bellevue 1847 Americans 8

Nevada Genoa 1850 Americans 3

NEW HAMPSHIRE Dov. & Portsm'th 1623 Puritans 4

NEW JERSEY Bergen 1620 Swedes 14

New Mexico Santa Fe 1537 Spaniards 3

NEW YORK Manhattan Isl'd 1614 Dutch 45

NORTH CAROLINA Albemarle 1650 English 12

North Dakota Pembina 1780 French 5

Ohio Marietta 1788 Americans 24

Oklahoma ... 1889 Americans 10

Oregon Astoria 1810 Americans 5

PENNSYLVANIA Delaware R. 1682 English 38

Philippines Manila 1570 Spaniards ...

Porto Rico Caparra 1510 Spaniards ...

RHODE ISLAND Providence 1636 English 5

SOUTH CAROLINA Port Royal 1670 Huguenots 9

South Dakota Sioux Falls 1856 Americans 5

Tennessee Ft. Loudon 1757 English 12

Texas Matagorda B. 1686 French 20

Utah Salt Lake City 1847 Americans 4

Vermont Ft. Dummer 1764 English 4

VIRGINIA Jamestown 1607 English 12

Washington Astoria 1811 Americans 7

West Virginia Wheeling 1774 English 13

Wisconsin Green Bay 1670 French 3

Wyoming Ft. Laramie 1834 Americans ...

Holy Grail.—One of the leading themes of medieval romance. It centers around the cup which was used by Christ at the last supper.

Household Weights.—Ten eggs of ordinary size weigh one pound. Sugar—One pint of sugar weighs twelve ounces. Two teacups (well-heaped) of sugar weigh one pound. One and one-third pints of powdered sugar weigh one pound. One pint of the best brown sugar weighs thirteen ounces. Two teacups (level full) of granulated sugar weigh one pound. One tablespoon (heaped) of granulated, or best brown, sugar weighs one ounce. Two and three-quarters teacups (level) of powdered sugar weigh one pound. Two and one-half teacups (level) of best brown sugar weigh one pound. Two tablespoonfuls of powdered sugar or flour weigh one ounce. One pint (heaped) of granulated sugar weighs fourteen ounces.

How to Become a Voter.—Every male natural-born citizen of the United States, and all naturalized citizens, are, at the age of 21 years, entitled to vote for all local, State, and National officials; but before doing so, they must be registered. Registration days are appointed, and notices of them are posted in prominent places, and appear in the local newspapers. To become a voter, a citizen must appear at place of registration and answer certain simple questions. Any town or city clerk, attorney at law, or official will properly direct the citizen.

Industrial Occupations

The following table gives the percentages of total occupied population for the principal groups in the eight leading industrial countries:

Occupation United States Great Britain France Germany

Agriculture 35.64 12.00 41.42 35.11

Commercial occupations 9.91 11.39 6.54 6.30

Conveyances of men, goods and messages 5.95 8.20 2.89 2.89

Mines and quarries 2.09 5.00 1.59 3.25

Metals, machines, implements and conveyances 3.72 7.89 4.35 6.99

Building and works of construction 4.43 6.77 4.20 6.99

Textile fabrics 2.02 6.92 4.55 3.75

Dress 4.29 7.23 8.05 5.39

Occupation Austria Hungary Italy Belgium

Agriculture 60.80 70.15 59.06 21.90

Commercial occupations 3.34 2.56 3.43 11.79

Conveyance of men, goods and messages 1.70 1.55 3.12 2.03

Mines and quarries 1.56 .78 .89 6.46

Metals, machines, implements and conveyances 2.78 2.15 2.14 5.95

Building and works of construction 2.96 1.48 5.02 7.28

Textile fabrics 3.26 .37 4.81 6.86

Dress 3.92 2.85 6.64 7.86

Influence of the Ocean on the Climate.—The ocean has much to do with the climate of its coast. As a rule, land on or near the ocean has more irregular weather, and is subject to more frequent changes than is territory some distance away from it. The ocean, besides, exercises a great influence on heat and cold. The land in close proximity to it has a warmer climate than territory far removed from it. While the thermometer in the summer may not show great variation, breezes coming from the ocean give an apparent coolness which does not exist inland. For this reason there are more summer resorts located on the ocean than away from it.

Insane.—There are, in the United States, confined in the insane asylums, about 172,200 persons, about 25,600 being foreigners, 25,000 naturalized citizens, and 121,500 native-born persons. The feeble-minded number about 150,000.

Iron Industry.—The United States produces annually about 24,000,000 tons of pig iron and about the same amount of steel.

Jewelry Industry.—Nearly $65,000,000 is invested in the manufacture of jewelry, and the annual value of the output exceeds $80,000,000.

John Doe and Richard Roe.—Two fictitious names, used in law, one representing the plaintiff and the other the defendant. In writs of ejection these names are substituted when the real names of the parties are unknown or in doubt.

Kissing the Bible.—The Jews introduced the custom of swearing on the Bible, and the custom is still maintained throughout the civilized world, some of the courts even now requiring that the Bible be literally kissed before one gives testimony.

Koran.—The sacred book of the Mohammedans. The doctrine of the Koran is the unity of God and the existence of one true religion, with changeable ceremonies. Punishment for the bad, and rewards for the good, are presented and exemplified by stories taken from the Bible and other works. Most of the matter is supposed to have been borrowed from Jewish works, and bears traces of Jewish influence.

Language of Gems.—Amethyst represents peace of mind; Bloodstone signifies that one's absence is mourned; Diamond, pride; Emerald, success in love; Ruby stands for a cheerful mind; Sapphire represents chastity, and was supposed to stand for pure thoughts; Topaz, fidelity, and is supposed to calm the passions; Turquoise, happiness and success; Garnet, fidelity; Onyx, reciprocal love; Opal, pure thoughts; Pearl, innocence and purity.

Languages of the World.—It is estimated that there are 3424 distinct languages or dialects, about 1600 being spoken in America, about 940 in Asia, not far from 600 in Europe, and about 275 in Africa. Probably more than 150,000,000 people speak the English language, 120,000,000 the German, 90,000,000 Russian, 60,000,000 French, 55,000,000 Spanish, 40,000,000 Italian, 30,000,000 Portuguese. The English dictionaries contain exceeding 600,000 words, about 300,000 of which are more or less technical and obsolete. Ordinary conversation does not require the use of more than 2,000 words. It is said that one can make himself understood in any language if his vocabulary is about 1,500 words.

Large Cities of North America

Akron, O. 69,067

Alameda, Cal. 23,383

Albany, N. Y. 100,253

Allentown, Pa. 51,913

Altoona, Pa. 52,127

Amsterdam, N.Y. 31,267

Anderson, Ind. 22,476

Atlanta, Ga. 154,839

Atlantic City, N.J. 46,150

Auburn, N. Y. 34,668

Augusta, Ga. 41,040

Aurora, Ill. 29,807

Austin, Tex. 29,860

Baltimore, Md. 558,485

Bangor, Me. 24,803

Battle Creek, Mich. 25,267

Bay City, Mich. 45,166

Bayonne, N. J. 55,545

Beaumont, Tex. 20,640

Belleville, Ill. 21,122

Bellingham, Wash. 24,298

Berkeley, Cal. 40,434

Binghamton, N. Y. 48,443

Birmingham, Ala. 132,685

Bloomington, Ill. 25,768

Boston, Mass. 670,585

Bridgeport, Conn. 102,054

Brockton, Mass. 56,878

Brookline, Mass. 27,792

Buffalo, N. Y. 423,715

Burlington, Ia. 24,324

Burlington, Vt. 20,468

Butler, Pa. 20,728

Butte, Mont. 39,165

Calumet, Mich. 30,000

Cambridge, Mass. 104,839

Camden, N. J. 94,538

Canton, O. 50,217

Cedar Rapids, Ia. 32,811

Central Falls, R.I. 22,754

Charleston, S. C. 58,833

Charleston, W. Va. 22,996

Charlotte, N. C. 34,014

Chattanooga, Tenn. 44,604

Chelsea, Mass. 32,452

Chester, Pa. 38,537

Chicago, Ill. 2,185,283

Chicopee, Mass. 25,401

Cincinnati, O. 363,591

Cleveland, O. 560,663

Clinton, Ia. 25,577

Cohoes, N. Y. 24,709

Colorado Spa, Col. 29,078

Columbia, S. C. 26,319

Columbus, Ga. 20,554

Columbus, O. 181,511

Concord, N. H. 21,497

Council Bluffs, Ia. 29,292

Covington, Ky. 53,270

Cranston, R. I. 21,107

Cumberland, Md. 21,839

Dallas, Tex. 92,104

Danbury, Conn. 20,234

Danville, Ill. 27,871

Danville, Va. 19,020

Davenport, Ia. 43,028

Dayton, O. 116,577

Decatur, Ill. 31,140

Denver, Col. 213,381

Des Moines, Ia. 86,368

Detroit, Mich. 465,766

Dubuque, Ia. 38,494

Duluth, Minn. 78,466

East Liverpool, O. 20,387

Easton, Pa. 28,523

East Orange, N.J. 34,371

East St. Louis, Ill. 58,547

Elgin, Ill. 25,976

Elizabeth, N. J. 73,409

Elmira, N. Y. 37,176

El Paso, Tex. 39,279

Erie, Pa. 66,525

Evanston, Ill. 24,978

Evansville, Ind. 69,647

Everett, Mass. 33,484

Everett, Wash. 24,814

Fall River, Mass. 119,295

Fitchburg, Mass. 37,826

Flint, Mich. 38,550

Fort Smith, Ark. 23,975

Fort Wayne, Ind. 63,933

Fort Worth, Tex. 73,312

Fresno, Cal. 24,892

Galesburg, Ill. 22,089

Galveston, Tex. 36,981

Gloucester, Mass. 24,398

Gloversville, N.Y. 20,642

Gr'd Rapids, Mich. 112,571

Green Bay, Wis. 25,236

Hamilton, O. 35,279

Hammond, Ind. 20,925

Harrisburg, Pa. 64,186

Hartford, Conn. 98,915

Haverhill, Mass. 44,115

Hazleton, Pa. 25,452

Hoboken, N. J. 70,324

Holyoke, Mass. 57,730

Houston, Tex. 78,800

Huntington, W. Va. 31,161

Indianapolis, Ind. 233,650

Jackson, Mich. 31,433

Jackson, Miss. 21,262

Jacksonville, Fla. 57,699

Jamestown, N. Y. 31,297

Jersey City, N. J. 267,779

Johnstown, Pa. 55,482

Joliet, Ill. 34,670

Joplin, Mo. 32,073

Kalamazoo, Mich. 39,437

Kansas City, Kan. 82,331

Kansas City, Mo. 248,381

Kenosha, Wis. 21,371

Kingston, N. Y. 25,908

Knoxville, Tenn. 36,346

La Crosse, Wis. 30,417

Lafayette, Ind. 20,081

Lancaster, Pa. 47,227

Lansing, Mich. 31,229

Lawrence, Mass. 85,892

Lewiston, Me. 26,247

Lexington, Ky. 35,099

Lima, O. 30,508

Lincoln, Neb. 43,973

Little Rock, Ark. 45,941

Lorain, O. 28,883

Los Angeles, Cal. 319,198

Louisville, Ky. 223,928

Lowell, Mass. 106,294

Lynchburg, Va. 29,494

Lynn, Mass. 89,336

McKeesport, Pa. 42,694

Macon, Ga. 40,665

Madison, Wis. 25,531

Malden, Mass. 44,404

Manchester, N.H. 70,063

Mansfield, O. 20,768

Medford, Mass. 23,150

Memphis, Tenn. 131,105

Meriden, Conn. 27,265

Meridian, Miss. 23,285

Milwaukee, Wis. 373,857

Minneapolis, Minn. 301,408

Mobile, Ala. 51,521

Moline, Ill. 24,199

Montclair, N. J. 21,550

Montgomery, Ala. 38,136

Mt Vernon, N. Y. 30,919

Muncie, Ind. 24,005

Muskegon, Mich. 24,062

Muskogee, Okla. 25,278

Nashua, N. H. 26,005

Nashville, Tenn. 110,364

New Albany, Ind. 20,629

Newark, N. J. 347,469

Newark, O. 25,404

New Bedford, Mass. 96,652

New Britain, Conn. 43,916

New Brunswick, N. J. 23,388

Newburgh, N. Y. 27,805

New Castle, Pa. 36,280

New Haven, Conn. 133,605

New Orleans, La. 339,075

Newport, Ky. 30,309

Newport, R. I. 27,149

Newport News, Va. 20,205

New Rochelle, N.Y. 28,867

Newton, Mass. 39,806

New York, N. Y. 4,766,883

Niagara Falls, N.Y. 30,445

Norfolk, Va. 67,452

Norristown, Pa. 27,875

North Adams, Mass. 22,019

Norwich, Conn. 20,367

Oakland, Cal. 150,174

Ogden, Utah 25,580

Oklahoma, Okla. 64,205

Omaha, Neb. 124,096

Orange, N. J. 29,030

Oshkosh, Wis. 33,062

Oswego, N. Y. 23,368

Ottumwa, Ia. 22,012

Paducah, Ky. 22,760

Pasadena, Cal. 30,291

Passaic, N. J. 54,773

Paterson, N. J. 125,600

Pawtucket, R. I. 51,622

Pensacola, Fla. 22,982

Peoria, Ill. 66,950

Perth Amboy, N.J. 32,121

Petersburg, Va. 24,127

Philadelphia, Pa. 1,549,008

Pittsburgh, Pa. 533,905

Pittsfield, Mass. 32,121

Plainfield, N. J. 20,550

Portland, Me. 58,571

Portland, Ore. 207,214

Portsmouth, O. 23,481

Portsmouth, Va. 33,190

Pottsville, Pa. 20,236

Poughkeepsie, N.Y. 27,936

Providence, R. I. 224,326

Pueblo, Col. 44,395

Quincy, Ill. 36,587

Quincy, Mass. 32,642

Racine, Wis. 38,002

Reading, Pa. 96,071

Richmond, Ind. 22,324

Richmond, Va. 127,628

Roanoke, Va. 34,874

Rochester, N. Y. 218,149

Rockford, Ill. 45,401

Rock Island, Ill. 24,335

Rome, N. Y. 20,497

Rutland, Vt. 13,546

Sacramento. Cal. 44,696

Saginaw, Mich. 50,510

St. Cloud, Minn. 10,600

St. Joseph, Mo. 77,403

St. Louis, Mo. 687,029

St. Paul, Minn. 214,744

Salem, Mass. 43,697

Salt Lake City, Utah 92,777

San Antonio, Tex. 96,614

San Diego, Cal. 39,578

San Francisco, Cal. 416,912

San Jose, Cal. 28,946

Savannah, Ga. 65,064

Schenectady, N.Y. 72,826

Scranton. Pa. 129,867

Seattle, Wash. 237,194

Sheboygan, Wis. 26,398

Shenandoah, Pa. 25,774

Shreveport, La. 28,015

Sioux City, Ia. 47,828

Somerville, Mass. 77,236

South Bend, Ind. 53,684

South Omaha, Neb. 26,259

Spokane, Wash. 104,402

Springfield, Ill. 51,678

Springfield, Mass. 88,926

Springfield, Mo. 35,201

Springfield, O. 46,921

Stamford, Conn. 25,138

Steubenville, O. 22,391

Stockton, Cal. 23,253

Superior, Wis. 40,384

Syracuse, N. Y. 137,249

Tacoma, Wash. 83,743

Tampa, Fla. 37,782

Taunton, Mass. 34,259

Terre Haute, Ind. 58,157

Toledo, O. 168,497

Topeka, Kan. 43,684

Berlin, Ont. 15,196

Brantford. Ont. 23,132

Calgary, Alberta 43,704

Charlottet'n, P. E. I. 11,203

Chatham, Ont. 10,770

Edmonton, Alberta 24,900

Fort William, Ont. 16,499

Galt, Ont. 10,299

Glace Bay, N. S. 16,562

Guelph, Ont. 15,175

Halifax, N. S. 46,619

Hamilton, Ont. 81,969

Hull, Que. 18,222

Kingston, Ont. 18,874

Lachine, Que. 10,699

London, Ont. 46,300

Maisonneuve, Que. 18,684

Moncton, N. B. 11,345

Montreal, Que. 470,480

Moose Jaw, Sask. 13,823

New Westminster, B. C. 13,199

Ottawa, Ont. 87,062

Owen Sound, Ont. 12,558

Peterborough, Ont. 18,360

Port Arthur, Ont. 11,220

Quebec, Que. 78,190

Regina, Sask. 30,213

St. Catharines, Ont. 12,484

St. John, N. B. 42,511

St. Johns, Que. 6,500

St. Thomas, Ont. 14,054

Saskatoon, Sask. 12,004

Sault Ste. Marie, Ont. 10,984

Sherbrooke, Que. 16,405

South Vancouver, B. C. 16,126

Stratford, Ont. 12,946

Sydney, N. S. 17,723