Abbreviations in Common Use (continued 2)
Reading edition
Three Rivers, Que. 13,691
Toronto, Ont. 376,538
Vancouver, B. C. 100,401
Victoria, B. C. 31,660
Westmount, Que. 14,579
Windsor, Ont. 17,829
Winnipeg, Man. 136,035
Law.—Every one within the United States is amenable: first, to the laws laid down by the Constitution of the United States; secondly, to any laws which may be made by Congress; thirdly, to State laws; fourthly, to county law; fifthly, to local ordinances passed by the city or town. No local ordinance can be enforced if it is contrary to the law of the State, and no State law holds if it is at variance with the Constitution of the United States. The Supreme Court of each State passes upon the constitutionality of all laws made within the State, and the Supreme Court of the United States is the final Court of appeal. A law made by Congress is not valid if it is declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court of the United States, nor may any State law be enforced if the Supreme Court of that State considers it unconstitutional.
(Exclusive of the United States)
Leading Cities of the World
Alexandria, Egypt 383,934
Amsterdam, Neth. 564,186
Antwerp, Belgium 310,903
Bangkok, Siam 600,000
Barcelona, Spain 533,000
Belfast, Ireland 387,000
Berlin, Germany 2,040,148
Birmingham, Eng. 565,000
Bombay, India 776,000
Bordeaux, France 257,638
Bremen, Germany 214,861
Breslau, Germany 470,904
Bristol, England 378,000
Brussels, Belgium 630,000
Budapest, Hung. 812,728
Buenos Aires, Ar. 1,200,000
Cairo, Egypt 692,657
Calcutta, India 1,026,987
Canton, China 900,000
Changchau, China 500,000
Charlottenburg, Germany 239,559
Chingtu, China 1,000,000
Christiania, Nor. 229,101
Chungking, China 600,000
Constantinople, Turkey 1,125,000
Copenhagen, Den. 450,000
Damascus, Turkey in Asia 225,000
Dresden, Ger. 516,990
Dublin, Ireland 394,528
Edinburgh, Scot. 350,000
Florence, Italy 205,589
Fuchau, China 624,000
Genoa, Italy 234,710
Glasgow, Scot. 865,000
Hague, Netherlds. 256,719
Haidarabad, Ind. 448,446
Hangchau, China 600,000
Hamburg, Ger. 802,793
Hankau, China 870,000
Havana, Cuba 297,159
Hongkong, China 421,499
Hull, England 275,552
Kief, Russia 319,000
Kyoto, Japan 441,460
Lanchau, China 500,000
Leeds, England 456,787
Leicester, England 228,132
Leipzig, Germany 503,672
Lisbon, Portugal 356,009
Liverpool, Eng. 758,203
London, Eng. 4,866,480
Lyons, France 459,099
Madras, India 509,346
Madrid, Spain 539,835
Manchester, Eng. 710,687
Manila, Phil. Isl. 219,928
Marseilles, France 491,161
Melbourne, Aus. 538,000
Mexico, Mexico 450,000
Milan, Italy 593,938
Montreal, Canada 267,730
Moscow, Russia 1,359,254
Munich, Germany 538,983
Naples, Italy 563,540
Osaka, Japan 995,945
Palermo, Italy 309,694
Paris, France 2,714,068
Peking, China 1,600,000
Portsmouth, Eng. 201,975
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 900,000
Rome, Italy 560,726
St Petersburg, Russia 1,678,000
Santiago, Chile 400,000
Sao Paulo, Brazil 340,000
Shanghai, China 651,005
Sheffield, Eng. 470,948
Siangtan, China 850,000
Singan, China 875,000
Smyrna, Turkey in Asia 201,000
Stockholm, Swed. 337,460
Suchau, China 500,000
Sydney, Australia 550,600
Tientsin, China 750,000
Tokyo, Japan 2,221,458
Toronto, Canada 208,040
Trieste, Austria 205,130
Tunis, Tunis. 227,519
Vienna, Austria 2,021,052
Warsaw, Russia 756,426
Winnipeg, Canada 150,000
Wuchang, China 800,000
Yokohama, Japan 392,871
Liquor and Wine Industry.—The United States produces about 101,000,000 gallons of whisky, about 2,700,000 gallons of rum, about 3,400,000 gallons of gin, 24,500,000 gallons of alcohol, and about 14,000,000 gallons of commercial alcohol,—a total of about 175,500,000 gallons. The United States produces over 2,000,000 gallons of malt liquors and nearly 57,000,000 gallons of wine annually.
Literature.—Literature is not, and probably never will be, satisfactorily defined. Broadly speaking, it is any form of written or printed words upon any subject. More specifically defined, the term "literature" would apply to essays, poetry, stories, and other works of fiction of the grade acceptable to the best magazines and book publishers. Works of history may be called literature, and scientific works come under this classification; but historical writers are usually called historians, and scientific writers are known as scientists. Story writers are usually classified as novelists, and newspaper writers as journalists. A book, commonly, if not technically, speaking, is a volume usually bound in board covers and containing one hundred or more pages, but it may be a book if there are only a dozen pages with covers of paper.
Magnetic Poles.—The magnetic poles are not, as most people suppose, identical with the geographical poles, the north magnetic pole being south of the geographical North Pole, and the south magnetic pole being north of the geographical South Pole. The north magnetic pole is located at about 77° 59´, and the south at about 72° 23´.
Mammoth Cave.—Mammoth Cave, probably the best known of similar freaks of Nature, is located in Kentucky, and has a length of nine miles. It contains many avenues, chambers, domes, lakes, rivers, and waterfalls. Echo River, inside of the cave, is 3/4 of a mile in length, from a few feet to 200 ft. wide, and has a depth of from 10 to 30 ft. It is well filled with fish, none of which have eyes.
Meat Industry.—There are, in the United States, about 1650 slaughter houses employing nearly 110,000 people with about $4,000,000 capital invested. The annual product of the meat industry is not far from $1,400,000,000.
Medicine Chests.—Every one should maintain a medicine chest or shelf containing simple remedies, but these should never be selected without the advice of a physician. Thousands of persons injure themselves by self-dosing. When in the slightest doubt, visit or call your doctor. Most ailments can be prevented or cured by a skillful physician, but if allowed to run they may result seriously or fatally. Do not take chances with yourself.
Microscope.—The first microscope is said to have been invented by a Dutchman in 1590, but its invention has been attributed to Galileo in 1610. The microscope has been perfected until a millionth part of a grain of blood may be detected by means of the spectrum lens.
Mineral Industry.—The minerals mined in the United States every year have a value of about $904,000,000.
Mining Industry.—Nearly 1,140,000 men are engaged in the mines of the United States, over 90 per cent of whom are wage earners.
Moon.—The moon is the earth's only satellite. It circles around the earth every 27 days, 7 hours, and 43.2 minutes, on the average; but because its motion is common with the earth around the sun, the mean duration of the lunar month is 29 days, 12 hours, 44.05 minutes. The distance from the earth to the moon is from 238,850 to 252,820 miles, although at times the moon is only 216,477 miles from the earth. The moon's diameter is 2,162 miles. The surface of the moon contains about 14,685,000 square miles, or about four times the area of Europe. The moon, although very much smaller than the planets, exerts a stronger attractive force on the earth because of its nearness. The moon is, unscientifically speaking, drawing everything on the earth towards it, while at the same time the earth is exerting the same attractive force upon the moon. Because of this, the oceans, being composed of water, which is easily movable, respond and move with the moon, causing the tides. This same attractive force is brought to bear upon the earth itself, but because it is of greater density it is not perceptibly affected. Theoretically, every lake and pond has a tide, but the motion of the water is too slight to be measured. The moon is supposed to possess neither atmosphere nor water. Thousands of ages ago the lunar surface was subjected to terrible volcanic actions which forced the land into ridges, some of them supposed to exceed 20,000 feet in height, and rents and depressions of corresponding depths. The surface of the moon appears to be desolate and to be unfitted to support any form of life.
Mortality.—About 15 people out of every thousand of the population of the United States die during each year. The percentage of male deaths is somewhat larger than that of female, due to accidents. The annual death rate per thousand is: 13.7 in Los Angeles, 15 in San Francisco, 17 in Denver, 19 in Washington, D. C., 14.6 in Chicago, 14.3 in Indianapolis, 15.5 in Louisville, 20.2 in New Orleans, 18.7 in Baltimore, 16.8 in Boston, 14.0 in Detroit, 10.7 in Minneapolis, 11.4 in St. Paul, 14.4 in Kansas City, 15.8 in St. Louis, 14.7 in Omaha, 16 in New York, 16.5 in Cincinnati, 12.9 in Cleveland, 16.4 in Philadelphia, 15.8 in Pittsburgh, 20.1 in Memphis.
Mortgages.—A mortgage is a bill-of-sale from the owner of property to another competent to hold property. The one giving the mortgage is called the mortgagee, and the one to whom it is made is known as the mortgagor. A mortgage differs from a bill-of-sale in that the mortgagor cannot obtain ownership of the property mortgaged, unless the amount involved is not paid him at the expiration of the mortgage, or the interest is not met. All mortgages must be registered. Mortgaged property cannot be moved, altered, or changed without the consent of the mortgagor. The property, unless it is land, should be insured, and the insurance policy made payable to the mortgagor in case of loss by fire, but the mortgagor can collect only that part of the insurance money which represents the amount of the mortgage. Should the mortgagee fail to pay interest at the period stated in the mortgage, or should he be unable or refuse to liquidate the mortgage at its expiration, the mortgagor cannot seize the property except by act of law. It must be advertised and sold at auction. If the mortgaged property brings a price lower than the face of the mortgage, the mortgagor loses the difference, and has to bear the expense of foreclosure. If more than the face of the mortgage is realized, the mortgagee is entitled to what is received, less the face of the mortgage and the expenses of foreclosure.
Natural Gas.—A gas generated underground, and due to chemical action beneath the earth's surface. It is found in various parts of the world, and is used for fuel and illuminating, largely for the former.
Naturalization.—Any foreigner or alien, except those of the Mongolian or Brown Race, may become a citizen of the United States, and be entitled to every privilege granted to natural-born citizens, except that he cannot become President or Vice-President of the United States. An alien cannot make application for naturalization or citizenship until he is 18 years of age, and he cannot apply for his Second or Final Paper of Naturalization until he has lived in the United States for at least five years, and he must make his Declaration of Intention two or more years before he applies for his Second or Final Paper. The applicant must be a resident of the State in which he makes petition for naturalization not less than one year, and have lived at least four years additional in the same State, or in some other State. He must make application to the United States District Court in the State in which he lives. The cost of becoming naturalized is less than $5.00. A married woman does not have to be naturalized if her husband has become a citizen of the United States, and the children of the naturalized parents become citizens at 21 years of age without taking out naturalization papers. Full particulars regarding the process of naturalization are very plainly and explicitly stated in a book entitled "How to Obtain Citizenship," by Nathaniel C. Fowler, Jr.
Newspapers.—A newspaper is a periodical issued as often as once a week, and contains the news of the day, either local or general, or both. The majority of newspapers are of four or eight pages, but often the number of pages run as high as 24, or even 72, and occasionally 100 pages are issued at a time. In the United States and Canada, there are published over 2,600 daily newspapers, about 75 tri-weekly, a little less than 650 semi-weekly, considerable more than 17,000 weekly. Of other periodicals, about 60 are published every two weeks, somewhat less than 300 semi-monthly, more than 3,000 monthly, about 80 bi-monthly, and less than 250 quarterly. Periodicals published less often than once a week are not considered newspapers, although they may contain news.
New York Stock Exchange.—A single seat, carrying with it membership in the New York Stock Exchange, has been sold for as much as $96,000, and the lowest price recorded is $49,500.
Nicknames of States.—Alabama, "Cotton State"; Alaska, "Eldorado of the North"; Arkansas, "Bear"; California, "Golden Land"; Colorado, "Centennial State"; Connecticut, "Nutmeg"; Delaware, "Blue Hen" and "Diamond State"; Florida, "Gulf" and "Flowery State"; Georgia, "Cracker State"; Indiana, "Hoosier State"; Iowa, "Hawkeye"; Kansas, "Prairie"; Kentucky, "Blue Grass State"; Louisiana, "Creole State"; Maine, "Pine Tree State"; Maryland, "Old Line State"; Massachusetts, "Old Bay State"; Michigan, "Lake State"; Minnesota, "Gopher State"; Mississippi, "Bayou State"; Missouri, "Bullion State"; Montana, "Mountain State"; Nebraska, "Black Water State"; Nevada, "Silver State"; New Hampshire, "Granite State"; New Jersey, "Red Mud State"; New York, "Empire State"; North Carolina, "Old North State"; North Dakota, "Cyclone State"; Ohio, "Buckeye State"; Oklahoma, "Boomer State"; Oregon, "Beaver State"; Pennsylvania, "Keystone State"; Rhode Island, "Little Rhody"; Tennessee, "Old Franklin State"; South Carolina, "Palmetto State"; South Dakota, "Blizzard State"; Texas, "Lone-Star State"; Utah, "Mormon State"; Vermont, "Green Mountain State"; Virginia, "Old Dominion"; West Virginia, "Panhandle State"; Wisconsin, "Badger State".
Nitroglycerine.—Nitroglycerine is made of common glycerine mixed with strong nitric and sulphuric acids, and is extremely explosive and dangerous. It has to be exploded by concussion or shock, and not by fire. It is used for blasting and other purposes, and occasionally is taken in very small doses as a medicine, but never should be used medicinally except by the advice of a physician who should be present when it is taken.
Notes.—A note should be signed in ink, but a pencil signature is good in law. A note is not payable on demand unless it so states. A note may be payable to order or to bearer. If payable to order, and transferred, it must be endorsed. The endorser of a note is liable for its payment, if the maker of it does not pay it. Each signer of a joint note is liable for the full amount. Notes do not bear interest unless so stated. "Value received" should be written in every note, but it is not essential.
Ocean Ownership.—The ocean is common property, and no one has any legal title to it, except that each country has jurisdiction over the sea within three miles of the shore, but these three miles are usually reckoned from promontories, and not necessarily from the coast-line, so that a nation may have control of a vast area of water and several hundred miles from shore.
Old Time Ships.—The glory of the American merchant service, so far as sailing vessels are concerned, has passed into history. Comparatively few sailing vessels, save coasting schooners, ply the seas, as steam has taken the place of sail. The majority of old ship captains are either dead or commanding ocean liners or coastwise steamers. In the old days, sailing clipper ships made the trip from New York to San Francisco in one hundred days, while the voyage of ordinary ships was two or three times as long. The old ship "Lightning" sailed from Boston to Liverpool at a greater speed than that obtained by any steamship of its day, the vessel often logging over 500 miles in 24 hours, and it made the trip in a little less than 14 days. The "James Baines" sailed from Boston to Liverpool in 12 days and 6 hours, and broke the sailing record between these two ports. The same vessel made the trip from Liverpool to Melbourne, Australia, in 63 days and returned in 69 days. The "Red Jacket" sailed from New York to Liverpool in 13 days, 1 hour, and 25 minutes. The "Flying Cloud" and "Andrew Jackson" sailed from New York to San Francisco in 89 days, and the "Sea Witch" made the trip from Canton, China, to New York in 74 days, 14 hours. These early clipper ships were quite small, many of them not being over 200 tons. The first large clipper ship was the "Ann McKim," which was 43 ft. long, and 493 tons burden. Subsequent sailing vessels of enormous size were built, the "John Bertram" having a tonnage of 1080, the "Gamecock" 1,320, the "Staghound" 1,535, the "Flying Cloud" 1,783, the "Staffordshire" 1,817, the "Sovereign of the Seas" 2,421 tons, and the "Great Republic" 4,555 tons.
Palmistry.—The study of the lines of the palm, which the ancients believed indicated character and future. Palmistry is to-day practiced by three classes of people: (1) professional palmists, most of whom are charlatans; (2) as a diversion; (3) by superstitious people who believe in it. A scientific study of the subject does not furnish any evidence that the lines of the hand have any special significance, and no scientific person gives them any credence.
Partnership.—A partnership is an agreement, usually written, between two or more persons, for the doing of business or for the carrying out of any contract or for the accomplishment of any work. The partners may have equal ownership, or it may be unevenly divided. In the equal partnerships, each partner has the same financial interest and share in the profits, and also the same right of control. In other partnerships, the financial investment or interests are unevenly divided; and the one who holds more than half interest controls the business, unless otherwise provided for in the partnership agreement. Partners may be in name only, and not own any of the property. Active partners are those who give practically all of their time to the conducting of the business. Silent partners are not likely to take any active part in the management of the business, but they may control it, if their financial interest is sufficient. Under common law, no partner has a right to engage in any other business which would injure the partnership, unless permitted to do so by the other partners. The acts of one partner bind all of the rest. If one partner commits fraud in the name of the firm, the others are financially responsible, although they may have had no knowledge of his action. The partnership or business may or may not be liable for the private debts of any one partner. Usually a partner cannot be held for more than his interest in the firm. Partnerships may be dissolved by mutual agreement or by judicial act, and it is usual to publish the dissolution of partnership in one or more of the local newspapers, and to send notices of it to the trade. A limited partnership does not hold any partner or the concern itself liable for more than the amount of the property in the business, but a partnership will not be considered limited unless it is publicly announced.
Patent Medicines
It has been said, and with some degree of truth, that Americans are self-dosers, and that they are prone to attempt to cure themselves, even of serious diseases, without consulting a physician.
The sale of patent medicines is enormous, although I think it is diminishing in volume, due to the exposures which have appeared in many periodicals, and to the better education of the people.
A patent medicine, technically speaking, is a concoction or drug, or combination of drugs, claimed to be a remedy or cure for a specific ill or for all of the ills that the human flesh is heir to. It is manufactured in large quantities, and bottled or put up with attractive labels, with more or less directions given for its use. Many of the patent medicines are either absolutely ineffective or are positively dangerous. Many of them contain a large percentage of alcohol, which acts as a transient tonic, and produces an exhilaration which the sufferer is likely to consider beneficial. The effect of the alcohol soon wears off, and the taker is much worse for having swallowed it.
Other patent medicines contain cocaine and other dangerous drugs, which never should be taken without the advice of a physician. The effect of some patent medicines is likely to be immediate and to appear to be efficacious. Some patent medicines, however, are made of pure drugs, and are really valuable. I am, however, opposed to the use of patent medicines, even of those which are carefully and scientifically compounded.
It is obvious that the layman cannot diagnose his trouble, and the label on the bottle, or the pamphlet accompanying it, is likely to confuse him, and in many cases makes him feel that he is suffering from an ailment or disease which does not exist.
Headache powders, cough medicines, tonics of all kinds, soothing syrup for babies, should be conscientiously avoided, unless prescribed by a physician. They are likely to contain dangerous drugs, and may have no medicinal properties at all.
Because a certain medicine has worked well with one person should not be taken as evidence that another can take it to his advantage. Similar symptoms may exist, and yet the root of the trouble be entirely different.
Even if every patent medicine were pure and scientifically compounded, I would advise against their use, unless recommended by a physician, who is likely to diagnose correctly the trouble and to apply the right remedy.
Physicians are not infallible, but every reputable physician is a graduate of a medical school, a reader of current medical magazines, and is constantly in touch, by experience, with other physicians and with human ailments. Even if he is not an expert, his close proximity to disease makes him far more reliable than the label on the medicine bottle.
I would advise no one to place himself in the hands of any physician who is not a member of one of the great medical associations, maintained by both the allopathic and homeopathic schools.
These associations will not admit into membership any one who has not been properly instructed, and who is not reliable. Any physician of standing, and with a sufficient knowledge of the human body, can obtain membership in these associations, and those who are not members may be looked upon with suspicion, although it is quite likely that some of them are reliable; but as they are outside of the associations, they cannot have the facilities of consultation and experience, which are given to those in regular standing in an association.
It is obvious that one of even ordinary ability, who is educated in the profession, is more reliable than one who doctors by his wits, even though he may appear to be successful. Although there are some charlatans in the profession, who practice in their own interest more than in that of their patients, the average physician represents the highest order of civilization. He knows at the start that his profession is not likely to bring him heavy financial return. He goes into it with his eyes open. He is under the strictest rules and regulations, and cannot maintain his standing in the associations, or with the public, if he does not practice legitimately. He has every facility at his command, and although he is not always successful, he is far better able to produce results than is one who has not been properly educated, and who lacks experience and association with other doctors, and who has not had hospital practice. Every reputable physician has not only graduated from a medical school, but was given opportunity to practice in hospitals and elsewhere before he became a family physician. The so-called specialist began as a family physician, and gives his time somewhat exclusively to one disease or to surgery. The surgeon, while a regular physician, specializes in surgery, and comparatively few family practitioners will handle a serious surgical case, except in emergencies. They refer the patient to the skilled surgeon.
The physician is both a curer and preventor of disease. I would advise every one, no matter how healthy he may be, to consult a reputable physician once a year, and to be overhauled, so to speak. Most troubles can be obviated if taken in time. A symptom seemingly serious to the one having it may be of little consequence, and yet it may be the forerunner of an incurable disease. If a good physician is consulted in time, he may either obviate the trouble or prevent its rapid increase. No one should attempt to diagnose his own condition. Even the physician will not do so for himself, because no one can tell by his feelings exactly what is the matter with him or what would better be done. The physician when sick, consults other physicians, if his trouble is of any seriousness. The expense of an annual examination need not exceed two or three dollars, and some physicians will make it for a dollar. They are likely to locate any trouble, although it may have just appeared and the symptom be slight. They will prescribe a treatment, which cannot fail to be of benefit to those who consult them. Therefore, I say, visit a good physician at least once a year, irrespective of your health.
In every city, and in many of the towns, are practicing alleged physicians or doctors, who claim to be unusually expert and able to cure where others fail, or even to cure what cannot be cured. Some of them are graduates of medical schools, and are really good physicians, but most of them are irresponsible and without real ability. Their method frequently makes the patient feel that he is being cured, and cured rapidly. They use appliances and drugs which have an immediate effect, usually to the patients' injury; or they practice the same as regular physicians do and give the patient false encouragement. It seems to me obvious that no so-called outside practitioner, who is not a member of the associations, can possibly possess any information or know of any method of treatment with which the regular physicians are unfamiliar. These charlatans play upon the feelings of the patient, and it is said that some of them keep him sick for financial reasons. Therefore, I warn the reader against any physician who is not a member of one of the two great associations, and who is not recognized by the profession at large. Even though some of them are skillful, it is safer to employ a physician of standing than to take one who makes a business of practicing, and who is not answerable to the rules and regulations enforced by the associations, and who cannot, because of his removal from them, obtain and enjoy the privilege of consultation with other members of his craft. Do not take chances with your body. Better risk the few mistakes made by physicians than by your own doctor.
Perpetual Motion.—Scientists, particularly early ones, made frantic and continuous endeavors to invent what was supposed to be perpetual motion; that is, a machine which will keep perpetually in motion without being replenished or supplied with outside energy. About 60 years ago scientific bodies refused to consider it, as it was proved to be impossible. The "Scientific American," many years ago, likened perpetual motion to an energy which will permit a man to lift himself by his boot-straps.
Petroleum Industry.—The annual production is considerably more than 9,000,000,000 gallons a year.
Philippine Islands.—The Philippine Islands consist of over 3,000 islands, having an area of about 115,000 square miles. The population exceeds 7,500,000; and the density of population is about 67 to the square mile, as against 26 to the square mile in the United States. The climate is tropical.
Pianoforte.—The piano or pianoforte is said to have been invented in Italy and to have appeared in 1714. Germany, however, claims the honor of its invention. It was introduced into England in 1766.
Plate Glass.—The sand, out of which glass is made, is melted until it is of about the consistency of molasses. It is then poured into a casting trough or a table mounted on wheels so it can be run close to the mouth of the furnace. The molten glass is poured into the trough through a sluice-way, and before it hardens, heavy rollers pass over it, reducing it to the required thickness. It is rolled to about 9-16 of an inch, and then by further rolling and polishing it is reduced to the required thickness. It further passes through a smelting oven which thoroughly hardens it. Then, it is again polished.
Playing Cards.—The origin is unknown, although they appeared in Europe in 1350. It is claimed that the Arabs used playing cards at a much earlier date. It is estimated that over sixteen million packs of playing cards are made annually in the United States.
Pole Star.—This is a star of the second magnitude, found at the extremity of the handle of the Little Dipper.
Population and Land Area of the United States
Geographic Division Population, 1910 Land Area (square miles), 1910
Continental United States 91,972,266 2,973,890
Geographic divisions:
New England 6,552,681 61,976
Middle Atlantic 19,315,892 100,000
East North Central 18,250,621 245,564
West North Central 11,637,921 510,804
South Atlantic 12,194,895 269,071
East South Central 8,409,901 179,509
West South Central 8,784,534 429,746
Mountain 2,633,517 859,125
Pacific 4,192,304 318,095
New England:
Maine 742,371 29,895
New Hampshire 430,572 9,031
Vermont 355,956 9,124
Massachusetts 3,366,416 8,039
Rhode Island 542,610 1,067
Connecticut 1,114,756 4,820
Middle Atlantic:
New York 9,113,614 47,654
New Jersey 2,537,167 7,514
Pennsylvania 7,665,111 44,832
East North Central:
Ohio 4,767,121 40,740
Indiana 2,700,876 36,045
Illinois 5,638,591 56,043
Michigan 2,810,173 57,480
Wisconsin 2,333,860 55,256
West North Central:
Minnesota 2,075,708 80,858
Iowa 2,224,771 55,586
Missouri 3,293,335 68,727
North Dakota 577,056 70,183
South Dakota 583,888 76,868
Nebraska 1,192,214 76,808
Kansas 1,690,949 81,774
South Atlantic:
Delaware 202,322 1,965
Maryland 1,295,346 9,941
District of Columbia 331,069 60
Virginia 2,061,612 40,262
West Virginia 1,221,119 24,022
North Carolina 2,206,287 48,740
South Carolina 1,515,400 30,495
Georgia 2,609,121 58,725
Florida 752,619 54,861
East South Central:
Kentucky 2,289,905 40,181
Tennessee 2,184,789 41,687
Alabama 2,138,093 51,279
Mississippi 1,797,114 46,362
West South Central:
Arkansas 1,574,449 52,525
Louisiana 1,656,388 45,409
Oklahoma 1,657,155 69,414
Texas 3,896,542 262,398
Mountain:
Montana 376,053 146,201
Idaho 325,594 83,354
Wyoming 145,965 97,594
Colorado 799,024 103,658
New Mexico 327,301 122,503
Arizona 204,354 113,810
Utah 373,351 82,184
Nevada 81,875 109,821
Pacific:
Washington 1,141,990 66,836
Oregon 672,765 95,607
California 2,377,549 155,652
Population Per Square Mile
Continental United States.—The following summary shows, for continental United States, the total population, land area in square miles, and population per square mile of land area at each census from 1790 to 1910, inclusive:
Census Year Population Land area (square miles) Population
1910 91,972,266 2,973,890 30.9
1900 75,994,575 2,974,159 25.6
1890 62,947,714 2,973,965 21.2
1880 50,155,783 2,973,965 16.9
1870 38,558,371 2,973,965 13.0
1860 31,443,321 2,973,965 10.6
1850 23,191,876 2,944,337 7.9
1840 17,069,453 1,753,588 9.7
1830 12,866,020 1,753,588 7.3
1820 9,638,453 1,753,588 5.5
1810 7,239,881 1,685,865 4.3
1800 5,308,483 867,980 6.1
1790 3,929,214 867,980 4.5
According to the census of 1910, there are in continental United States, on the average, 30.9 inhabitants to each square mile of land area, or nearly seven times the number per square mile shown for the much smaller area of 1790, and nearly three times the number shown for 1860. The decrease in the average number of inhabitants per square mile at the census of 1810 and 1850 was due in each case to large accessions of thinly populated territory during the decade preceding the census.
In the order of their density of population the nine geographic divisions of the country rank as follows: Middle Atlantic, 193.2 inhabitants per square mile; New England, 105.7; East North Central, 74.3; East South Central, 46.8; South Atlantic, 45.3; West North Central, 22.8; West South Central, 20.4; Pacific, 13.2; and Mountain, 3.1. The changes in density from census to census correspond precisely with the changes in area and the total number of inhabitants. It may be noted, however, that on account of the rapid increase in their population the Pacific states in 1910 for the first time are approaching, in density of population, conditions found in the states between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains.
Porto Rico.—Porto Rico contains about 3,600 square miles, and has a population of considerable more than a million. The climate is tropical and the land is extremely fertile.
Postage Stamps.—They were invented in 1834, and were introduced into America in 1847.
Poultry and Egg Industry.—Nearly 500,000,000 of poultry, including chickens, turkeys, geese, and pigeons, are raised in the United States annually. The total value is about $203,000,000. Each year the production of eggs is about 1,600,000,000 dozen. The people of the United States eat about 5-1/2 fowls per year per capita, and a little over 17 dozen eggs.
Presidents of the United States
George Washington.
John Adams.
Thomas Jefferson.
James Madison.
James Monroe.
John Quincy Adams.
Andrew Jackson.
Martin Van Buren.
William Henry Harrison.
John Tyler.
James K. Polk.
Zachary Taylor.
Millard Fillmore.
Franklin Pierce.
James Buchanan.
Abraham Lincoln.
Andrew Johnson.
Ulysses S. Grant.
Rutherford B. Hayes.
James A. Garfield.
Chester A. Arthur.
Grover Cleveland.
Benjamin Harrison.
William McKinley.
Theodore Roosevelt.
William H. Taft.
Woodrow Wilson.
Principal Countries of the World
COUNTRY CAPITAL SQ. MILES POPULATION
Abyssinia Addis Abeba 200,000 11,000,000
Afghanistan Kabul 250,000 4,750,000
Argentina Buenos Aires 1,135,840 6,210,428
Australia 2,974,581 4,197,037
Austria-Hungary Vienna, Budapest 241,333 45,176,230
Belgium Brussels 11,373 6,693,548
Bolivia Sucre 605,400 1,953,916
Brazil Rio de Janeiro 3,292,991 17,388,556
British Empire London 11,343,706 394,246,882
Bulgaria Sofia 38,080 4,035,623
Canada Ottawa 3,745,574 6,153,789
Chile Santiago 307,620 3,399,928
Chinese Empire Peking 4,277,170 426,047,325
Colombia Bogota 505,000 4,303,000
Costa Rica San Jose 18,400 351,176
Cuba Havana 44,000 2,048,980
Denmark Copenhagen 15,592 2,605,268
Ecuador Quito 116,000 1,400,000
Egypt[A] Cairo 400,000 11,189,978
France Paris 207,054 39,252,245
Germany Berlin 208,780 60,641,278
Great Britain & Ireland London 121,390 44,538,718
Greece Athens 25,014 2,631,952
Guatemala New Guatemala 48,290 1,882,992
Haiti Port au Prince 10,204 1,500,000
Honduras Tegucigalpa 46,250 650,000
India Calcutta 1,776,517 294,317,082
Italy Rome 110,550 33,909,776
Japanese Empire Tokyo 175,000 50,000,000
Luxemburg Luxemburg 998 236,543
Mexico Mexico 767,005 13,605,919
Montenegro Cettinie 3,630 250,000
Morocco Fez, Morocco 219,000 5,000,000
$Netherlands The Hague 12,648 5,747,269
Nicaragua Managua 49,200 500,000
Norway Christiania 124,129 2,240,032
Panama Panama 31,571 300,000
Paraguay Asuncion 157,000 631,347
Persia Teheran 628,000 9,500,000
Peru Lima 695,733 4,609,999
Portugal Lisbon 35,490 5,423,132
Roumania Bukharest 50,720 5,956,690
Russia St. Petersburg 8,647,657 152,009,300
Salvador San Salvador 7,225 1,700,000
San Marino San Marino 38 11,439
Santo Domingo Santo Domingo 18,045 610,000
Servia Belgrade 18,650 2,493,882
Siam Bangkok 195,000 6,686,846
Spain Madrid 190,050 18,618,086
Sweden Stockholm 172,876 5,377,713
Switzerland Bern 15,976 3,463,609
Turkey and trib. states[B] Constantinople 1,165,020 25,414,300
United South Africa Pretoria. C. T. 473,184 5,450,217
United States Washington 3,567,563 88,566,034
Uruguay Montevideo 72,210 1,140,799
Venezuela Caracas 364,000 2,646,835
Printing Presses.—There are three distinct classes of printing presses: (1) The ordinary job press which is used for the printing of cards, letter-heads, billheads, and other small matter. It is run by power or by a foot treadle. Each card or piece of paper is fed into the press by hand and removed by hand. The average speed is from 1,000 to 1,200 an hour, but the most expert feeders can handle about 1,500 cards an hour, and the record is not far from 2,000. (2) The cylinder press. This press is used for the printing of weekly newspapers, books, catalogues, and other large work. The type is placed upon a flat bed having a lateral movement, and the paper is fed by hand onto a cylinder which revolves over the moving bed. These presses have a speed of from 1,000 to 2,000 an hour, but comparatively few hand-feeders can handle more than 1,500, or 1,600 sheets in an hour. (3) The perfecting press. This press is used exclusively for the printing of large city newspapers, and some books, and catalogues are printed upon it. The type matter is cast into to a cylinder. The paper to be printed upon stereotypes of circular form which are attached is in a continuous roll and passes between the stereotype cylinder and another roller. The paper is fed into the press automatically, and is automatically folded and counted. The largest perfecting press in the world will print, fold, and count both sides of an eight-page paper at the rate of 300,000 copies an hour, but the average perfecting press does not deliver more than 75,000 copies an hour. The perfecting presses used for books, magazines, and catalogues run at a much slower speed.
Production of Books.—In 1911, 8,183 books were produced by American authors of which 1,024 were fiction; 917 were on theology and religion; 919 of essays and literature; 527 on hygiene; 734 juvenile; 685 of poetry and drama; 300 educational; 196 were devoted to the fine arts; and 86 to music.
Public Debt of the United States.—The interest-bearing debt of the United States is $964,631,630, and the non-interest-bearing debt is $375,974,389. The United States has issued $946,242,270 in gold certificates, $482,367,666 in silver certificates, and treasury notes to the amount of $2,846,260. At the last accounting the United States treasury had on hand in cash $1,564,416,169.
Public Schools.—The public school system originated in Massachusetts and Connecticut shortly after the settlement of those States. Schools were not entirely free when originally established. They have now become common all over the United States, and their maintenance is required by law.
Pure Food.—Pure food laws enacted by the United States Government, and by State and City Governments, are supposed to protect the consumer against adulterated foods. The United States law, however, has no jurisdiction over food manufactured or put out in any of the States, unless it is carried from one State to another. The local food laws have to do only with the communities covered. The present law does not appear to be sufficient to protect the public fully. The statement written on many food packages, reading "Guaranteed Under The Food and Drugs Act, June 30, 1906. No. ——," must not be considered as proof positive of purity. It simply means that the contents of the package or bottle is according to the prescription or formula registered with the Government, and does not stand for quality or purity. Benzoate of soda and other preservatives may be legally used, provided a statement to that effect is made upon the package. Chemists differ as to the injurious effect of benzoate of soda, but it is not advocated by any eminent authority. Most of the pure food experts are opposed to its use, irrespective of any injurious effect it may have upon the consumer, because this preservative will effectively kill the odor of putrefaction and disguise the taste and smell of rotten or spoiled fruit and other products. The consumer will do well to refuse to purchase any article or food containing benzoate of soda or other preservative, for first-class and healthy meat, fruit, and vegetables do not require a chemical preservative. Artificial coloring may not be injurious, as so little of it is required, but food artificially preserved may be dangerous, and very likely is impure, and may not have been fresh when canned.
Pyramids.—the pyramids were supposed to have been constructed between the fifth and twelfth dynasties in Middle Egypt, and not to have been used for tombs. They are built upon a square base, with sides facing the points of the compass, and the earlier pyramids were constructed of horizontal layers of rough blocks fastened together with mortar. In the center of the pyramid, near the base, was built a chamber reached by a passage from the north side. It is said that some of them contain emblems or symbols, which are now used in masonry. Whether or not there were masons at the time they were built, has not yet been discovered. Many of the stones weigh as much as thirty tons each, and no one has yet been able to ascertain the power used for their transmission.
Railroads.—The railroads of the United States employ nearly 1,700,000 men, or about 680 per hundred miles of track. The railroads occupy over 244,000 miles of track. The most powerful locomotive in the world runs in Virginia, and weighs 540,000 pounds. The heaviest electric locomotive is maintained by the Boston & Maine Railroad and weighs about 192,000 pounds. The most expensive locomotives cost about $37,000, and an ordinary locomotive costs from $15,000 to $20,000. An ordinary box car weighs 36,000 pounds, and a day coach about 112,000 pounds. Sleeping cars weigh from 115,000 to 152,000 pounds. The fastest short-distance run on record was made by the Empire State Express, at the rate of 112-1/2 miles per hour. A New York train ran a distance of 44 miles in 33 minutes, or at the rate of 80 miles an hour, and a New York Central train made the distance between New York and Chicago, 965 miles, in 15 hours and 43 minutes, or at the rate of 62-1/2 miles per hour. A New York Central train ran a short distance at the rate of about 112-1/2 miles an hour, and a Florida train ran 5 miles at the rate of 120 miles an hour. During the last year there were 5,483 accidents by collision and 8,215 by derailments, and a total of 15,743 accidents; 318 passengers were killed, and 16,386 were injured; 3,635 employees were killed, and 142,442 injured; 6,632 persons not connected with the railroads and not riding on trains were killed, and 10,710 injured. The number of passengers carried during the year was nearly a billion. The railroads of the United States, not including the switching and terminal companies, employ nearly 670,000 men, or about 678 men to every 100 miles of track.
Referendum.—A law by which all legislation may be referred to the people, either for its ratification or rejection. The Initiative is a process by which any law may be enacted, if requested by a specified number of citizens. The Initiative and Referendum are becoming common, and their advocates believe that they are the solution to many of our political problems.
Religious Denominations.—In the United States there are 95,800 Adventists, about 5,635,000 Baptists, about 739,000 Congregationalists, about 1,534,000 Disciples of Christ, about 2,290,000 Lutherans, about 6,280,000 Methodists, about 1,944,000 Presbyterians, about 957,000 Protestant Episcopalians, about 312,000 United Brethren, about 71,000 Unitarians, about 53,000 Universalists, and about 13,000,000 Roman Catholics.
Roads.—The mileage of all public roads in the United States is about 2,200,000 miles, there being a little over 59,000 miles of stone road and about 103,000 of gravel road. A sand-clay road costs about $725.00 per mile, gravel a little over $2,000.00, macadam about $5,000.00, and bituminous macadam about $10,350.
Round Table.—Tradition says that it was modeled after a table made by Joseph of Arimathea, and was an imitation of the one used at the Last Supper. It is said to have had a seating capacity variously estimated at from thirteen to one hundred and fifty. According to the legend dealing with King Arthur and his knights, it was a round marble table made by the Enchanter Merlin for Uther Pendragon. Later it came into the possession of the King of Camelard, and was given by him to Arthur on his marriage to the king's daughter Guinevere. The term Round Table is much used in the United States, and refers to a table, usually round, occupied habitually by the same diners.
Royal Academy.—Founded in London in 1768. It is an association of artists, and maintains a free school of art. It holds an annual exhibition of paintings and sculptures.
Royal Society.—One of the most celebrated associations in the world. Organized in London in 1660 for the promotion of scientific investigation.
School Statistics.—There are, in the United States, 36,260 men and 5,025 women acting as professors and instructors in universities, colleges, and technical schools. The common schools contain nearly 18,000,000 enrolled pupils, with an average daily attendance of nearly 13,000,000. These schools employ nearly 525,000 teachers, who receive an average monthly salary of about $62.00. The estimated value of public school property is considerably more than $1,000,000,000, and the annual cost of maintaining these schools exceeds $426,000,000.
Seasickness.—Although there are several advertised remedies which claim to prevent or to cure seasickness, it is probable that none of them are efficacious for all persons. Seasickness is not perfectly understood. Some people suffer from it and some do not. Of course, the condition of the stomach and liver has much to do with it. If one is bilious he is pretty sure to become seasick. Before taking a voyage, it is well to diet or to live on plain food for a while. Do not remain in your stateroom or in the cabin. Get all of the fresh air you can. Lie down and don't refuse to eat sparingly. Many persons ward off seasickness by retiring before the vessel leaves the port. Some people, even sailors, suffer from seasickness with every voyage. A good remedy is an emetic, either warm salt water, or warm mustard water.
Seven Chief Virtues.—These, as defined by the Roman Catholic Church, are as follows: (1) Faith, (2) Hope, (3) Charity, (4) Prudence, (5) Temperance, (6) Justice, (7) Fortitude.
Seven Corporal Works of Mercy.—According to the Roman Catholic Church, these are as follows: (1) To bury the dead, (2) to clothe the naked, (3) to feed the hungry, (4) to give drink to the thirsty, (5) to shelter the homeless, (6) to visit those in prison, (7) to administer unto the sick.
Seven Deadly Sins.—According to the teaching of the Roman Catholic Church, these are as follows: (1) Pride, (2) Anger, (3) Envy, (4) Sloth, (5) Lust, (6) Covetousness, (7) Gluttony.
Seven Liberal Arts.—A term applied during the Middle Ages to the following branches of learning: (1) Arithmetic, (2) Geometry, (3) Astronomy, (4) Music, (5) Logic, (6) Rhetoric, (7) Grammar.
Seven Spiritual Works of Mercy.—According to the teaching of the Roman Catholic Church, these are as follows: (1) To admonish the sinful, (2) to bear wrongs patiently, (3) to comfort the afflicted, (4) to counsel the doubting, (5) to forgive offenses, (6) to instruct the ignorant, (7) to pray for the living and the dead.
Seven Wise Men of Greece.—Applied to seven Greek sages, whose wisdom was embodied in the following maxims: (1) Solon of Athens, "Know thyself"; (2) Chilo of Sparta, "Consider the end"; (3) Thales of Miletus, "Suretyship brings ruin"; (4) Bias of Priene, "Most men are bad"; (5) Cleobulus of Lindus, "Avoid extremes"; (6) Pittacus of Mitylene, "Know thine opportunity"; (7) Periander of Corinth, "Nothing is impossible to industry."
Seven Wonders of the Middle Ages.—(1) The Coliseum at Rome, (2) the Catacombs of Alexandria, (3) the Great Wall of China, (4) the Leaning Tower of Pisa, (5) the Porcelain Tower of Nanking, (6) the Mosque of St. Sophia at Constantinople, (7) the Ruins of Stonehenge.
Seven Wonders of the New World.—(1) Niagara Falls, (2) Yellowstone Park, (3) Garden of the Gods, (4) Mammoth Cave, (5) Yosemite Valley, (6) Giant Trees, (7) Natural Bridge.
Seven Wonders of the World.—In ancient times generally regarded as follows: (1) The Pyramids of Egypt, (2) the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, (3) the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, (4) the Temple of Diana at Ephesus, (5) the Colossus of Rhodes, (6) the Pharos at Alexandria, (7) the Statue of the Olympian Jove in Elis.
Shaving Lotions.—Hot water applied to the face after shaving removes much of the sting or soreness, and the use of bay rum, hamamelis or witch hazel, or almond cream, is to be recommended. A very good shaving preparation is made of equal parts of bay rum and hamamelis.
Ship Bells
Time, A. M.
1 Bell 12.30
2 Bells 1.00
3 " 1.30
4 " 2.00
5 " 2.30
6 " 3.00
7 " 3.30
8 " 4.00
1 Bell 4.30
2 Bells 5.00
3 " 5.30
4 " 6.00
5 " 6.30
6 " 7.00
7 " 7.30
8 " 8.00
1 Bell 8.30
2 Bells 9.00
3 " 9.30
4 " 10.00
5 " 10.30
6 " 11.00
7 " 11.30
8 " Noon
Time, P. M.
1 Bell 12.30
2 Bells 1.00
3 " 1.30
4 " 2.00
5 " 2.30
6 " 3.00
7 " 3.30
8 " 4.00
1 Bell 4.30
2 Bells 5.00
3 " 5.30
4 " 6.00
1 Bell 6.30
2 Bells 7.00
3 " 7.30
4 " 8.00
1 Bell 8.30
2 Bells 9.00
3 " 9.30
4 " 10.00
5 " 10.30
6 " 11.00
7 " 11.30
8 " Midn't
The work on shipboard is done by watches, the crew being mustered into two divisions, known as the Starboard Watch and Port Watch. The day begins at noon, and is divided into: Afternoon Watch, noon to 4 P. M.; First Dog Watch, 4 P. M. to 6 P. M.; Second Dog Watch, 6 P. M. to 8 P. M.; First Watch, 8 P. M. to Midnight; Middle Watch, 12 A. M. to 4 A. M.; Morning Watch, 4 A. M. to 8 A. M.; Forenoon Watch, 8 A. M. to noon.
Slavery.—Slavery is of a prehistoric origin, but was commercialized by the Romans, some of whom had as many as 10,000 slaves. In 1834, the British Colonies emancipated nearly 800,000 slaves, and the Civil War wiped slavery out of the United States. It does not now exist in any civilized nation.
Soap.—Many of the soaps upon the market are impure and even dangerous, and never should be used. Most of the standard white soaps, however, are pure and may be used freely. Cheap laundry soaps are not only impure, but injure the hands; and many of the highly perfumed soaps are hardly better than laundry soaps. Thoroughly good soap can be purchased at retail for not exceeding ten cents a cake, and for this price one can obtain really all there is in soap. Medicated soaps, except the antiseptic soaps recommended by physicians, have little or no value. The reader should purchase only the standard grade of soaps, and should never pay more than 25 cents a cake for any soap, because any price in excess of 25 cents is for perfume or represents exorbitant profit. Every physician is familiar with soap quality, and will gladly give you a list of reliable soaps without charge. There is no such thing as a complexion soap, except that all good soaps aid the complexion. There is no soap safe to use that removes pimples, or keeps pimples or other skin troubles from coming. Soap has only one value, and that is, its ability to assist water in cleansing the skin, except the antiseptic soaps, which may prevent contagion and which should be used by all who enter the sick-room. Ninety-nine per cent. of the expensive soaps are no better, save for their perfume, than soap sold at five or ten cents a cake.
Solar System
The Solar System, of which the earth is a part, consists of eight planets and the sun, so far as has been discovered. Astronomers have located 465 asteroids, which are small bodies floating in space and with apparently established orbits. From time to time, astronomers claim to have discovered a new planet, but its existence is not as yet accepted. The following table gives interesting information:
Mean Distance of Earth from Sun, Millions of Miles Sidereal Period, Days Orbit, Velocity, Miles per Second Mean Diameter, Miles
Sun ... .... ..... 866,400
Mercury 36.0 87.969 23 to 35 3,030
Venus 67.2 224.701 21.9 7,700
Earth 92.8 365.256 18.5 7,918
Mars 141.5 686.95 15.0 4,230
Jupiter 483.3 4332.58 8.1 86,500
Saturn 886.0 10759.22 6.0 71,000
Uranus 1781.9 30686.82 4.2 31,900
Neptune 2791.6 60181.11 3.4 34,800
Some Things Worth Knowing
The people of the earth speak 2,754 languages or dialects.
There are 640 acres in a square mile.
The ordinary flour barrel contains 196 pounds of flour.
What is known as a hand measure is 4 inches.
The sun is over 92,500,000 miles from the earth, and the nearest fixed star is 16,000,000,000 miles from the earth.
The stock yards in Chicago, which are the largest in the world, have 20 miles of streets, and the same number of miles of water troughs, with 50 miles of feeding troughs, and 75 miles of drainage. The yards will accommodate over 20,000 cattle, 20,000 sheep, and 120,000 hogs at one time. They cost over $10,000,000.
The average person inhales 2,600 gallons of air per day.
Songs of the Civil War
Battle Cry of Freedom.—George F. Root. "Yes, we'll rally round the flag, boys."
Battle Flag of the Republic.—O. W. Holmes. "Flag of the heroes who left us their glory."
Battle Hymn of the Republic.—Julia Ward Howe. "Mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the Lord."
The Blue and the Gray.—Francis M. Finch. "By the flow of the inland river."
Brave Boys Are They.—Henry C. Work. "Brave boys are they, gone at their country's call."
Dixie (Southern).—Albert Pike. "Southrons, hear your country call you."
Dixie (Northern).—T. M. Cooley. "Away down South where grows the cotton."
John Brown's Body. "John Brown's body lies a-mould'ring in the grave."
Just Before the Battle, Mother.—George F. Root. "Just before the battle, mother, I am thinking most of you."
Marching Through Georgia.—Henry C. Work. "Bring the good old bugle, boys; we'll sing another song."
Maryland, My Maryland (Southern).—Joseph R. Randall. "The despot's heel is on thy shore, Maryland, my Maryland."
Oh, Wrap the Flag Around Me, Boys.—R. Stewart Taylor.
Tramp, Tramp, Tramp.—George F. Root. "In the prison cell I sit."
When Johnny Comes Marching Home.—Louis Lambert.
When This Cruel War Is Over.—Charles C. Sawyer. "Dearest love, do you remember?"
—Harper's "Book of Facts."
Spectacles and Glasses.—If you find it difficult to read, or your eyes become weak and tired, the chances are you need proper glasses. Don't attempt to fit them to yourself. Employ a first-class optician or oculist, the latter if the trouble appears to be serious.
Sporting, Speed, and Other Records
The following records are compiled from the latest and best authorities:
Airship Records: Highest altitude reached, 17,881 feet; longest non-stop flight, 635-5/8 miles in 13 hours, 22 minutes; longest time in the air, 16-1/2 hours.
Automobile Records: 1 mile, 25.40 s.; 2 miles, 51.28 s.; 5 miles, 2 m., 34 s.; 50 miles, 35m., 52-1/2 s.; 100 miles, 1h., 12 m., 41 1-5 s.; 300 miles, 3 h., 53 m., 33-1/2 s.; 500 miles, 6 h., 21 m., 6 3-10 s.
Baseball: Baseball became the National Game in 1885, although it was played to some extent as early as 1840. The first baseball club was known as the New York Knickerbockers, which was organized in 1845, and the first match game was played at Hoboken, N. J., in 1846. The first rules governing baseball were made in New York City, in 1857, and the National Baseball League was formed in New York City during the same year. The first champion team was that of New York, in 1858, but it was not until 1868 that a salaried team was in existence. The National League was formed in 1876, and the American League in 1881. The largest attendance at a baseball match was in New York, Oct. 17, 1911, at which time 38,281 people were present.
Billiards: Straight rail, 5 × 10 table, best run, 1,535 points, made by Maurice Vignaux in Paris; straight rail, 4-1/2 × 9 table, best run, 3,000 points, Jake Schaefer in San Francisco; 14-inch balk line, anchor in, best run, 566, Jake Schaefer in New York; 14-inch balk line, anchor barred, best run, 359, Frank Ives in Chicago; 18-inch balk line, best run, 200, Frank Ives in New York; 18-inch balk line, best average, 50, Frank Ives in New York; 18-inch balk line (no shot in), best run, 111, Jake Schaefer in Chicago; 18-inch balk line (no shot in), best average, 19 3-13, Frank Ives in Chicago; high run, 18.2 balk line, 1,009 single inning, W. W. Spink in Los Angeles.
Bowling: Individual three-game score, Thomas Hally, Detroit, 705.
Endurance Records: Relay Race, Young Men's Christian Association boys carried message from New York to Chicago; time, 118 h., 35 m.; distance, 1,200 miles. (Run suspended during Sunday, July 19.)
5,100 miles, go as you please, 51 miles per day for 100 days, track 44 laps to mile, George D. Noremac, New York.
4,000 quarter-miles in 4,000 periods of 10 minutes (walking a quarter-mile at the commencement of and within each consecutive 10 minutes), performed twice by William Gales, at Cardiff, and at London, England.
1,000 miles in 1,000 consecutive hours, walking 1 mile each hour, by Charles F. Morse, at Jackson, Mich., starting at 1 P. M., Jan. 11, 1897, and ending at 4 A. M., Feb. 22, 1897, track 39 laps to mile.
Greatest distance walked without a rest, 121 miles, 385 yds., by C. A. Harriman, California.
Walk from Atlantic to Pacific Ocean: John Ennis started with a plunge in the surf at Coney Island, N. Y., Monday, May 23, 1910, and arrived at the Cliff Hotel, San Francisco, August 24, 1910, and took a plunge in the Weston's time by 25 days. Ennis, like Weston, did not walk on Sundays.
Hammer Throwing: 8 lb. hammer, 210 ft., 3 in., W. L. Condon, Maryland; 10 lb. hammer, 140 ft., 2 in., W. L. Condon, Maryland.
Hurdle Racing,—Amateur: 40 yds., 2 ft., 6 in., = 5 sec., Forest Smithson, Indiana; F. Fletcher, Indiana; T. N. Richards, Indiana; 50 yds., 3 high hurdles (indoors), = 6 1-5 s., Forest Smithson, Portland, Ore.; 75 yds., low hurdles, 2 ft., 6 in. = 9 1-5 s., John J. Eller, New York.
Jumping,—Amateur: Standing, without weights, 11 ft., 4-7/8 in., Ray C. Ewry, St. Louis; running high jump, without weights, 6 ft., 7 in., George Horine, California.
Jumping,—Professional: Standing high jump, with weights, 6 ft., 5-1/2 in., J. Darby, England; running high jump, without weights, 6 ft., 1 in., M. F. Sweeney.
Marathon Team Race: 26 miles, 385 yds., 2 h., 2 m., 16 1-5 s., Hans Holmer and William Queal, New York.
Motor Cycle Records: 1 mile, 36 4-5 s.; 10 miles, 6 m., 21 4-5 s.; 100 miles, 1 h., 15 m., 24 2-5 s.
Ocean Records.: From Queenstown to New York, S. S. "Mauretania," 4 days, 10 hours, 41 minutes. The fastest day run was made by the same ship, 676 knots, or a little over 27 knots per hour.
Pole Vaulting,—Amateur: Pole vault for height, 13 ft., 2-1/4 in., Mark S. Wright, New York; 13 ft., 1 in., Robert A. Gardner, Philadelphia. For boys, 12 ft., 1/2 in., Roy Mercer, Philadelphia.
Pole Vaulting,—Professional: 11 ft., 7 in., M. H. Dickinson, England.
Running Records,—Professional: 20 yds., 2 1-5 s., R. P. Williams, New London, Conn.; 50 yds., 5 1-5 s., R. P. Williams, New London, Conn.; 100 yds., 9 1-5 s., R. P. Williams, New London, Conn.; 1,000 yds., 2 m. 17 s., W. Cummings, England; 1 mile, 4 m. 12-3/4 s., W. G. George, England; 100 miles, 13 h. 26 m. 30 s., Charles Rowell, New York.
Running Records,—Amateur: 20 yds., 2 4-5 s., E. B. Bloss, Roxbury, Mass.; 25 yds., 3 s., Jack Connolly, Boston; 35 yds., 4 s., Arthur Duffy, Baltimore; 40 yds., 4 2-5 s., (indoors), W. D. Eaton, Boston; Doc Thorney, Madison, Wis., 4 1-5 s.; 50 yds., 5 1-5 s., (indoors), Forline, St. Louis; 50 yds., 5 1-5 s., J. H. Maybury, Wisconsin University; 50 yds., on grass, 5 2-5 s., A. D. Duffey, N. Z.; 60 yds., on grass, 6 2-5 s., A. F. Duffey, Australia; 60 yds. indoors, 6 1-5 s., Charles E. Seitz, Washington; 100 yds, 9 3-5 s., A. F. Duffey, New; York.
Running Distance,—Amateur: 1 mile, 4 m., 15 2-5 s., John P. Jones, Cambridge, Mass.; 2 miles, 9 m., 9 3-5 s., Alfred Shrubb, Scotland; 3 miles, 14 m., 17 3-5 s., Alfred Shrubb, England; 4 miles, 19 m., 23 2-5 s., Alfred Shrubb, Scotland.
Shot Putting,—Amateur: Putting 8 lb. shot, 67 ft. 7 in., Ralph Rose, New York; putting 12 lb. shot, 57 ft. 3 in., Ralph Rose, New York; putting 20 lb. shot, 38 ft. 7-1/2 in., G. R. Gray, New York.
Shot Putting,—Professional: Putting 12 lb. shot, 50 ft. 1/2 in., J. D. McPherson; putting 20 lb. shot, 40 ft. 11-1/4 in., J. D. McPherson.
Skating,—Amateur: 50 yds., 5 2-5 s., Morris Wood, Pittsburgh; 100 yds., standing start, 8 3-5 s., J. S. Johnson, Minneapolis; 300 yds., 31 2-5 s., G. D. Phillips, New York; 1 mile, 2 m. 36 s., Johnny Neilson; 5 miles, 14 m. 24 s., O. Rudd, Minneapolis; 10 miles, 31 m. 11 1-5 s., J. S. Johnson, Montreal; 25 miles, 1 h. 31 m. 29 s.; 50 miles, 3 h. 15 m. 59 3-5 s.; 75 miles, 5 h. 19 m. 16 4-5 s.; 100 miles, 7 h. 11 m. 38 1-5 s.—all made by J. F. Donoghue, Stamford, Conn.
Skating,—Professional: 1/4 mile, against time; flying start, straightaway, 28-1/2 s., John S. Johnson, Minnesota; 1/2 mile, indoor track, 1 m., 16 4-5 s., W. Rankin, Cleveland; 1 mile, indoors, 2 m., 48-3/4 s., John Nilsson, Pittsburgh; 5 miles, 14 m., 47 1-5 s., John Nilsson, Montreal.
Swimming: 40 yards, 18 s. (exhibition), Dick Cavill, Portland, Ore.; 100 yds., 1 m., 1-1/2 s., J. Nuttall, Stalybridge, England; 150 yds., 1 m., 39 s., D. Billington, Swinton, England; 200 yds., 2 m., 18-1/2 s., D. Billington, in England; 300 yds., 3 m., 32 1-5 s., D. Billington, in England; 500 yds., 6 m., 6 s., D. Billington, in England; 1,000 yds., 12 m., 45 s., D. Billington, in England; 3/4 mile, 17 m., 36 2-5 s., David Billington, Sydney, N. S. W.; 1 mile, 26 m., 8 s., J. Nuttall, in England; 20-3/8 miles, 5 h., 51 m., Fred Cavill, River Thames, London; 34 miles, 9 h., 39 m., J. Wolfe, Herne Bay, England; 35 miles, 21 h., 45 m., Capt. Matthew Webb, Dover, England to Calais; 40 miles, 9 h., 57 m., Capt. Matthew Webb, with tide, River Thames, England; 74 miles, 84 h., Capt. Webb (restricted to 14 hours a day), Lambeth Baths, England. T. W. Burgess swam English channel, Dover to Cape Grisnez, in 22 h., 35 m.
Swimming (Women): Longest time under water, 4 m., 45-1/2 s., Miss E. Wallenda, England; at Barnley Baths, Scotland, Miss Ethel Mackay swam 200 yds. in 2 m., 57 1-5 s.; 50 yds., 31 s., by Miss Fanny Durack, New Zealand; 80 yds., 56-1/2 s., by Miss Elba Whittaker, Milwaukee, Wis.; 100 yds., 1 m., 6 s., by Miss Fanny Durack, New Zealand; 100 yds., back stroke, 1 m., 26 s., Miss Elba Whittaker, Milwaukee; 200 yds., 2 m., 51 s., Miss Vera Neave, London; 300 yds., 4 m., 31 1-5 s., Miss Vera Neave, London; Miss Daisy Curwen, in England; 1 mile, 32 m., 8 1-5 s., Miss Mabel Fletcher, in England; open water, 31 m., 41 4-5 s., Miss Vera Neave, Jersey, England.
Trotting Records: 1/4 mile, 28-3/4 seconds,—Lou Dillon, Brighton Beach, N. Y., Aug. 17, 1903; 1/2 mile, 58-3/4 s.,—Lou Dillon, Cleveland, O., Sept. 17, 1904; 1 mile, 1 m., 58 s.,—Uhlan (with wind shield) Lexington, Ky., Oct. 8, 1912; 2 miles, 4 m., 15-1/4 s.,—The Harvester, Lexington, Ky.; Oct. 13, 1910; 3 miles, 6 m., 55-1/2 s.,—Nightingale, 8 yrs. old, Nashville, Tenn., Oct. 20, 1893; 4 miles, 9 m., 42 s.,—Baron Rogers, Moscow, Russia, 1899; 5 miles, 12 m., 24 s.,—Zambra, 1902; 10 miles, 26 m., 15 s.,—Pascal, New York, Nov. 2, 1893; 20 miles, 58 m., 25 s.,—Captain McGowan, Boston, Oct. 31, 1865; 50 miles, 3 h., 55 m., 40-1/2 s.,—Ariel, brown mare, May 5, 1846, Albany, N. Y. The fastest mare made 1 mile in 1 m., 58-1/2 s.,; the fastest gelding, a mile in 1 m., 58 s.; the fastest stallion, 1 mile in 2 m., 1 s.
Walking Records,—Amateur: 75 yds., 11 4-5 seconds, Harry Fitzpatrick, New Orleans; 1/4 mile, 1 m., 22 1-5 s.; 1/2 mile, 3 m., F. H. Creamer, New Zealand; 1 mile, 6 m., 22 4-5 s., W. Murray, Australia.
Walking Records,—Professional: 1/4 mile, 1 m., 26 s., 1/2 mile, 3 m., 1/2 s.; 1 mile, 6 m., 22-1/2 s., M. H. Donovan, Westport, N. Y.; 2 miles, 13 m., 14 s., H. W. Raby, in England; 5 miles, 35 m., 10 s., J. W. Raby, in England; 10 miles, 1 h., 14 m., 45 s., J. W. Raby, in England; 25 miles, 3 h., 35 m., 14 s., W. Franks, in England; 100 miles, 18 h., 4 m., W. A. Hoagland, in New York.
Standard Time
Until 1883, each city or district maintained its own time, usually accepting what is known as True Time. This condition caused complications. For example: Many railroad-station clocks either gave two times, or else there were separate clocks for each time, some of the trains leaving the station on what was know as New York time, while others left on local time. Banks and business houses closed on either of the times. There was no standard and no agreement.
In 1883, Standard Time was established.
The First Section was known as the Eastern, and covered all territory between the Atlantic Coast and a line drawn from Detroit, Michigan, to Charleston, South Carolina.
The Central Section included everything between the Detroit-Charleston line, and a line drawn from Bismarck, North Dakota, to the mouth of the Rio Grande River.
The Third Section, known as "Mountain Time," included the territory between the Bismarck-Rio Grande line and the western borders of Idaho, Utah, and Arizona.
The Pacific Time Section embraced everything west of the Mountain Time line, up to and including the Pacific coast.
There is a difference of just one hour between the sections. When it is 12 o'clock at Boston, Mass., or at New York City, it is 11 o'clock at Chicago, and at San Francisco 9 o'clock.
The changing from so-called Local or True Time to Standard Time required clocks at Boston to be set back 16 minutes; New York clocks to be set back 4 minutes; Detroit clocks to be set back 28 minutes; St. Louis clocks to be moved ahead one minute; and San Francisco clocks to be set ahead ten minutes.
Standard Time has been accepted by every State and by practically every city, although a very few cities and towns unprogressively hold to the former or True Time. The Canadian Pacific Railroad, which has the longest mileage of any railroad in the world, is run on what is known as the 24-Hour Time; that is, the faces of its clocks, instead of bearing the figures 1 to 12, run from 1 to 24 inclusive. The time-tables are rather confusing, as trains are billed to arrive and depart at 13:10, 16:14, 23:30, etc. This system appears to have only one advantage,—that it eliminates the use of A. M. and P. M. It is possible that it will be accepted elsewhere, and even generally, but not for the present.
Star Chamber.—A tribunal, made up of a committee of the King's Privy Council, instituted or revived in 1486. It was supposed to have almost unlimited powers and to be exempt from any rules or law. It had the right to inflict any form of punishment except death. The term is now applied to assemblies or committees or others who conduct their investigations and decide upon questions in secret.
Stars, Their Number
The number of visible stars is as follows:
19 stars of the first magnitude
59 " " " second "
182 " " " third "
530 " " " fourth "
1,600 " " " fifth "
4,800 " " " sixth "
13,000 " " " seventh "
40,000 " " " eighth "
100,000 " " " ninth "
400,000 " " " tenth "
1,000,000 " " " eleventh "
3,000,000 " " " twelfth "
10,000,000 " " " thirteenth "
30,000,000 " " " fourteenth "
56,000,000 " " " fifteenth "
100,560,190
Star-Spangled Banner.—The national song of the United States. Composed by Francis Scott Key on the night of September 13, 1814. "The cartel-ship Minden was anchored in sight of Fort McHenry, and from her deck Key saw, during the night of 13 Sept., 1814, the bombardment of that fortress. It was during the excitement of this attack, and while pacing the deck of the Minden with intense anxiety between midnight and dawn, that Key composed the song. It was first written on the back of a letter, and after his return to Baltimore copied out in full."—Harper's "Book of Facts."
Statistics of Population—United States, by States
Population of Continental United States, by Divisions and States, 1900 and 1910, and Rank in Population
Geographic Division and State Population Rank in Population
1900 1910 1900 1910
Continental United States 91,972,266 75,994,575 .... ....
Geographic divisions:
New England 6,552,681 5,592,017 VII VII
Middle Atlantic 19,315,892 15,454,678 I II
East North Central 18,250,621 15,985,581 II I
West North Central 11,637,921 10,347,423 IV IV
South Atlantic 12,194,895 10,443,480 III III
East South Central 8,409,901 7,547,757 VI V
West South Central 8,784,534 6,532,290 V VI
Mountain 2,633,517 1,674,657 IX IX
Pacific 4,192,304 2,416,692 VIII VIII
New England:
Maine 742,371 694,466 34 31
New Hampshire 430,572 411,588 39 37
Vermont 355,956 343,641 42 39
Massachusetts 3,366,416 2,805,346 6 7
Rhode Island 542,610 428,556 38 35
Connecticut 1,114,756 908,420 31 29
Middle Atlantic:
New York 9,113,614 7,268,894 1 1
New Jersey 2,537,167 1,883,669 11 16
Pennsylvania 7,665,111 6,302,115 2 2
East North Central:
Ohio 4,767,121 4,157,545 4 4
Indiana 2,700,876 2,516,462 9 8
Illinois 5,638,591 4,821,550 3 3
Michigan 2,810,173 2,420,982 8 9
Wisconsin 2,333,860 2,069,042 13 13
West North Central:
Minnesota 2,075,708 1,751,394 19 19
Iowa 2,224,771 2,231,853 15 10
Missouri 3,293,335 3,106,665 7 5
North Dakota 577,056 319,146 37 40
South Dakota 583,888 401,570 36 38
Nebraska 1,192,214 1,066,300 29 27
Kansas 1,690,949 1,470,495 22 22
South Atlantic:
Delaware 202,322 184,735 47 45
Maryland 1,295,346 1,188,044 27 26
District of Columbia 331,069 278,718 43 41
Virginia 2,061,612 1,854,184 20 17
West Virginia 1,221,119 958,800 28 28
North Carolina 2,206,287 1,893,810 16 15
South Carolina 1,515,400 1,340,316 26 24
Georgia 2,609,121 2,216,331 10 11
Florida 752,619 528,542 33 33
East South Central:
Kentucky 2,289,905 2,147,174 14 12
Tennessee 2,184,789 2,020,616 17 14
Alabama 2,138,093 1,828,697 18 18
Mississippi 1,797,114 1,551,270 21 20
West South Central:
Arkansas 1,574,449 1,311,564 25 25
Louisiana 1,656,388 1,381,625 24 23
Oklahoma 1,657,155 790,391 23 30
Texas 3,896,542 3,048,710 5 6
Mountain:
Montana 376,053 243,329 40 43
Idaho 325,594 161,772 45 46
Wyoming 145,965 92,531 48 48
Colorado 799,024 539,700 32 32
New Mexico 327,301 195,310 44 44
Arizona 204,354 122,931 46 47
Utah 373,351 276,749 41 42
Nevada 81,875 42,335 49 49
Pacific:
Washington 1,141,990 518,103 30 34
Oregon 672,765 413,536 35 36
California 2,377,549 1,485,053 12 21
Stature and Weights
There have appeared in public print, several tables, which, the compilers claim, are based upon Greek and other measurements. It is probable that few of these tables are authentic, and many of them are, undoubtedly, incorrect. The following table is compiled by Jay W. Seaver, M. D., for 20 years professor at Yale University, and is as nearly correct as possibility would admit. Dr. Seaver, however, does not claim absolute correctness. The second and third tables given are used quite generally in civil service examinations by local, state, and national governments, and apply largely to those seeking positions on the police force or the fire department
Height Males—Weight, Females—Weight,
Feet Fat Normal Fat Normal
5 136 112 122 102
5.1 141 116 128 106
5.2 146 120 134 109
5.3 152 125 140 113
5.4 160 130 145 117
5.5 167 135 151 121
5.6 175 138 154 125
5.7 182 140 157 130
5.8 189 143 160 135
5.9 196 150 169 140
5.1O 203 155 173 145
5.11 210 160 179 150
6 216 165 185 155
6.1 221 170 187 160
6.2 226 175 196 166
6.3 231 180 205 171
Minimum circumference of the Chest tolerable in applicants.
Height Circumference of Chest Height Circumference of Chest
Feet Inches Inches Feet Inches Inches
5 6 32-1/2 5 11 35-1/2
5 7 33 6 .. 36
5 7-1/2 33-1/2 6 1 36-1/2
5 8 34 6 2 37
5 9 34-1/2 6 3 37-1/4
5 10 35 6 4 38
The stature shall not be below 5 ft. 6 in., nor the weight below that marked as its minimum accompaniment in the subjoined table.
Height Min. Pounds Average Pounds Max. Weight Pounds
Feet Inches
5 6 136 143 180
7 138 146 187
5 8 140 148 195
5 9 145 155 202
5 10 150 160 210
5 11 155 165 217
6 .. 160 170 225
6 1 165 175 233
6 2 170 180 240
6 3 175 185 248
Steam Engine.—The principle of the steam engine is very simple. Stripped of all technicality, it may be described as follows: Take a can with a height somewhat longer than its width, and close up both ends. Make a hole in the center of one of the ends large enough for the insertion of a rod about the diameter of a small poker. Fasten one end of this rod to the center of a disc which will fit closely into the can. Insert this disc in the can with the poker passing through the hole. The whole apparatus will be similar to that of a churn. Bore two holes in the sides of the can, at top and bottom. Allow steam to pass into the can through the first hole, which will force the disc to the other end of the can, and draw the poker with it. Then, introduce steam through the other hole. This will drive the disc to the other end of the can, and at the same time the steam entering the first hole will pass out. This gives a motion to the poker rod, which continues so long as steam is forced in and out. The rod, is, of course, connected with a crank which works on a shaft, and from this shaft power is transmitted. The steam is let into the cylinder automatically. A fly wheel is maintained where there is not more than one cylinder, and even where there is more than one, so as to create momentum, which carries the crank beyond its dead center. The modern steam engine makes from 100 to even 1,000 revolutions a minute. Its power is measured by its capacity to equal that of one or several horses, and is known as horse-power. Steam engines are made with a capacity of only a small fraction of horse-power, and up to several thousand. But usually, where great power is required, more than one cylinder is used, all of them working upon the same shaft The so-called turbine steam engine is similar to the ordinary turbine water wheel, except that steam, instead of water, is forced against it. See "Turbines."
Strikes.—The strike is an agreement upon the part of workmen to refuse to work until their demands are accepted. The first strike in the United States took place in New York City, in 1803, and was confined to sailors. In 1888, there were 697 strikes, involving over 210,000 employees. In 1886, the number of strikes increased 52 per cent., and in 1888 the increase was 22 per cent. In the early days nearly half of the strikes were in Pennsylvania. The great coal strike of 1902 was probably the most disastrous and largest strike on record. It involved about 150,000 men, with a loss of wages of nearly $40,000,000.
Sub Rosa.—The term "under the rose" implies secrecy. It had its origin B. C. 477, when Pausanias, commander of the fleet of Spartans and Athenians, was intriguing with Xerxes for the subjugation of Greece to Persia and for the hand of the king's daughter in marriage. The business was transacted in the "Brazen House," the roof of which was a garden making a bower of roses. Hence the term Sub Rosa.
Sugar Industry.—The United States consumes each year nearly 3,500,000 tons of sugar, or about 80 pounds per capita.
Sunday Schools.—The Sunday Schools of the United States have a membership of about 15,500,000, including teachers. The Sunday School membership of England and Wales is over 7,000,000. Connected with the Sunday Schools of the world are about 2,650,000 teachers and 26,500,000 scholars.
Talking Machines.—The talking machine, known by several names, including the phonograph, was originally invented by Edison. Unscientifically speaking, it consists of a disc similar to that used in the telephone, with a needle or point attached to the center of the underside of it. This needle or point fits into circular or cylindrical grooves, which are covered with tin foil or other malleable substance.
The vibrations of the voice or of music, which reach the disc, cause this needle or point to rise or fall, producing impressions upon the tin foil or other substance. After the record has been made, duplicates are produced in a substance largely made of rubber, which is placed on a rotary disc or cylinder that is turned automatically, the needle or point attached to the disc working into the grooves and rising with or following the impressions, which cause the plate or disc to vibrate. The process is wholly mechanical, and electricity is not used.
Tariff.—This word, meaning a schedule of duties on merchandise, imported or exported, is said to come from Tarifa, a town in Southern Spain, on the Mediterranean Sea, where duties were once levied by the Moors on all ships passing in or out of the Straits of Gibraltar.
Telegraph.—The conception of the telegraph came to Professor Morse, in 1832, while he was making a voyage from Europe to America, and he at once began his experiments, which resulted in what may be considered one of the two greatest inventions or discoveries. After waiting about eight years, Congress reluctantly appropriated a sum sufficient to build a telegraph line between Washington and Baltimore. The original conception of telegraphy belongs wholly to Professor Morse, but since its invention other scientists have invented improvements, including an apparatus which allows the sending of two messages each way, or four messages in all, over the same wire at the same time. The telegraphic code or alphabet, originally invented by Morse, remains practically intact. It consists of dots and dashes, and may be learned in a few hours, although expertness requires a year or more of practice. Unscientifically speaking, the telegraphic apparatus is extremely simple: it consists primarily of a piece of soft iron around which is wound several strands of insulated wire. During the time that electricity is passing through this wire, the soft iron becomes a magnet, but returns to its nonmagnetic character when electricity is not passing around it. A battery is used for the generating of electricity. The operator turns electricity into the wire by pressing a key. When the key is down, the electricity passes around the piece of soft iron and makes of it a magnet, which will draw iron or steel to it, the same as does any ordinary permanent magnet. Just above the end of the soft iron is placed a piece of metal, and as the key is pressed letting in the electricity, the iron (then a magnet) draws this metal to it, producing a slight sound or click. This piece of iron is held by a spring, and springs back into place when electricity is let out of the insulated wire surrounding the soft iron. If a message is to be sent a long distance, a relay is used so as to turn into the wire additional currents of electricity, because electricity loses some of its strength if carried over a very long wire, and a relay adds new or fresh currents from separate batteries. In this way, a message can be sent continuously for several thousand miles, which would be impossible without the use of relays. The process of sending several messages at the same time over the same wire is somewhat complicated. The result is obtained by using currents of electricity of different intensity, the currents not interfering with each other. The ocean cables are described under another heading.
Telephone.—The telephone is supposed to have been invented by Professor A. G. Bell, in 1875, but scientists recognize the probable invention of it, largely in theory, by the eminent scientists Dolbear, Gray, Edison, and possibly others. It is exceedingly difficult to describe, other than scientifically, the working of the telephone; and it cannot be done perfectly until electricity is fully understood. We know the result, but are not able to locate all of the causes. The original telephone consisted of a bar of magnetized steel of about the circumference of an ordinary poker, a few inches in length, around which was wound insulated wire. At one end of the magnet, and close to it, was placed a metallic disc about twice the circumference of a silver dollar and of the thickness of thin tin. Originally the same instrument was used both for sending and for receiving. Any sound, including the human voice, brought in direct contact with the disc, caused it to vibrate, and for some unknown reason these vibrations were transmitted through the magnet, and by the wires carried to another similar instrument. The sounds and voice were carried a short distance without the use of a battery, and the early telephones had ground circuits; that is, there was only one wire between the stations, the other wire being grounded by being attached to gas or other pipes, the electricity making half the circuit through the earth. Later on a battery was used, which increased the sending distances, but the ground wire remained for some time. The present telephone consists of the original telephone as a receiver, but with a transmitter into which the sender speaks his words. The mechanism of the transmitter is complicated and cannot be described except scientifically. Its use allows one to talk long distances, even to the extent of 2,000 miles. Non-technically speaking, then, the telephone consists of a magnet, insulated wire, and a disc, the vibration upon the disc being transmitted over the wire from the sending to the receiving station, electricity being used for conveying the vibrations or sound.
Eight billion, four hundred thousand and twenty-seven million conversations were held in this country last year over the wires of the American Telephone and Telegraph Co., according to its annual report. The daily average was 26,310,000. The company now has telephone stations in 70,000 cities, towns, and hamlets, which is 5,000 more than the number of postoffices in the country, and 10,000 more than the number of railroad stations. Altogether there were 7,456,074 telephone stations of the company at the end of 1912.
Ten Great Religions.—James Freeman Clarke, in his book "Ten Great Religions," gives the following as the ten most important faiths of ancient and modern times:
Confucianism.
Brahmanism.
Buddhism.
Zoroastrianism.
Religion of Egypt.
Religion of Greece and Rome.
Teutonic and Scandinavian Religion.
Judaism.
Christianity.
Islâm.
Théâtre Français.—The most famous theatre in Paris, and, perhaps, in the world. It is situated in the Place du Palais Royal, and is the home of the Comédie Française. In 1900 it was destroyed by fire, but immediately rebuilt. The original building was erected in 1782, but was later much altered.
Thunder.—The sound of thunder is produced by the sudden rush of the air into the vacuum caused by the rapid passage of lightning through the air.
Ticket-of-Leave.—The English Government in 1854 issued a permit which allowed a convict his liberty before the expiration of his term. It was necessary for him to report to the police at stated times, and, if he committed any crime, his ticket-of-leave was recalled. The ticket-of-leave is similar to probation granted in the United States.
Time Difference.—When it is 12 o'clock noon in New York City, it is 5:13 in Antwerp; about 5:49 in Berlin; about 5:13 in Brussels; about 1:02 in Buenos Ayres; about 10:49 in Calcutta; about 6:53 in Constantinople; about 4:30 in Dublin; about 4:34 in Liverpool; about 4:56 in London; about 5:05 in Paris; about 5:46 in Rome; about 6:57 in St. Petersburg. When it is 12 o'clock noon in New York City, it is 33-1/2 minutes earlier in Havana; about 11 hours and 28 minutes earlier in Hong Kong; about 9 hours and 24 minutes earlier in Melbourne; about 9 hours and 45-1/2 minutes earlier in Yokohama.
Tobacco Industry.—The United States grows about 905,000,000 pounds of tobacco a year, and over a million acres are used for growing tobacco. The value of the tobacco grown each year is about $85,000,000.
To Estimate the Weight of Hay.—Find the length, breadth, and depth of the hay, in feet, and multiply these three dimensions together; if the hay is on the wagon or newly stored, divide the product by 540; but if it is well settled in the mow or stack, divide by 512. If the hay is baled, 270 cubic feet will weigh a ton. The number of cubic feet in a circular stack is found by multiplying the average circumference in yards by itself and this product by four times the height of the stack in yards; then point off the two right-hand figures and multiply the result by 27.
To Find Length of Day or Night.—At any time of the year add 12 hours to the time of the sun's setting, and from the sum subtract the time of rising for the length of the day. Subtract the time of setting from 12 hours, and to the remainder add the time of rising next morning for the length of the night. These rules are equally true for apparent time.
To Measure Corn in the Crib.—Find the length, breadth, and depth of the corn, in feet, and multiply these three dimensions together; this product multiplied by .63 will give the number of heaped bushels in the ear. Sometimes one and one-half bushels of ears make a bushel of shelled corn, and sometimes it requires two bushels, the amount required depending upon the size of the cob, shape of the ear, etc.
Tom Thumb.—Tom Thumb was probably the most famous dwarf in the world, not because of the absence of others of the same height, or less, but because he was exploited by the late P. T. Barnum. Tom Thumb, whose real name was Charles S. Stratton, was born in 1838, and died in 1883. In 1842 he was two feet in height and weighed sixteen pounds. In 1863 his height increased to thirty-one inches, and later to forty inches.
To Produce Different Colors.—The color printed in italics may be made by mixing the other two colors. Purple, red with light blue. Brown, red with black. Rose, lake with white. Drab, umber with white. Chestnut, white with brown. Chocolate, yellow with brown. Flesh Color, carmine with straw. Pearl, blue with lead color. Pink, carmine with white. Silver Gray, lamp black with indigo. Lead Color, lamp black with white. Bright Green, Paris green with white. Buff, yellow ochre with white. French White, white tinted with purple. Dark Green, black with chrome green. Brilliant Green, emerald green with white. Pea Green, chrome green with white. Orange, vermillion with chrome yellow. Straw Color, chrome yellow with white lead. Cream Color, white tinted with red and yellow. Ashes of Roses, white with tints of black and purple. French Gray, white tinted with black and purple. Olive, chrome yellow, blue, and black with red.
Trade Unions.—The trade union, although supposed to be of modern origin, was established as early as 1548. Mythical history which, of course, cannot be authenticated, indicates the possibility of an organization of working men at the time of the building of Solomon's temple. During the last several years, trade unionism has grown to enormous proportions, and practically every vocation has its union or organization. The right to organize is self-evident, so long as it does not restrain trade or interfere with personal rights. The employee and employer certainly have legal and moral rights to do as they please, provided they do not interfere with legal or moral law, and do not use coercion. Moral influence, however, cannot be criticised. The maintenance of a well-organized labor union is to the advantage of both capital and labor, and should be encouraged. Naturally, the binding together of laborers or workmen, and that of capital, causes some abuses, for humanity, as it runs, is not always fair; but one should not criticise either side without criticising the other. Both have their advantages and disadvantages, both are fair and unfair. As civilization progresses, the mistakes and abuses will be corrected, and organized labor and capital will work in harmony.
Trusts.—A trust is an association of capitalists, organized for the purpose of controlling any one trade or trades. It is illegal and may be punished by imprisonment or fine. It is exceedingly difficult, however, to discover whether or not an organization is in actual restraint of trade, and to prosecute a combination. Undoubtedly trusts exist in America, and all over the world for that matter, and are illegal. Great effort is being made to disband them, but so far has very little real effect, for most of the trusts which are disorganized by law continue in some other form.
Turbines.—The turbine has largely taken the place of the water wheel, because it is more compact, produces greater energy, and is more powerful. It is, untechnically speaking, a box containing a series of fanlike blades set at an angle, so that water or steam brought against them will make them turn.
Type.—Movable metallic type was invented by Gutenberg, of Germany, about 1450. Before this time, all books and papers were either hand-written or printed from engraved wooden blocks. To-day there are over 50,000 faces and sizes of type. Type is divided into three great classes: (1) Roman or body type, which is used for the reading matter in newspapers, magazines, and books; (2) display type, which appears in headings, and is used for circulars and the like; and (3) ornamental type, which has a fancy face. The different sizes of type formerly bore arbitrary names, like Nonpareil, Pica, etc., but now all type is under the point system, Nonpareil being known as 6 Point and Pica as 12 Point. The reading matter in all large daily newspapers is set in 6 Point, but most books are printed from either 10, 11, or 12 Point. Twelve Point type has twice the depth of 6 Point type. Type to be set is placed in two cases, one known as upper case and the other as lower case, the former holding capitals and small capitals; the latter small letters and figures, both cases containing boxes for spaces and other characters. The compositor holds in his left hand what is known as a composing stick, or stick. It is made of metal, with a bottom and three sides, the left side being movable and adjustable. The compositor places one piece of type at a time in the stick, setting the type from left to right and upside down. He places metal spaces between each word. When a line is completed, he sets another, with or without a piece of thin metal between the lines, known as a lead. When the stick is full, he dumps his type into a galley, which is a receptacle made of wood or metal, from one to three feet long, framed at the bottom and at the sides, but open at the other end. The type is then locked up in a steel frame or chase, and is ready to be stereotyped, electrotyped, or to be printed from.
United States Flag.—On June 14, 1777, the United States Congress declared "that the flag of the thirteen United States be thirteen stripes, alternate red and white; that the Union be thirteen stars, white in a blue field, representing the new constellation." In 1794 Congress decreed that after May 1st, 1795, "The flag of the United States be fifteen stripes, alternate red and white, and that the Union be fifteen stars, white in a blue field." At that time the stars and stripes were of equal number, and it was the intention to add both a star and stripe with the addition of each new State. Subsequently, it was found that the addition of a stripe for each new State would produce a flag altogether too large. Accordingly, Congress, on April 4th, 1818, reduced the number of stripes to thirteen and made the number of stars twenty, that being the number of States at that time. It was further enacted that a new star should be added as each new State was admitted into the Union. By act of Congress, the flag has become a sacred emblem, and cannot be used for other than decorative or patriotic purposes, and cannot serve as a part of an advertisement or other announcement.
United States History in Brief
1492, August 3, Columbus sailed from Palos, Spain.
1492, October 12, Columbus discovered America.
1607, May 13, the English made first permanent settlement at Jamestown, Virginia.
1609, September 11, Henry Hudson, commanding the "Half Moon," sailed into New York Harbor.
1620, November 11, the "Mayflower," containing the Pilgrims, arrived at Provincetown, Massachusetts.
1620, December 22, the "Mayflower" landed at Plymouth Rock, Plymouth, Massachusetts.
1690, September 25, the first American newspaper was published at Boston, Massachusetts.
1732, February 22, George Washington, first President of the Republic, was born.
1743, April 13, Thomas Jefferson was born.
1765, March 22, Passage of the Stamp Act.
1767, March 15, Andrew Jackson born.
1770, March 5, massacre and riot in the streets of Boston, Massachusetts.
1773, December 16, the famous Boston Tea party was organized.
1775, April 18, the ride of Paul Revere, warning inhabitants of the coming battles of Lexington and Concord, Massachusetts.
1775, April 19, the battle of Lexington and Concord, Massachusetts.
1775, May 20, the first Declaration of Independence was signed at Mecklenburg, North Carolina.
1775, June 17, Battle of Bunker Hill, at Charlestown, Massachusetts.
1776, March 17, the British evacuated Boston.
1776, June 17, George Washington was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the American forces.
1776, July 4, The Declaration of Independence was formally signed at Philadelphia.
1776, August 27, Battle of Long Island.
1776, December 26, Battle of Trenton.
1781, October 19, Cornwallis surrendered his army, at Yorktown, Virginia.
1783, January 20, the United States and Great Britain agreed upon secession of hostilities.
1783, November 25, New York was evacuated by the British.
1789, April 30, George Washington was inaugurated first President of the United States.
1790, June 28, Washington, District of Columbia, was made the Capital of the United States.
1791, August 30, Issue of the first United States patent.
1792, April 2, United States Mint established at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
1793, September 18, Laying of the corner stone of the capitol, at Washington, District of Columbia.
1784, May 8, Congress established the Post-Office Department.
1796, September 17, President Washington issued his Farewell Address.
1799, December 14, death of President Washington.
1807, January 19, birth of General Robert E. Lee.
1807, August 11, first trial trip of a steamboat, by Robert Fulton, its inventor, on the Hudson River.
1809, February 12, birth of Abraham Lincoln.
1813, September 10, Perry's victory on Lake Erie.
1815, January 8, Battle of New Orleans.
1816, December 13, establishment, at Boston, Massachusetts, of the first Savings Bank in the United States.
1819, May 22, the first steam vessel to cross the Atlantic Ocean sailed from Atlanta, Georgia.
1844, May 27, first telegraph message sent by Professor Morse, the inventor of telegraphy.
1846, April 23, beginning of the Mexican War.
1847, February 22, Battle of Buena Vista.
1847, September 14, capture of the city of Mexico by the United States Army.
1851, August 27, the Yacht "America" won the international cup race, at Cowes, England.
1858, August 16, the Old World and the New World connected by telegraphic cable.