LETTER II. (continued 3)

Now, as to the first Invention of Things, I shall consider these three principal Causes: |Arts how first Invented.| First, Necessity is said to have been the Mother of Invention, by reason it puts Mens Minds upon thinking how to supply their Wants, with such Things, and after such manner as they have most occasion for. Secondly, Unexpected Experiments, as when you aim and try to find out one Thing, and accidentally light on another: Thus ’tis said Gun-Powder and divers other considerable 230Things have been found out by Chance, and innumerable others by experimental Chymistry. Thirdly, Natural Philosophy, or Observation of the Instincts of all living Creatures, has suggested many noble Thoughts and Fancies to Men, both for Imitation and Invention. Now tho’ we cannot assert that Men at first learn’d Architecture from the Beaver, which builds himself a House for shelter and security in the Winter Time, yet are we certain they took the several Ornaments of Building either from Birds, Beasts and Fishes, or from the Leaves, Flowers and Fruits of Plants. Thus the Grecians generally us’d the Leaves of ^[5]Acanthus, and the Jews those of Palm-Trees and Pomegranates in their Buildings. Nor is it less probable their Weaving might be found out from the Spider or Silk-Worm, than that the Fish call’d Nautilus, or the little Mariner, was Navigiorum Archetipus, the first Type or Pattern of a Ship, who when he is to Swim, contracts his Body and Finns into the form of a Galley under Sail. From the sight whereof, some (as Pliny conceives) took the first hint of framing a Ship, as from the sight of a Kite flying in the Air, who turns and steers his Body with his Tail (as Fishes also do in the Water) some have devis’d the Stern and Rudder of a Ship. Iidem videntur Artem gubernandi docuisse Caudæ flexibus, in Cælo monstrante Natura quod opus esset in profundo, Pliny Lib. 10. cap. 10. They seem to have taught Men the Art of Steering a Ship by the flexures of their Tails, Nature shewing in the Air what was needful to be done in the Deep. ’Tis also observ’d by that great Naturalist Mr. Ray, that the Trunk of a 231Bird’s Body does somewhat resemble the Hull of a Ship, the Head the Prow, which is for the most part small, that it may the more easily cut the Air, and the Tail serves to steer, govern and direct its flight. We read there was a Beast in Egypt call’d Cynocephalus, of a very strange kind, kept in the Temple of Serapis, which, during the Time of the two Equinoxes, made Water 12 Times in a Day, and as often in the Night, regularly and at even Spaces of Time; from the Observation of which, they divided the Natural Day into 24 Hours, that Beast being as it were their Clock and Dial, both to divide their Day, and reckon their Hours by. This probably gave Ctesibius of Alexandria an hint to invent the Clepsydræ or Water Glasses, which distinguish’d the Hours by the fall or dropping of Water, as Clepsammidiæ or Sand-Glasses did by the running of Sand; and to shew they ow’d the Invention of these Water-Glasses to the Cynocephalus, they us’d to carve one on the top of them, as may be seen in Kircher in Mechanica Ægyptiaca. Now Egypt was both in respect of its Scituation as well as natural production of curious Things, a mighty help to the Invention and improvement of Arts and Sciences; for as Casalius de veter. Ægypt. Ritibus, p. 35. tells us, Arithmetic was first found out by their great Commerce, and Geometry from the River Nile’s Annual over-flowing the Fields, and removing their Bound-Marks, which occasion’d great Disputes among them, so that by the frequent measuring of the Ground it was deriv’d into this Art. And as for Astrology, the quality of the Climate and scituation of the Country was such, as gave them an advantage above others, more clearly to discern the rising and setting of the Stars, for by reason of the 232perpetual Serenity of the Air, they found out the Course of the Sun, Moon and Stars, with their Constellations, Aspects and Influences, and moreover by their often Worshipping those Planets, beheld and contemplated them more seriously, and from thence became the most skillful Astrologers in the World, as Firmianus Divin. instit. Lib. 2. cap. 14. says: Hereby also being made more perspicacious, and observing of natural Things, they invented Physick, for, as Prosper Alpinus, |Physic, how first found out.| Lib. de Medicina Ægyptiorum reports, They took the hints of curing divers Diseases from brute Beasts and Animals. Thus Phlebotomy or Bleeding was found out from the Hippopotomos or River-Horse, which lives in the Nile, for when this Beast is grown over fat with continual Gluttony and Gormandizing, he searches out for a sharp pointed Reed on the Banks of the River, and having found one fit for his purpose, sticks it into his Thigh, and wounds a certain Vein there; when having sufficiently emty’d his Plethoric Body by Bleeding, he closes, and as it were plasters up the Orifice with Mud. Also that a certain Bird call’d Ibis, about the Banks of Nile, first taught the Egyptians the way of administring Clysters; for this Bird has been often observ’d, by means of his crooked Bill intromitted into the Anus, to inject salt Water, as with a Syringe, into its own Bowels, and thereby to exonerate its Paunch when too much obstructed. Dogs are commonly known when Sick to Vomit themselves by eating Grass. Swine, so soon as they perceive themselves ill, refuse their Meat, and so recover by Abstinence. ’Tis reported the wild Goat taught the use of the Dictamnus, for drawing out of Darts and healing Wounds, and the Swallow the use 233of Celandine for recovering the Sight; whence we may as well infer, that from the diversity of Bodies, such as Flies, Spiders, Gnats, Bees, Pismires, Grashoppers, Locusts, Frogs, &c. inclos’d in Amber, the Egyptians might first learn the Art of Embalming; |How Embalming.| but since these things appear rather Fabulous, and the pleasant Flights of acute Wits and inquisitive Naturalists, than solid Truths to be rely’d on, we must have recourse to the fourth Cause, viz. That their Opinion of the Metemsychosis or Transmigration of the Soul, and other such like religious Principles, first oblig’d them to study this Art, and perhaps the known Virtues of Opobalsamum, so good against Mortifications and Putrifactions, might suggest to them the use of it in preserving the Bodies of Princes, as the Balsamic, Sulphurous and Bituminous Nature of their Asphalt, taught them to use that for the poorer sort of People; besides, whatever way it was first found out, it was as easie for them to do it as for us to believe it, says Gabriel Clauderus in Methodo Balsamandi, p. 41. because they excell’d all other Nations in Learning and Invention, so that by applying themselves with the utmost diligence to the study of this Art, they could not fail of attaining the perfection of it, especially since this Region was, above all others, the best accommodated with an extraordinary fruitfulness and plenty of Aromatic and Medicinal Things, necessary as well for all Physical Uses as for the decent performing of their Embalmings. Now Sandys, p. 38. tells us abundance of Practitioners in Physic are frequently invited to Cairo by the great store of Simples there growing. Add to this the extraordinary Diligence of the Egyptian Kings and Priests, both in rewarding Arts and being solicitously intent 234on finding out the Nature of Things themselves, not by indulging Superstition, but by a strict search and scrutiny, not trusting to plausible Appearances, but only to Experiments and Demonstration. To prove this we shall show such infallible Methods for the Invention and Improvement of all Arts and Sciences, that they could not easily miscarry in their Designs; for besides the famous Library of Ptolemy Philadelphus, and that in the Temple of Serapis, there was at Cairo, as Prosper Alpinus de Medicina Ægyptiorum relates, a University or place of Study call’d Gemelhazar, which paid yearly out of the public Stock of the Academy 300000 pieces of Gold for Books, Food, Stipends, &c.

The Invention of Arts and Sciences may be partly imputed to the goodness of their Laws, |Goodness of their Laws.| and their strictness in observing them; the Egyptians alledging this as an undeniable Argument, that the best Laws were made and instituted among them, in that the Native Kings had Reign’d in Egypt for the space of above 4700 Years, and that their Country during all that Time had been the most prosperous and flourishing in the World, which could never have been so if the Inhabitants had not been civiliz’d and brought up under good Laws, and a liberal Education in all kinds of Arts and Sciences. To effect this therefore they divided their People into three Orders: First, Priests. Secondly, Artificers and Husbandmen. And, Thirdly, Military Persons or Souldiers. Now each Person strictly keeping to his own Province, Art flourish’d in a right Line, and Sciences were not attack’d by rustic and ignorant Pretenders, but only practis’d by Priests, who were the chief of their Nobility, and liv’d separate from all others least their Learning should be any ways divulg’d. Nor 235was it lawful for any but Priests Sons to enter the Colleges where these Sciences were taught, whereby the more polite Knowledge was secur’d to the Priests, and mechanic Arts and Trades practis’d only by the inferior People. Now the better to effect and propagate this, they had three Laws that mightily encourag’d the Study and Invention of Arts, on which their chief Felicity depended, as Diodorus Siculus witnesses. First, In that they honour’d and esteem’d all such as were the first Inventors and Promoters of useful Things. Secondly, In that he who pretended to more Arts than one, incurr’d a most grievous Punishment. And, Thirdly, In that every one was oblig’d to appear annually before the Governour of the Province to show how he got his Living, which if he could not prove, or was found to subsist by unjust means, he was infallibly punish’d with Death. Thus all Men were employ’d, |Arts most flourishing in the Reign of Amasis.| and every Art carry’d to the highest perfection in the Reign of Amasis, who enacted the third Law. Now, as a further Argument of the Egyptian Industry, hear what Fl. Vopiscus relates of the Alexandrians: Civitas, says he, [Alexandria] opulenta, dives, fæcunda, in qua Nemo vivit otiosus, alii Vitrum conflant, ab aliis Charta conficitur, alii Linyphiones sunt: Omnes certe cujuscunque Artis & videntur & habentur; Podagrosi quod agant habent, habent cæci quod faciant, ne Chiragrici quidem apud eos otiosi vivunt. |Alexandria, how Industrious and Flourishing.| Alexandria is a plentiful and opulent City, in which none live idle: Some blow Glass, others make Paper, a third sort weave Linnen, and in a word, all have some Trade or Work. Those that have the Gout in their Feet or are Blind have something to do, and even such as have the Gout in their Hands are not idle. This shows how every Art was cultivated: Likewise 236their Industry and number of Hands as plainly prove the facility of performing those seemingly incredible and stupendious Works, which has taken us up so much Time to relate; for ’tis said, throughout the whole Country of Egypt, |Egypt, its number of Cities and Inhabitants.| in the Reign of Amasis, there were reckon’d no fewer than 20000 Cities, and that it was esteem’d the most populous Country of the World. Diodorus Siculus tells us it had in it above 18000 Cities, as might be seen register’d in their Sacred Records; and in the Time of Ptolemeus Lagus there remain’d above 3000. Once, they say, in a general Census taken of all the Inhabitants, they amounted to Seven Millions, and even at the Time of Diodorus, there were no less than Three Millions of People, |How it came to be so numerous.| which wonderful Encrease some think might be effected by the constant drinking of the Nile Water, which had the Virtue of making the Egyptian Women Prolific, so as commonly to bring forth three or four Children at a Birth. This may a little abate the wonder, how the Children of Israel could multiply to that degree in so short a space, that in 430 Years, from 70 Persons, which came with Jacob into Egypt, he became a mighty Nation; for it is said, at their departure, there journey’d, from Rameses to Succoth, about 600000 Men, besides Women and Children. Now how populous the Land from whence they came was, may be collected not only from their commanding such mighty Powers as were under them, but also, as has been before observ’d, from the several Accounts of that Kingdom, given us by Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus; for it is reported that Sesac or Sesonchis arm’d 400000 Foot, 60000 Horse and 1200 Chariots against Rehoboam, and that King Cheops or 237Chemnis employ’d 360000 Men in erecting one of the Pyramids. ’Tis also farther said, they built other stupendious Works, such as the Labyrinth, Obelisks, Colossus’s, &c. |By what Means such wonderful Works were perform’d,| as not knowing otherwise how to expend their Treasure or employ their People, thro’ which means their Kings, by their great Riches and infinite numbers of Men, left behind them such eternal Monuments of their State and Grandure, which altho’ they bear the name of Wonders to this very Day, as seeming very difficult to have been perform’d, yet were such Works render’d easie enough, if we consider so vast a multitude of Hands as were employ’d about them, and this being rightly consider’d, we may well enough believe what Herodotus says of Egypt, That it had more wonderful Works than all the Nations of the World besides.

and to what End.

Thus having shown how the Egyptians were the first Inventors and Propagators of Arts and Sciences, we will next show to what end they built those admirable Structures with so great Labour and Expence, thinking not as Aristotle, Lib. 3. Polit. who makes them to have been the Works of Tyranny, or as Pliny, Lib. 26. cap. 12. conjectures, that they built them partly out of Ostentation, and partly out of State-Policy, to divert their People from Mutinies and Rebellion by keeping them employ’d, but that they erected them as Repositories for their Dead, which they did from a Belief they had of the Immortality of the Soul, and an Opinion they held of the Metempsychosis or Transmigration of it from one Body to another: ’Tis true, those Arguments alledg’d by Pliny might be Secondary Motives, yet says Greaves in his Pyramidographia, p. 45. the true Reason depends upon higher and more 238weighty Considerations, |Theology of the Egyptians, or Metempsychosis.| springing from the Theology of the Egyptians, who as Servius shews in his Comment on these words of Virgil, Lib. 3. Æneid. where that Poet describes the Funeral of Polydorus,

——Animamq; Sepulchro

Condimus——

believ’d, That as long as the Body endur’d so long should the Soul continue with it, which also was the Opinion of the Stoicks: Hence the Egyptians, skilful in Wisdom, keep their Dead embalm’d so much the longer, to the end the Soul may for a long while continue with the Body, lest it should quickly pass into another. The Romans acted quite contrary, burning their Dead, that the Soul might suddenly return into the generality of Things, that is, into its own Nature; wherefore, says Greaves, that the Body might not either by Putrifaction be reduc’d to Dust, out of which it was first form’d, or by Fire be converted to Ashes (as the manner of the Greeks and Romans was) the Egyptians invented curious Compositions, besides intombing their Dead in stately Repositories, thereby to preserve them from Rottenness, and render them Eternal. Nec cremare, aut fodere fas putant, verum arte Medicatos intra penetralia collocant, says Pomponius Mela, Lib. 1. cap. 9. Also Herodotus in Thalia gives the Reason why they neither burn’d nor bury’d their Dead, for discoursing in his third Book of the Cruelty of Cambyses, and his commanding the Body of Amasis, an Egyptian King, should be taken out of his Sepulchre, be whipp’d and us’d with all contumely; he reports, after all this he order’d it to be burn’d, Commanding that which was not Holy, for the 239Persians imagin’d the Fire to be a God, |Fire thought by the Persians a God.| and neither the Egyptians nor they were accustom’d to burn their Dead: The Persians, for the Reason before alleg’d, because they conceiv’d it unfit for a God to devour the Carcass of a Man; and the Egyptians, because they were persuaded the Fire was a living Creature, |By the Egyptians a living Creature.| devouring all Things it receiv’d, and after it was satisfy’d with Food, dy’d with that it had devour’d. Nor was it their Custom to give their dead Bodies to Beasts (as the Hyrcanians were wont to do) but to Embalm or Salt them, not only for this Reason, but also that they might not be consum’d with Worms. The term ταριχεύειν, i. e. Salting or Embalming the Dead, us’d by Herodotus, is also us’d by Baruch and Plato. Lucian likewise in his Discourse de Luctu, treating of the several kinds of Burial practis’d by divers Nations, says, The Grecians burn their Dead, the Persians bury them, the Indians anoint them with the Fat of Swine, the Scythians eat them, and the Egyptians (ταριχεύει) Embalm them: Which manner likewise is alluded to by M. Aurelius Antoninus, under the word τάριχος: His Words are these, That which the other Day was excrementitious Matter, shall within few Days either be τάριχος, an Embalm’d Body, or down right Ashes; in the one expressing the Custom of the Egyptians, and in the other that of the Romans. By Salting or Embalming the Soul, according to the Belief of the Egyptians, was oblig’d to abide with the Body, and the Body on its part became as durable as Marble, insomuch that Plato, who liv’d in Egypt with Eudoxus no less than 13 Years, as Strabo witnesses, brings it for an Argument, in his Phædon, to prove the Immortality of the Soul, thro’ the long duration of these Bodies, which surely would have been yet more conclusive 240with him, could he but have imagin’d they should have continu’d so solid and entire even to this Day, as we find many of them are: For this Reason St. Austin |Egyptians believ’d the Resurrection.| truly affirms the Egyptians had a Belief of the Resurrection, in that they carefully preserv’d their Dead; for they had a Custom among them of drying up the Bodies, and rendring them as durable as Brass: These, in their Language they call’d Gabbares, whence the gloss of Isidore, Gabbares mortuorum in Vulcanius his Edition, or as Spondanus de Cæmet. sacris, Lib. 1. pars 1. cap. 5. reads, Gabbares mortuorum condita Corpora.

The manner how the Egyptians prepar’d and Embalm’d these Bodies is very copiously, and by what I observ’d at my being there, says Greaves in his Pyramidographia, p. 48. faithfully describ’d by Herodotus and Diodorus; in which Matter, tho’ I cannot totally dissent from Mr. Greaves, for their Account may be true, yet is it not so copious as they make it, but imperfectly related, or at least so far that some Passages are hardly to be understood or made out, which may easily be allow’d without Reflection on those famous Men, since they treated of the Matter only as Historians and not as Physicians: My business therefore shall be, after relating their own Words, to reconcile their Differences, explain the Difficulties, and compare the Opinions of Annotators and Physicians on this Art, and lastly, to suggest some new Thoughts, as plausible, and perhaps as true as any, especially since it is all but guesswork, and the true Art may have entirely perish’d with the antient Egyptians, either by Inundation, Fire, Irruptions of Enemies, or other hostile Devastations. I will begin first with Herodotus, whose Words serve as well to shew the several Ceremonies of Sepulture as 241their Embalmings, and whom we find in his Second Book call’d Euterpe, thus speaking of the Egyptians:

Herodotus’s Account of the Egyptian Funerals.

Their Mourning, says he, and manner of Burial are after this kind: When any Man of Quality dies, all the Women of that Family besmear their Heads and Faces with Dirt; then leaving the Body at home, they go lamenting up and down the City with all their Relations, their Apparel being girt about them, and their Breasts left naked. On the other hand the Men, having likewise their Cloaths girt about them, beat themselves. These things being done, they carry the dead Body to be Embalm’d; for which, there are certain Persons appointed who profess this Art. These, when the Body is brought to them, shew to those that bring it certain Models of Wood, painted like the Dead Person that is to be Embalm’d. One of these they say is accurately made (which I think not lawful to name;) then they shew a second inferior to it and of an easier Price, and next a third cheaper than the former, and of a very small value, which being seen, they ask them what Pattern they will have the dead Body prepar’d by: When they have agreed on the Price they depart, and those with whom the dead Corps is left proceed to Embalm it after the following manner: First of all they, with a crooked Iron, draw the Brain out of the Head thro’ the Nostrils, and then fill up the Cavity with Medicinal Ingredients. Next, with a sharp Æthiopic Stone, they cut up that part of the Abdomen call’d the Ilia, and that way draw out all the Bowels, which having cleans’d and wash’d with Palm-Wine, they again rinse and wash with Wine perfum’d with pounded Odours; then filling up the Belly with pure Myrrh and Cassia grosly powder’d, and all other Odours except Frankincense, they sow it up again. Having so done, they salt it up close with Nitre 70 Days, 242for longer they may not salt it. After this number of Days are over, they wash the Corps again, and then roul it up with fine Linnen all besmear’d with a sort of Gum commonly us’d by the Egyptians instead of Glue. Then is the Body restor’d to its Relations, who prepare a wooden Coffin for it, in the shape and likeness of a Man, and then put the Embalm’d Body into it, and thus inclos’d place it in a Repository in the House, setting it upright against the Wall. After this manner they with great expence preserve their Dead, whereas those who to avoid too great a Charge desire a mediocrity, thus Embalm them: They neither cut the Belly nor pluck out the Entrails, but fill it with Clysters of Oil of Cedar injected up the Anus, and then salt it the aforesaid number of Days. On the last of these they press out the Cedar Clyster, by the same way they had injected it, which has such Virtue and Efficacy that it brings out along with it the Bowels wasted, and the Nitre consumes the Flesh, leaving only the Skin and Bones: Having thus done, they restore the dead Body to the Relations, doing nothing more. The third way of Embalming is for those of yet meaner Circumstances: They with Lotions wash the Belly, then dry it with Salt for 70 Days, and afterwards deliver it to be carry’d away. Nevertheless, beautiful Women and Ladies of Quality were not deliver’d to be Embalm’d till three or four Days after they had been dead. Ea de causa facientes, ne cum Fæminis isti Salinarii concumbant. Deprehensum enim quendam aiunt coeuntem cum recenti Cadavere Muliebri, delatumq; ab ejusdem Artificii Socio. But if any Egyptian or Stranger was either kill’d by a Crocodile, or drown’d in the River, the City where he was cast up was to Embalm and bury him honourably in the Sacred Monuments, whom no one, no, not a Relation or Friend, but the 243Priests of Nile only might touch, because they bury’d one who was something more than a dead Man.

Diodorus Siculus’s Account of the Egyptian Funerals.

Diodorus Siculus, Lib. 1. relates the Funeral Ceremonies of the Egyptians more distinctly and clearly, and with some very remarkable Circumstances. When any one among the Egyptians dies, says he, all his Relations and Friends, putting Dirt upon their Heads, go lamenting about the City, till such time as the Body shall be bury’d. In the mean time they abstain from Baths and Wine, and all kinds of delicate Meats, neither do they during that time wear any costly Apparel. The manner of their Burials is threefold; one very costly, a second sort less chargable, and a third very mean. In the first, they say, there is spent a Talent of Silver, in the second 20 Minæ, but in the last there is very little Expence. Those who have the care of ordering the Body, are such as have been taught that Art by their Ancestors. These shewing to the Kindred of the Deceas’d a Bill of Expences of each kind of Burial, ask them after what manner they will have the Body prepar’d; when they have agreed upon the matter, they deliver the Body to such as are usually appointed for this Office. First he who has the name of Scribe, laying it upon the Ground, marks about the Flank on the left side, how much is to be cut away. Then he who is call’d the Cutter or Dissector, with an Æthiopic Stone, cuts away as much of the Flesh as the Law commands, and presently runs away as fast as he can: Those who are present persuing him, cast Stones at him, and curse him, hereby turning all the Execrations, which they imagin due to his Office, upon him. For whosoever offers violence, wounds or does any kind of injury to a Body of the same nature with himself they think him worthy of Hatred; but those who are call’d the Embalmers, they 244esteem worthy of Honour and Respect: For they are familiar with their Priests, and go into the Temples as Holy Men, without any prohibition. So soon as they come to Embalm the dissected Body, one of them thrusts his Hand thro’ the Wound into the Abdomen, and draws forth all the Bowels but the Heart and Kidnies, which another washes and cleanses with Wine made of Palms and aromatic Odours. Lastly, having wash’d the Body, they anoint it with Oil of Cedar and other Things for above 30 Days, and afterwards with Myrrh, Cinamon and other such like Matters; which have not only a power to preserve it for a long Time, but also give it a sweet Smell; after which they deliver it to the Kindred, in such manner that every Member remains whole and entire, and no part of it chang’d, but the beauty and shape of the Face seems just as it was before, and may be known, even the Hairs of the Eye-Lids and Eye-Brows remaining as they were at first. By this means many of the Egyptians, keeping the dead Bodies of their Ancestors in magnificent Houses, so perfectly see the true Visage and Countenance of those that dy’d many Ages before they themselves were born, that in viewing the Proportions of every one of them, and the Lineaments of their Faces, they take as much delight as if they were still living among them. Moreover, the Friends and nearest Relations of the Deceas’d, for the greater Pomp of the Solemnity, acquaint the Judges and the rest of their Friends with the Time prefix’d for the Funeral or Day of Sepulture, declaring that such a one (calling the Dead by his Name) is such a Day to pass the Lake, at which Time above 40 Judges appear, and sit together in a Semicircle, in a place prepar’d on the hither side of the Lake, where a Ship, provided before-hand by such as have the care of the Business, is hal’d up to 245the Shoar, and steer’d by a Pilot, whom the Egyptians in their Language call Charon. Hence, they say, Orpheus upon seeing this Ceremony while he was in Egypt, invented the Fable of Hell, partly imitating therein the People of Egypt, and partly adding somewhat of his own. The Ship being thus brought to the Lake-side, before the Coffin is put on board, every one is at liberty by the Law to accuse the Dead of what he thinks him guilty. Now if any one proves he was an ill Liver, the Judges give Sentence the Body shall be depriv’d of Sepulture; but in case the Informer be convicted of false Accusation, then is he severely punish’d. If no Accuser appear, or the Information prove false, then all the Kindred of the Deceas’d leave off Mourning, and begin to set forth his Praises, yet say nothing of his Birth (as the Custom is among the Greeks) because the Egyptians all think themselves equally Noble: But then they recount how the Deceas’d was educated from his Youth, and brought up to Man’s Estate, exalting his Piety towards the Gods and Justice towards Men, his Chastity and other Virtues, wherein he excell’d; and lastly, pray and call upon the Infernal Deities to receive him into the Society of the Just. The common People take this from the others, and consequently approve all is said in his Praise by a loud shout, setting likewise forth his Virtues in the highest strains of Commendation, as one that is to live for ever with the Infernal Gods. Then those that have Tombs of their own, interr the Corps in places appointed for that purpose, and they that have none, rear up the Body in its Coffin against some strong Wall of their House. But such as are deny’d Sepulture on account of some Crime or Debt, are laid up at home without Coffins: Yet when it shall afterwards happen that any of their Posterity grows Rich, he commonly pays off the deceas’d Persons Debts, and 246gets his Crimes absolv’d, and so buries him honourably, for the Egyptians are wont to boast of their Parents and Ancestors that were magnificently bury’d. ’Tis a Custom likewise among them to pawn the dead Bodies of their Parents to their Creditors, but then those that do not redeem them fall under the greatest Disgrace imaginable, and are deny’d Burial themselves at their Deaths.

Reflections on the Egyptian Embalming.

Thus far Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus have given the largest and clearest Accounts of any of the Ancients of the Funeral Ceremonies and Embalmings of the Egyptians, but there are still remaining some dubious and difficult Points necessary to be known, for the better understanding this Art: We shall make some Quere’s and Reflexions thereon, and endeavour to reconcile them by the Opinions of the more refin’d Artists, the modern Physicians.

The Mourning of the Egyptians.

First then of the Mourning of the Egyptians, by them very strictly observ’d for a long time, and perform’d after the following manner: When any of their Kings dy’d they lamented his Death with a general Mourning, making sad Lamentations, putting Dirt upon their Heads, rending their Cloaths and beating their Breasts; they shut up their Temples and Markets, and prohibited all Festivals and Rejoycings; they abstain’d from all delicate Meats and costly Apparel, from Baths, Perfumes and Ointments, and neither made their Beds nor accompany’d with their Wives, but express’d all the signs of an extraordinary Affliction, that they could have done for their own Child. This their Mourning continu’d till the Body was bury’d, which was no less than 72 Days, during which, both Men and Women, and those about 2 or 300 in number, went about the City twice a Day without any 247thing on but a Linnen-Cloath girt about their Bodies, from beneath their Breasts downwards, renewing their Grief, and intermixing the Virtues and Praises of the deceas’d Prince with their Sighs and Outcries. Much the same Ceremonies were observ’d in their private Funerals, some of which we shall insert from the Writings of the famous Don Antonio de Guevara, Historiographer to the Emperor Charles V. who in his 10th Letter, English’d by Mr. Savage, thus writes: ‘Of all Nations, none we read of made so much adoe about their Dead as the Egyptians, who, when ever a Friend dy’d, always shew’d him far more Respect than while he liv’d; insomuch that if a Father lost a Son, a Son a Father, or one Friend was depriv’d of another, they us’d to shave off half their Hair as a Hieroglyphic to demonstrate they had parted with half of themselves. Also the Egyptian Women, when their Husbands, Children or Relations dy’d, were wont to tear their Flesh, and scratch their Faces with their Nails. Likewise the lesser Priests, at the Funerals of the greater, were accustom’d to mark their Flesh with red hot Irons, either on their Hands, Arms or Breasts, to the end that when ever they beheld those Scars they might immediately be dispos’d to lament their loss. In like manner they had a Custom, that when ever a King or Prince dy’d, all his Officers were instantly oblig’d to slash themselves with Knives in some visible part of their Bodies; insomuch, that he who was observ’d to have most Wounds, was always look’d upon to be the greatest Mourner. All which Ceremonies being in themselves superstitious, and no doubt invented by the Devil, forasmuch as the Egyptians were all naturally Necromancers, Magicians, 248Wizzards and Astrologers, and for that they were not only a damage to the Living, but also no Advantage to the Dead; GOD forbad the Children of Israel (who living so long in Egypt, had contracted many ill Customs from those People) both marking and cutting their Flesh, as appears from Leviticus 19. 27, 28. where he Commands the Israelites neither to round the Corners of their Heads, nor mar the Points of their Beards: To make any Cuttings in their Flesh, or print any Marks upon it on account of their Dead.’

How the Egyptians Embalm’d Bodies.

Thus Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus having first describ’d the manner of Mourning among the Egyptians, they next proceed to give an Account of their Embalmings, telling us, That whilst the Ceremonies of Mourning were performing, they carry’d the Dead to be Embalm’d, as I suppose, to a certain place appointed for that purpose, where Persons resided who profess’d that Art, being well experienc’d therein, and taught it by their Ancestors. These show’d the Relations or Persons that brought the Body, and had commission for ordering the Funeral, certain Models or Patterns of Wood, painted in the likeness of Embalm’d Bodies, |Three different kinds of Embalming.| being of three several kinds and Prizes, suitable to every one’s Condition and Quality; some very Rich and Costly, others of a moderate Price, and a third sort cheaper and of very little Value. Having agreed upon the Sort and Price, they immediately go about Embalming the Body, and as Herodotus tells us, first of all draw out the Brain, with a crooked Iron, thro’ the Nostrils, infusing in its place, by the same way, several Medicaments, which as it is contrary to our Custom of Dissection, that begins with the Abdomen, seeing its Contents soonest putrifie and 249become offensive even in our cold Country, and much more would do in so hot a Climate as that of Egypt, if neglected; so the extraction of the Brain, after the manner propos’d by him, is a very difficult and tedious piece of Work, if possible to be perform’d at all; but his wrong beginning of this Work of Embalming is not so material a Mistake, as his amusing us with a Story of drawing forth the Brain thro’ the Nostrils with a crooked Iron, (by which I suppose he means some particular sort of Instrument) and not farther explaining himself how or after what manner it was done; and indeed I believe he could not, the thing being in it self impracticable and ridiculous, which any one skill’d in Anatomy will readily agree to. But grant it could be done, the afore-said extraction of the Brain thro’ the Nostrils, must nevertheless so dilacerate the cartilagineous parts of the Nose, that the carnous and cutaneous parts would sink, and thereby render the Face deform’d. More agreeable therefore to Reason is what Gryphius in Tract. de Mum. Wratislav. p. 45. asserts, That it might be more commodiously extracted thro’ a large Foramen, made in the hinder part of the Head, near the upper Vertebræ of the Neck; but that this was not the right way neither, I am thoroughly convinc’d from the Skull of an Embalm’d Body I have by me, which has no such Apertion. |The Brain how extracted.| To reconcile therefore this seeming difficulty, I will shew a Method how ’tis possible to be perform’d by a convenient Instrument which I have devis’d, and intend to describe in another Place, contenting my self here to tell you, That by injecting Oil of Cedar, or the like corrosive Medicine thro’ the Nostrils, or thro’ the Ears, by a Passage privately 250made into the Skull, the Brain may be consum’d and brought away, and the Skull, by injections of spirituous and aromatic Wines, be thoroughly wash’d and cleans’d; and lastly fill’d with melted Bitumen or sweet Balsams, that acquire a solid Consistence when cold. And altho’ Greaves seems well satisfy’d with Herodotus’s Account, yet is his Observation, p. 49. of his Pyramidographia, more agreeable to this Opinion of mine, where he tells us, That having caus’d the Head of one of the richer sort of Embalm’d Bodies to be open’d, he found in the hollow of the Skull the quantity of two pounds of Medicament, which had the consistence, blackness and smell of a kind of Bitumen or Pitch, and by the heat of the Sun was become soft.

Diodorus Siculus begins more methodically with the Scribe or Designer, |The Scribe or Designer.| an Officer so call’d, who draws upon a piece of Paper, or marks on the Body it self, the part that was to be open’d, viz. The Flank on the left side. |Dissector.| Then the Dissector made the Incision (without cutting off any of the Flesh, or running away so soon as he had done) and thrusting his Hand into the Belly, drew out all the Guts, which, as Plutarch writes, were cast into the River Nile, Tanquam inquinamenta Corporis, as defiling the Body: But Diodorus tells us, The Body was embowell’d by one of the Embalmers, which altho’ it appears to me a more filthy and detestable Work than making the Incision, |Embalmers much honour’d.| yet he says the Embalmers were highly honour’d and respected, being familiar with the Priests, and entring into the Temples as Holy Men, whereas he excludes the Dissectors from out of that number, as performing an odious Operation hateful to all Men. In this distinction however I am apt to think he’s either intirely out, or has mistaken it for 251just the contrary; for, as we have already shown, p. 181. Anatomy was not only generally approv’d, but likewise often perform’d by Holy and Great Men, such as the Egyptian Priests and Kings, who would either have practis’d or taught better, in case it had been so heinous a Crime as this Author makes it; whence, without doubt, those that did this pious and necessary Office towards preserving the Dead, must needs have been equally honour’d with the Embalmers, and what seems yet clearly to confirm this, is that sometimes the Art of Embalming has been call’d Honesta Anatomia.

Now the Instrument with which this Incision was made was an Ethiopic Stone call’d Basaltes, |Basaltes an Ethiopic Stone.| and nam’d from its hardness and colour like to Iron, that word in the Ethiopic Language signifying Iron, and this Stone being much harder than that Metal, it might very probably be whet to a keen edge or point, and so be ceremonially us’d instead of an Incision-Knife, like as the antient Jews were wont to use Knives made of Flints in their Circumcision, Joshua 5. 2.

The Embowelling a Corps.

As to the Exenteration or Embowelling the Body, we are not to imagine they drew out only the Brain and Guts, but likewise the Lungs, Stomach, Liver, Spleen, and other Viscera, except the Heart and Kidnies, which being carnous and fleshy might very likely be left, as being easier to be preserv’d than the moist parts. The former they might probably leave to be Embalm’d, as being the principal Bowel of the whole Body, and source of vital Heat (wherefore it has been frequently preserv’d apart by several People) but for what Reason, or out of what Superstition they left the latter I cannot readily conjecture.

252Then having empty’d the Head, Breast and Belly of their Contents, they first wash’d and cleans’d them with Phænician or Palm-Wine, compounded of aromatic Spices and sweet Odours, |The Body stuff’d with medicinal Ingredients.| and afterwards stuff’d them with a mixture of sweet scented Drugs, Spices and Balsams, such as Myrrh, Aloes, Saffron, Cassia or Cinamon, Opobalsamum and the like, Frankincense only being excepted, because that was by them consecrated to their Gods. These Ingredients had not only a power to preserve the Body for a long Time, but also gave it a sweet and agreeable Smell. This done, they sew’d up the Incision or Passage thro’ which they drew forth the Bowels; but Antonius Santorellus in his Post-Praxis Medica, p. 136. not without Reason observes, That tho’ Aromatics are of a drying quality, yet as they are likewise heating, they may occasion a Fermentation in the Body; therefore I am apt to think Myrrh and Aloes were the basis of the Composition, and that Aromatics were us’d only in small quantities, and that rather to conciliate a grateful Odour to the Body than preserve it from Putrifaction. Yet I am not ignorant at the same time of what some alledge of Aromatics, that by their innate balsamic Virtue, by their bitterness and oleaginous Sulphur, or penetrability of their volatil Salts, they resist Putrifaction. Neither am I ignorant of what Bellonius affirms, Lib. 2. De Medicato Funere, p. 27. that neither Myrrh, Aloes nor Saffron have so much Virtue as to consume the Humidity of a dead Body, nor being hard Bodies can penetrate so far as to enter the Bones and replete their Cavities. Furthermore asserting, That if Aloes were us’d in Embalming they would give the Body a bitter taste, whereas no Mummies have been ever found to have 253such a taste; and this is also taken notice of, says the aforesaid Author, by Valerius Cordus, one who wrote more truly of the Mummies than all the Physicians of his Time had done: But I suppose both these Learned Men spoke rather from their experience of common Bodies, Embalm’d with Cedar, Asphalt or Pissasphalt, than from the Bodies of Princes and rich Men, which being Embalm’d after the best manner, with odoriferous and aromatic Gums and Spices, had in that Composition a mixture of fine Aloes, and this any one will the readier grant, who considers the manner of the |Myrrh, Aloes and Cinnamon.| antient Jews or Hebrews Embalming with Myrrh, Aloes and Cinamon, which they learn’d of the Egyptians by living so long among them, chiefly differing in this, That the Hebrews Anointed or Embalm’d their Dead without Exenteration, thereby intending only to render the Body sweet and free from Putrifaction for a short Time, or ’till its Burial, whereas the Egyptians Embowell’d and Embalm’d theirs for Eternity. But here still arises another Controversie, viz. What is to be understood by the Word Aloes in Balsamation? Whether Agalochum or Lignum Aloes, a Wood of a very pleasant smell, or Aloes, an express’d Juice from the Leaves of a Plant, a Gum of a strong Odour? Most Annotators on the word Aloes, mention’d in the Holy Scripture, as in Prov. 7. 17. Cant. 4. 14. John 19. 39. interpret it the Wood Aloes, being an excellent sweet scented and aromatic Perfume; and since it is also of a bitterish Taste, and indu’d with some balsamic Qualities, ’tis not absur’d to think it was us’d together with other Ingredients in Embalming, yet according to a physical Judgment in this Art, we nevertheless believe that Aloes, the Gum or inspissate 254Juice of a Plant, so manifest for its extraordinary and incomparable bitterness and efficacy to resist Putrifaction, was one of the chief Ingredients in their Composition, for otherwise the Scripture would have given a more peculiar signification of the Word, to distinguish the Wood from the Gum: So that he who determines that both might have been apply’d, one to correct the ill Savour of the other, may commit no great Mistake, or at least if he thinks, that the Wood was chiefly us’d in their perfuming Ointments, and the Gum in their Embalmings.

The Body being stuff’d full of aromatic and sweet Odours, they sew’d it up again, and then salted it with Nitre for the space of 70 Days, as Herodotus relates; yet Diodorus Siculus speaks nothing of this Salting, but in its stead substitutes the manner of Anointing: Both which Terms of Salting and Anointing Authors confound one with another, and under the same denomination express two different Operations or Works, and yet seem to make them perform’d by the same Persons: For those who are said to be the Embalmers, |The Salters or Pollinctors.| are call’d by some Taricheutæ or Salitores, a verbo ταριχεύειν, Salire or Sale durare, and by others Pollinctors, ab unguendis Cadaveribus quasi polluti, vel a verbo pollingere, quod est, polliendo ungere, vel Pellem ungere, &c. whose Office and Business was to exenterate or embowel the Body, to wash and cleanse it, and to salt and anoint it. These again, some say, were much honour’d and respected, and others on the contrary, That they were so abominated that they would not suffer them to live in the City; which latter I am most apt to believe, as performing a very vile and servile Work, therefore might well be look’d upon 255as polluted Persons. Who then were the true Embalmers, properly so call’d, and had in most esteem, I shall anon show; but must first proceed to speak of their Salination, and the Virtues and Qualities of Nitre and other Salts.

Nitre why us’d in Embalming.

‘Bellonius, Lib. 3. cap. 8. De Medicato Funere, tells us, the Egyptians and other Eastern Nations, attributed very great Virtues to Nitre for preserving the Carcasses of the Dead, and that notwithstanding other Salts and Aromatics, endu’d with astringent and exsiccating Qualities, might have the same Virtue, yet since none were more efficacious, Embalmers or Salters were wont chiefly to use Nitre. Those both the Greek Historians and Physicians have sufficiently describ’d, but since they so disagree about this, I think it not improper to treat more particularly of it. First, Herodotus tells us, The Egyptians salted the dead Body 70 Days, and afterwards adds the use and reason of it, because, says he, Salt consumes the Flesh, and leaves nothing behind it but Skin and Bones; whence it appears Nitre was in very great esteem among them for preserving the Dead. But now, says Bellonius, there is so great scarcity of Nitre in Europe, that no Physician can say he has ever seen the true, for certainly a Man may be as well cheated in that Salt as in any Drugs now commonly us’d. Some there are who promiscuously use many Things instead of it, and others that as erroneously assert there are two sorts of it, one factitious and another natural, and I very much wonder that several excellent Physicians should not have taken notice, that the Saltpetre we now-a-days use is not the true Nitre: Nor have any of the Ancients 256distinguish’d Nitre into artificial and natural, one made by Art, and the other a concrete Body dug out of the Earth; for all Nitre is certainly made by Art, after the manner of other Salts, and not conceal’d in the Earth, but found above it. Nor is there any native Nitre dug out of the Earth, altho’ it may be made from Water; for Rain-Water being the purest, lightest and sweetest of all Waters, makes the best Nitre; so likewise does the Nile-Water, which from the force of its Mud, soon condenses the Nitre. Now to know where Nitre may be found, read Theophrastus, Lib. 3. cap. 22. who gives this as a very plain Argument, That where Palm-Trees grow in plenty, as they do in Africa, Syria, and the like Countries, there the Soil will always be Nitrous; for tho’ these Trees require the circum-ambient Air to be hot, that their Fruits may ripen, yet they nevertheless covet a salt Soil to refrigerate their Roots; whence we may gather that a Virtue in Earth to make Nitre is more wanting than in Water: But in Africa Nitre was cheaper than Salt, for tho’ Salt was both artificially made and dug out of the Rock, yet by reason of a Tax and Duty upon it, it was not so easie to be got as Nitre, which naturally concreted in the Vallies, and might be had without any Expence; wherefore the Arabians, who liv’d not far from the Sea, and the Egyptians, who had Nitre so cheap among them, us’d it before Salt, which they were forc’d to seek for and get in more remote Places; nay, they us’d to eat Nitre with their Radishes and Pot-Herbs, after the same manner as we now do Salt. And thus, so soon as the Inhabitants had first made Trial of Nitre, 257using it in their Bread, Pottage, Gruels, with their Flesh and other Food, and finding it wholesom, sought for no other Salt, but us’d Nitre in its stead, and taught the neighbouring Countries to do the like. But the Macedonians made their Bread with a sort of Nitre call’d, |Chalastræum Nitrum.| Chalastræum Nitrum, a Chalastra Civitate, Plin. 13. 10. a pure sort of Saltpetre, which, for the most part, they rather chose to make use of than Salt. Nitre took its rise in many parts of Europe, Asia and Africa, but Authors know that of one Country from another, by the goodness and badness of it, tho’ Nitre in general be commended by all, |Nitrum Berenicum.| and Galen praises the Nitre of Berenice of Pentapolis in Egypt.

‘Those Springs call’d by Pliny, Fontes amari, on the Shoar of the Red-Sea, would have had but little bitterness, had not the Soil been Nitrous. All the Fountains likewise of Arabia are bitterish, by reason of the nitrous Earth thro’ which they pass, and that Lake near the City of Chalastra in Macedon affords much Nitre. |Nitri spuma.| Authors call it Nitri spuma, Aphronitrum, and by several other Names. Galen orders this stony Matter first to be burn’d, and then levigated to a Powder; whereby it plainly appears our Saltpetre is not Nitre. There is nothing more frequently mention’d by Absyrtus, in his Book of Farriery, than Nitre; and it was also us’d by Ganea, and the Skilful have observ’d many Things to grow tender by Nitre, especially the Roots of Herbs, which are also made whiter by it, and Coleworts and Pot-Herbs greener.’ Some call the Flower of the Lapis Assius, Nitre, a kind of Stone of which Coffins were formerly made, which wasted dead Bodies: ‘But I 258would advise the Reader, says Bellonius, not to believe that Nitre, which we speak of, to have any affinity with the Salt commonly so call’d. |Armenian Nitre.| Avicenna prefers the Armenian Nitre before the Egyptian, and Dioscorides very much praises the Nitre of Buna. |Nitre of Buna.| The common People daily use the Nitre of Turkey, |Nitre of Turkey.| tho’ we are nevertheless ignorant whence it comes, and there is nothing more common among the Merchants of Nitria, Memphis, Constantinople and Damascus than what they vulgarly call Natron. It grows very plentifully in the Eastern Countries, and is much us’d in Dying Silk and Wool. Serapio also confounds Borax, which the Goldsmiths use, with Nitre; but Nitre is truly made by the benefit of the Soil and the force of the hot Sun, wherefore ’tis call’d by some of the Greeks Halmirhaga, |Halmirhaga.| deriving its Name partly from its bitterish Taste, and partly from its being got out of the Earth at Nitria, a City of Egypt, so call’d from Nitre. At Naucratis and Memphis there are places where Nitre grows, and where the Water is pour’d into it like Sea-Water into Salt-Pits. Between Memphis and Jerusalem we saw a Desart concreted with Nitre, from whence so great a quantity might be taken, that many Ships might have been easily laden therewith; which Desart, so concreted with Nitre, was longer than half a Mile, and when I past by it in the Night-Time, I thought it had been cover’d with Salt; and when the Moon shon, it rebounded up to the Pupils of my Eyes, and dazl’d them with its splendor. In it Camels, Horses and Mules had left the impression of their Footsteps, and when I lighted off my Horse and had cut some of it up, I found it to be of 259the same kind which I had before seen at Memphis. Nitre therefore is not dug out of a Mountain, or found in the Cavity of a Subterranean Den, or any where cover’d with Earth, but gather’d up a concrete Body from the surface of a Desart or solitary Place, and is to be ascrib’d more to the Earth than Water, by reason the Earth has there a kind of nitrous Substance. When Rain, Fountain or the Nile-Water has stood long in a Valley, it at length becomes nitrous, by exhaling up to its self a salt Matter or Substance from the bottom, which afterwards concretes, with the heat of the Sun, and becomes much harder than Salt. The whole mass of Nitre is not concreted in one and the same Day, but gradually and by degrees increases and becomes dry. The first Concretion has no great thickness, but when wet again with other Water, it adds by little and little another Covering. This growing harder and harder, so long concretes that it at last becomes a Foot and half thick, by which it comes to pass that the Face of the Nitre keeps a certain likeness to crusted Cadmia; for the whole Mass consists of right courses in equal Circles, and is not divided by intricate Windings, which Remark argues, that Nitre arises from a level Superficies or concretes in a certain solitary Place. Moreover the porous Nitre is dissolv’d in Water, but so that you cannot see the least Settlement in it, altho’ a great deal of an earthy Substance be found among it; and as a further Argument of the Truth of this, its very Ashes show it contains in it a great mixture of earthy Particles; for burning once a Pound of crude Nitre, I found four Ounces of Ashes remain’d, whereas our 260Saltpetre, if it but touch Fire, immediately flames, and is in an instant resolv’d into Air; whence we collect, that it consists of very subtil Parts, for ’tis very pungent on the Tongue, has great Tenuity, and plentifully provokes Spitle. |Three kinds of Nitre.| There are three sorts of Nitre, but that which is of a Rose-colour, or whitish and porous like Sponge, such as is brought from the Islands of Buna, Dioscorides prefers to the rest, being hard and solid for the most part like that of Egypt, and which indurates into heaps like Stone, which therefore are call’d by the Greeks Βουνοί, from the resemblance they have to Hills. The second sort of Nitre is not so well distinguish’d by Dioscorides as by Galen, who is thought to have us’d the name of Spuma Nitri two ways, first by dividing the words, Ἀφρὸς νίτρου, and secondly, by compounding them into Ἀφρόνιτρον, which distinction Pliny also seems to have observ’d where he calls the Spuma Nitri by the Latin word Operimentum, interpreted by Avicenna’s Annotator, Capistrum Nitri, not because the Nitre ferments or foams up in an old Valley, or that it is in it self a light Froth, but by reason the Spume of Nitre lyes on the top of the Nitre, and flowers of it self in Nitre-Works or Vallies in the Day-Time; for Nitre flowers with the Dew which falls in the Night, and then increases its Superficies and is perfected in the Day-Time, which Covering therefore is rightly call’d by Avicenna’s Interpreter Capistrum, but better by Pliny, Operimentum. Of this Dioscorides thus writes: |Spuma Nitri.| ‘That Spuma Nitri is best which is lightest, friable, biting and of a purplish Colour, such as is brought from Philadelphia in Lydia. The second sort is that of Egypt, which likewise is to be 261had in Magnetia in Caria.’ How this Efflorenscence which Pliny sometimes calls Operimentum, sometimes Spuma Nitri, and at other times Aphronitrum, is generated, we have shewn before, so shall next show what Aphronitrum is, for I distinguish between Aphronitrum and Spuma Nitri, that is, the Operimentum or Covering. But Pliny confounds Aphronitrum and Nitrum together, so that I really believe both Pliny and Serapio have taken what they have written of this Matter from the same Fountains; for Serapio speaking of Nitre says, There are two sorts of it, one call’d Nitre, which is Saltpetre, of a reddish Colour, saltish and bitterish Taste, soon discovering its burning Quality, |Borax.| and another sort call’d Borax, us’d by the Inhabitants of Yaya in working up their Bread, to make it look clear after ’tis bak’d. But that sort call’d artificial Borax is an incisive and abstersive Saltpetre, made from a nitrous Matter, being a mixture of Lead and Kali mingl’d together and put over the Fire, and this seems to be nothing else but that which the Goldsmiths use. Rhasis also is in a manner of the same Opinion with Serapio, for he says, of the two sorts of Borax, that which is made artificially, and is white and froathy, is much better than that of an earthy colour and dusty. It is from this that Tincar is made and seal’d. |Tincar.| Pliny has not omitted to mention this sealing as Galen and Dioscorides have likewise done, therefore I will insert his Words the better to show that his sealing of Tincar is the same with that of the Arabians. The next Age of Physicians, says he, deliver’d that Aphronitrum was gather’d in Asia, distilling into soft Caves or Dens, which they call’d Colycæ, and afterwards dry’d 262in the Sun. The best sort is that of Lydia, which is very light and friable, and almost of a purplish Colour, and brought thence in little Cakes or Trochisks, which words seem intirely to answer those of the Arabian; for, What can this Author mean by Trochisks, but the same thing which Serapio calls little seal’d Pieces? But Rhasis adds, That the Egyptian Nitre was brought in Vessels pitch’d over, least it should melt; and Pliny shows, that the next Age of Physicians deliver’d it was gather’d in Asia. Perhaps in the Time of Dioscorides, and also before his Time, they did not use to Seal the Spuma Nitri and Aphronitrum. |Lydian Nitre.| Pliny gives the Preference to the Lydian, and, moreover, when he describes the Marks of chusing it, he gives the same to the Aphronitrum as Dioscorides does to his Ἀφρόνιτρον. But that I may speak freely what I know of those three, they all proceed from the same Mass, altho’ from the different Places and Earth, they acquire a different colour, for some are of a Rose-colour, and others white. The Operimentum or Covering falls in Lydia and Egypt. The greatest use of Nitre in Laconia is for scouring Bodies. But since the Mass of Nitre, when long kept in Houses, consumes and wastes away by degrees, insomuch that that which was before hard, becomes gradually soft and crumbling, more-especially if it be kept in a moist place, nevertheless it does not discontinue being a Mass or Lump, but only becomes softer than Nitre. Physicians, when they remark or take notice as it were of a certain kind of Metamorphosis, of that which was before hard, so easily to become softer, think its Name ought to be chang’d, and its Virtues ascrib’d apart. But that 263which I have said concerning the alteration of Nitre, I have found true by experience, in some I brought with me out of the Eastern-Countries; for having given a great part of it to my Friends, some of them complain’d it was turn’d to Powder, and others, who had kept it in a moister place, that it was grown softer, and had chang’d its Colour. Pliny, Lib. 31. cap. 10. says, The Nature of Nitre is not to be esteem’d very different from Salt, and this he the more diligently asserts, inasmuch as those Physicians who have written of it, were ignorant of its true Nature, altho’ none has written more carefully of it than Theophrastus. He says, moreover, some Nitre is made in Media, the Vallies growing white and hoary with dryness. After the Rain or Fountain-Water is exhal’d from it, it is condens’d by the Soil, and converted into Nitre. Hence appears, as I said before, that those are very much deceiv’d, who report Nitre to be a certain Subterranean Matter like to Metal. Pliny afterwards adds, That the sort of Nitre call’d Agrium, in Thrace near Philippi, is less mix’d with Earth than any other sort; but I dare affirm Nitre is now no longer made in Thrace, for when I travell’d thither, and to and fro in the Philippian Country, that I might see this Nitre, I could find none either about the Ruins of the before-mention’d City or the adjacent Region. |Chalastræum Nitrum.| The Chalastræum Nitre took its Name from the City Chalastra. This I believe to be that sort which Alexander call’d Bucephalum, from the Name of his Horse. Nitrous Waters, says Pliny, are found in many places, but without any Power of condensing, which agrees with what I have already said, that all nitrous Waters will not make 264Nitre; so likewise all nitrous Earth, altho’ Water be pour’d over it, will not make Nitre, for ’tis necessary it should have a Virtue of thickning by the Sun, therefore this Virtue is believ’d not to be wanting in the Water, but in the Earth, for ’tis certain Nitre may be made out of the lightest, purest and sweetest Water. Nitre is very heavy in it self, for it sinks in Water like a Stone. The best Nitre, says Pliny, is very plentiful in Macedonia, |Nitrum Chalastricum.| and is call’d Chalastricum, being white and pure like to Salt. The Lake is nitrous, and out of its middle a sweet Fountain flows; there Nitre swims, about the rising of the Dog-Star, for nine Days together, and in as many ceases, then swims again, and afterwards ceases again, by which ’tis apparent the heat of the Sun condenses the Nitre, provided the Nature of the Soil be answerable, as Pliny witnesses in these words: The Nature of the Soil is what breeds Nitre, as is apparent, in that where it is wanting, neither Salts nor Showers avail any thing. This is also very wonderful, that tho’ the Spring be always seen to flow, yet neither does it increase the Lake nor run over; but if it Rains in those Days in which it is bred, the Nitre will become more Salt, and worse if the North-Winds happen to blow, for they violently stir up the Mud: In this place indeed ’tis produc’d, but more plentifully in Egypt, |Egyptian Nitre.| tho’ a worser sort, for ’tis of a dark colour and stony. It is made almost in the same manner with Salt, only they let the Sea run into their Salt-Pits, but the River Nile into their Nitre-Works. The Nile-Water being drawn off they dry it, and again infuse it in Nitre-Water 40 Days successively, but if it Rains they add less of 265the River-Water. So soon as it begins to condense, it is taken away least it should be dissolv’d in their Nitre-Works, but if laid up in heaps it will keep. Thus much Pliny speaks of Nitre, which abundantly shows it is no where dug in any Mountain or Soil, but as I have shown before, immediately so soon as it has begun to condense, and it Rains, they take it away, and lay it up in heaps, that it may last, for otherwise it would be melted by the Rain in their Nitre-Works. What Pliny says afterwards seems obscure, viz. That the thinnest part of Nitre is best, and consequently the Efflorenscence is better, nevertheless the foul sort is useful for some Things, as for dying Purples, Scarlets, &c. by which words ’tis evident he means two sorts of Nitre, one very fine call’d Spuma Nitri, |Spuma Nitri.| which he prefers for the best, and another course, us’d for dying Colours. The Nitre-Works in Egypt are very famous, and were wont to be only about Naucratis and Memphis: The worst are about Memphis, for there it lapifies in heaps, and from that cause many Hillocks are stony, of which they make Vessels. They also very frequently boil it with Sulphur upon Coals till it is melted; and use it in those things they would have keep a long while. There are Nitre-Works where it comes out reddish from the colour of the Earth. Thus far of Nitre; next Pliny mightily commends the Efflorenscence of Nitre, yet says, The Ancients deny’d it could be made, but only when the Dew fell and the Nitre-Places were pregnant, but not when they brought forth, therefore could not be done by hastning or stirring up altho’ it fell. Others think it was bred by Fermentation, &c.’ Thus far 266of Nitre according to Bellonius, Pliny and others.

Pickle made of Nitre.

Now this is generally agreed on, that after the Body was stuff’d with sweet Odours, Gums and Spices, it was macerated in a sort of Pickle, the Composition of which, tho’ unknown to us, is asserted by most of the Ancients to be made of Nitre. Nor is it proper for us, say Penicher, Traite des Embaumemens, p. 83. to explain one Obscurity by another that is greater; since this Nitre, so famous and mightily boasted of by the Ancients, is at this Day a Mistery, for the more one endeavours to show its Origin, by examining the different Descriptions given it, the more reason one has to doubt of its Existence. In the first place, they agree not in one point among themselves, |Different Opinions of Nitre.| either as to its Colour, Figure or Quality; for some say ’tis white, others that ’tis red, and others again that ’tis of a Leaden or Ash-colour: Some there are who will have it of a porous Substance like a Sponge, others that ’tis solid and compact, and others that ’tis shining and transparent like to Glass. Nor do they less dissagree about its Virtue than its Form and Colour, for some say ’tis of a cold Nature, and others that it has a Caustic Quality, as Herodotus, who says, that it consumes the Flesh in such manner that it leaves nothing but Skin and Bones. Wherefore, after so many Contradictions and different Descriptions of the nature of this Mineral, what can we believe for certain? Have we not just reason to doubt that this Nitre is but pretended? How should it come to be invisible if it were a Mineral? And again why should we not have it, if it be produc’d after the manner of our common Salt? The Sun, Moon and other Planets, as also the Earth have not ceas’d since their Creation to obey yearly such 267Orders as the Divine Providence has prescrib’d them, and their Productions have daily been the same from one Age to another. The Earth is the same Matrix for the formation of Vegetables and Minerals, and the Sun has not refus’d its Influences for their Generation. What therefore can be the reason, or by what accident should we at present be depriv’d of so precious a Salt? We cannot see why it should be so lost as never to be repair’d; but it is also reported that the true Cinnamon, Bdellium, Costus Amomum, Balsamum verum, Malobathrum, Sal Armoniac, Myrrha, and several Minerals, Gums and Plants are lost, yet certainly it is not so, but only the Knowledge and Use of them lost to many People; or perhaps they may not be found in those places where they were wont to grow, yet may be had in others, which often happens; so that they do not entirely Perish, but only change their Soil, by which means it may come to pass they may not commonly be known, and sometimes it happens they appear with a different Face, by reason of the diversity of the Place and temperature of the Heavens; wherefore, as St. Chrisostom rightly concludes, none of those Substances or kinds of Things, which GOD has created from the beginning of the World, have ever been wanting or will ever perish. Et Benedixit illa DEUS, & dixit, Crescite & multiplicamini: Verbum enim illud in præsentem usq; diem illa conservat, & tantum Tempus præteriit, neq; unum horum Genus imminutum est; nam Benedictio DEI, & Verbum quod dixerat, ut subsisterent & durarent, illis contulit. And GOD Blessed them and said, Be fruitful and multiply: Which Word has preserv’d them even to this present Day, so that the Time only is pass’d away, but not the least kind of them has perish’d; for the 268Blessing of GOD, and the Words which he spake, made them that they should endure for ever.

The Nitre of the Ancients the same with our Saltpetre.

The Nitre therefore of the Ancients so renown’d, may be the same with our Saltpetre, as Schroder and the learned Etmuller think, and Clarke more particularly in his Natural History of Nitre, p. 12. asserts, That the Nitre of the Ancients is the same with Ours: In which, says he, altho’ we dissent from some learned Philosophers, as Matthiolus, Bellonius, &c. yet are there others as learned with whom we agree, such as Cardanus, Casimirus Siemienowicz Eques Lithuanus, and more particularly also may be mention’d the Ingenious Mr. Henshaw, who has learnedly prov’d this Assertion to the Royal Society. But not to inforce this Opinion only by Authority but Reason, we affirm this to be the same from its Nature; for the Thing is yet in Being, and this bearing its Name may not unjustly challenge its Nature: And that this was known to the Ancients (as we affirm their Nitre is to us) the Testimony of Pliny plainly evinces, as the before-mention’d learned Author Casimirus observes, viz. Aperte enim Salem hunc, qui in Cavernis sua sponte in Rupium Superficies erumpebat, Florem & Spumam Nitri, Salemq; petrosum vel Petræ nominat. But the Ancients seem not to observe this Ἀφρόνιτρον or Efflorenscence of Nitre on Walls, and in Houses on Floors, as we do, they having had it in open Fields, tho’ we have not, neither was it so much in use with them as with us, and this gave occasion for the new Name of Sal-petræ to be given to the old Nitre. Now, tho’ by Pliny’s and other antient Authors descriptions of Nitre, when compar’d with ours, they may seem to differ, yet may it not be a real difference, but only in degrees of purity, the like whereof we may see in 269Sugar and Salt, which by artificial Refining are made one and the same; and as it bears the same Name, so has it the same Qualities and Virtues, and was antiently us’d both by Galenists and Chymists. |Nitre us’d in Cookery.| Now it was this no doubt the Ancients us’d in their Aliments instead of common Salt; and ’tis by some affirm’d that Roots grow whiter if boil’d therewith, and Herbs greener: Moreover, ’tis well known to us Moderns that Nitre or its Salt, separated in the Refining, gives a red colour to Neats-Tongues, Coller’d Beef, Bacon, &c. adding to it also a more savoury Taste, which does thereby both invite and please the Appetite.

Thus far of Nitre according to the several Opinions of the before-mention’d Authors; but what the Composition was, wherewith the Ancients pickl’d the Body, whether with Nitre or Salt, is not as yet determin’d. Herodotus and divers others affirm it was salted with Nitre, yet some think the Virtue of Salt more commendable, finding it of so great use in preserving Flesh and Fish; others again do not think Bodies become unperishable by Salting, but are only preserv’d for some Months or Years, and if fresh Pickle be not added, or any part of the Body happen to be expos’d to the Air, it soon corrupts and stinks, for the Moisture of the Air dissolves the imbib’d Salt, and this issuing forth the Body soon perishes. This is farther remarkable from a Story of Baronius in his Annals, |A Body found Preserv’d in a Salt-Pit.| of a Body found in a Subterranean Cave, full of salt Water, in the Mountains of Saltzburg, which was whole and incorrupt, the Skin white, the Eyes open and lively, and the whole remaining, with all its parts, firm and hard as a Stone, yet in three Days Time, being as it were impatient of the Air, it turn’d into Water and 270perish’d. From this Story we may learn that salted Bodies, altho’ they resist Corruption for a short Time, yet at length perish; |Salt us’d with Balsamics preserves Bodies.| nevertheless Salt, or such things as are Analagous to it, if us’d with other Balsamics, afford some help in the Embalming of Bodies, whereby they are not dispos’d to the same Fluxion, as both Reason and Experience teach, and perhaps Nitre being a more solid Body and not so apt to dissolve in the Air, might also on that account be preferr’d by the Egyptians. However, whether Salt or Nitre be to be understood by this Work of Salination needs not much to be disputed, since both, by their known balsamic Virtue and innate Siccity, may assist in this Operation, even as in the preparing English Hams, &c. we are wont to use them mix’d together, the one perhaps being more peircing and the other more durable, the former to give a grateful Taste, and the latter a pleasant Colour. But, as we cannot readily grant, that the Salting us’d by the Egyptians, was effectual enough to preserve Bodies without Balsamic Medicines, so neither can we, that any means besides could hinder its Extraction or Dissolution, and therefore I am the more inclinable to think, First, That they did not drysalt the Body, but macerated it in a liquid Pickle, which equally surrounded it every-where, and peirc’d deeper thro’ the Pores of the Skin; and when they had let it infuse for a convenient Time, they anointed it with Oil of Cedar for 30 Days together, as Diodorus Siculus relates, and afterwards with Myrrh, Cinamon and other Drugs, which Salting and Anointing took up in all 70 Days, according to the Account of Herodotus. The latter Ointment was us’d as well to give the Body a sweet Smell as to Preserve it; but, tho’ the 271former was held of great efficacy for that purpose, yet is it a thing as difficult to recover in these our Times, says Penicher, as it is to find out the Composition of the Pickle we have been speaking of, nevertheless we must make some attempt therein. First then, we will take notice of the different Appellations, by which the Ancients have us’d to express this Matter, calling it by the several names of a Gum or Rosin, a Liquor or Juice, an Oil or Ointment, and lastly a Pitch; |Cedria what.| but which of all these they meant by the Word Cedria will be better understood from a Description of that Tree, together with the several sorts of Juices extracted from it, and their Uses and Virtues. ’Tis true, as some Authors have said, a Matter so call’d may be drawn from other Trees, such as Larch, Pine, Birch, Cypress and Juniper; but that which we mean is from the great Cedar, whose Leaves never fall, and which bears Fruit all the Year round. Its Wood, of all others, is esteem’d the least corruptible, and consequently, says Pierius, is the Hieroglyphic of Eternity. The Ark of the Covenant, the Temple of Solomon, and that of Diana at Ephesus, were all built with it, and for the same reason the Egyptians often made their Coffins of it: The Ancients also us’d to anoint the Leaves and Covers of their Books with its Oil, thereby to defend them from Moths, Worms and the injuries of Time, whence it came to be spoken Proverbially of such a one as had deserv’d to be recorded to Posterity, Cedro digna locutus, in that his Writings were thereby preserv’d from perishing. Now this Tree affords three or four different sorts of Liquors or Juices: First, A thick, but clear Gum, of a good tho’ strong Odour, being a Tear that drops from young Cedars after their Barks 272are pill’d off, and this is what they properly call’d Cedria. |Gum of Cedar.| Secondly, A sort of Liquor drawn from the said Wood, |Liquor of Cedar.| call’d by the Syrians Cedrum, and which are the first droppings of these Branches of Cedar when one burns them, for that which comes last is the Pitch of Cedar, |Pitch of Cedar.| being prepar’d after the same manner with other Pitch, as you may find describ’d in Bellonius de Medic. Funer. p. 40. Lastly, There is an Oil of Cedar, |Oil of Cedar.| express’d from the warm’d Fruit of this Tree, and call’d by Pliny and Delachampius, Cedrelæon, as it were Cedri-oleum. These several Liquors have been so confounded by Authors, as to have been taken indifferently for one another, which perhaps was because they have almost all the same Virtues; yet I suppose the Egyptians might adapt the Use of them according to their several Consistencies, and therefore employ’d the Gum with other Drugs in stuffing the Body, the first distill’d Liquor in their Injections, and the Oil, as more valuable, for their Anointings; or else might use the Tar or Pitch after the same manner as Asphalt and Pissasphalt, for the inferior sort of People. |Virtues of Cedar.| Now in respect to the Virtues of Cedar, besides that it heats and drys powerfully, it has likewise this particular and remarkable Quality, that after the nature of Septic and Escharotic Medicines, it corrodes and consumes the Flesh in a very short Time, if apply’d to a living Body; but, on the contrary, is a sovereign Preservative for the same Body the very moment ’tis depriv’d of Life; for consisting of hot, dry and subtil Parts, it consumes all superfluous Humidity, the cause of Putrifaction, and thereby preserves the dead Body, whereas in living Creatures, being rarify’d and put in action by the natural Heat, it disunites 273their Parts and consumes them. Those antient Physicians Dioscorides, Galen, Paulus, Aetius and Aegineta have all asserted, That the Nature of Cedar was such as to preserve dead Bodies, but would consume the Living, whereupon, they not without reason have term’d it, The Life of the Dead, and The Death of the Living. Likewise Diodorus Siculus tells us, the Egyptians anointed the Bodies they were to Embalm with Oil or Ointment of Cedar, for the space of 30 Days; whereas, Herodotus gives us a quite different Account, how that, without cutting open the Belly and pulling out the Entrails, |Clysters of Cedar and their Operation.| they injected up the Anus Clysters of Oil or Juice of Cedar, and then salted the Body 70 Days, at the end of which they squeez’d out the Clysters, which had such Virtue and Efficacy, that they brought away with them all the Guts and Bowels wasted. But in answer to this, Clauder in Methodo Balsamandi, p. 58. says, he cannot but believe that this Author had forgot to mention somewhat necessary to be done besides, and Nardius laughs at it as a ridiculous Story, to imagine how these Clysters should spare the fleshy Parts, but rot the Bowels. But grant an intire Efficacy to this Balsamic Liquor, thus Clysterwise immitted into the Intestins, yet since it is well known to Physicians, that Medicines, this way exhibited to the Dead, immediately flow out again, the nervous and fibrous Parts, which before were us’d to retain them, operate no longer by reason of their Stupor and defect of Spirits. I cannot see, says Clauder, how a Clyster can be contain’d in a dead body so as to perform its Work, or if it should be intruded up by force, it cannot so quickly penetrate to the superior Parts; for it must waste the Mesentery, Liver, Spleen, 274Stomach and Guts before it can ascend into the Cavity of the Breast, by which time its Contents will be putrify’d, and that more-especially since nothing besides was done to prevent Corruption, but an external Salting. Wherefore, as was said before, he must needs have mistaken the Process, and perhaps if Bodies were Embalm’d this way with Cedar (which Nardius utterly denies) without Incision and Exenteration, it might be perform’d by filling the Head, Breast and Belly with Pitch of Cedar (the way of doing which I shall hereafter show) and then infusing and macerating the Body in its liquid Juice or Oil: And that the Egyptians us’d to Embalm Bodies with Cedar, appears farther from their preserving Crocodiles, Hawks and other Animals, |Animals Embalm’d with Cedar.| which they worshipp’d, with Nitre and the Liquor of Cedar, and afterwards anointing them with odoriferous Unguents, they bury’d them in Sacred Places: Diodorus Siculus, Lib. 5. cap. 2. says, the Gauls were wont to deposite the Heads of their slain Enemies, that were of any Quality, in Chests, having first Embalm’d them with Oil of Cedar, &c.

The third sort of Embalming, us’d for the poorer sort of People, was perform’d, as Herodotus tells us, by washing the Belly, and then drying it with Salt for 70 Days, after which ’twas deliver’d to be carry’d away. Now, as Clauder says, if this was done without Exenteration, it appears the least probable of all, as daily experience shows; therefore we must look on that Historian as too credulous in the Relation of some Things, and perhaps as one that had forgot other Operations to be done, or medicinal Species to be added: But if the Belly was open’d and thoroughly wash’d and cleans’d, the Bowels flung into the River 275or else bury’d, and the Vessels empty’d of their Blood and Juices, and then the Body salted and dry’d in the Sun, it might probably be render’d very hard and durable, and not liable to dissolve or melt by any Damps or Moisture, Egypt being a warm Country, and enjoying a perpetual Serenity of Air, even as Flesh and Fish when salted and dry’d in the Wind, Sun or Smoak, &c. may be preserv’d for some Years, if kept in a dry and warm place. Diodorus Siculus speaks nothing of this third sort of Embalming, and Gabriel Clauder, Johannes Nardius, Bellonius, and other Physicians assert, there were only two sorts, |Only two sorts of Embalming.| one for the Rich and Noble, perform’d after a more accurate and costly manner, and another more vile for the poorer Sort; for Nardius is of Opinion, that which was suppos’d to be perform’d with Cedar, was only a cheat of the Libitinarii to pick the Pockets of the richer People; the first sort being perform’d with odoriferous Gums and Spices, and the latter with a strong scented Bitumen call’d Asphalt, or for want of that with Pissasphalt, which things are not mention’d in the Accounts of Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus relating to Embalming; yet from the occular Demonstration of several eminent Physicians, and their Experiments and Dissections of such Bodies as are commonly brought over for Mummies, it is plainly prov’d they were prepar’d with this Bituminous Matter, therefore we will next describe what that is. Now seeing Authors so much confound Asphalt with Pissasphalt, and thereby become mistaken even in the word Mummy, I think it very necessary to show their differences, they being two sorts of Bitumen that were commonly us’d by the Egyptians in their Embalmings.

Asphalt.

276First then of Asphalt, a natural Bitumen of a viscous and glutinous Substance, which swims on the surface of the Lake Asphaltites in Palestine (above 100 Miles from Damiata in Egypt, whereas Le Bruyn is grosly mistaken when he makes it but two Italian Miles, as before quoted, p. 143.) and being driven by the Winds on the Shoar, there condenses by the heat of the Sun, and becomes tough and hard like Pitch. There is also Bitumen found in several other places, as Dioscorides relates, viz. in Phœnicia, Babylon, Sydon, &c. But this which comes from the Lake Asphaltites in Judea, thence call’d Bitumen Judaicum, is the best of all, being clean and shining, of a black or purplish Colour, of a strong Smell, and that may easily be burn’d and crumbl’d between the Fingers. With this Asphalt were Embalm’d those of a middle sort, |How us’d in Embalming.| but by reason it was of too dry a Substance, Naptha and liquid Bitumen, or Oleum Petroleum were usually added to it by melting over the Fire, and then the Body being boil’d therein, the Embalming was finish’d according to the accustom’d manner: To this purpose Authors give these Reasons for the use of Asphalt, that by its astringent and exsiccating Nature, it restrains that moisture which would lead to Corruption, and no less by its balsamic Quality and Viscosity hinders the fluid Atoms of the Air from penetrating the internal parts of the Body, thereby opening a way for its Dissolution. In like manner the poorer Sort were Embalm’d with Pissasphalt, made fluid by some of the above-mention’d Oils; and seeing likewise there were said to be two kinds of this, one Natural and another Artificial, we will next enquire into them:

Natural Pissasphalt.

The Natural Pissasphalt, according to Dioscorides, 277Valerius Cordus his Commentator, and others, is a kind of Bitumen flowing from certain Mountains call’d Ceraunii Montes in Apollonia, near the City Epidaurus, now Ragusa, whence being carry’d by the impetuosity of the River, it is cast on the Shoar and there condens’d into Clods, smelling like to a mixture of Pitch and Bitumen, from whence it came to be term’d by the Greeks Pissasphaltos, a πίσσα, vel πίττα pix, & ἄσφαλτος, Bitumen, quasi dicas Pici Bitumen, and had the same Virtues with Pitch and Bitumen or Asphalt mix’d together. ’Tis brought in great Plenty from Valona to Venice for pitching Ships, which it admirably performs if mix’d with the Pitch of Pine-Trees. ’Tis also brought from Dalmatia, being there dug near Lesina, not far from Narenta, and is likewise found in Hungary, where the Inhabitants call it Fossil Wax; moreover ’tis to be had in Transilvania, and the Germans name it Erdtwachs and Bergwachs, that is Wax generated in the Earth or Mountains. The Spaniards likewise call it, Cera de minera, mineral Wax, perhaps from its Consistency; but the Arabians term it Mumia, whence, it may be, Embalm’d Bodies came to be call’d Mummies, |Call’d Mummy.| from their being preserv’d with this Pissasphalt, and this we are the more apt to believe, since the true Asphalt or Bitumen Judaicum was very scarce, nor is it now to be had in the Shops, as some believe, but Pissasphalt is sold in its stead. Brasavolus thinks those dry’d Bodies of the Arabians and other Nations, brought to us from Syria and Egypt for Mummies, were only fill’d with Pissasphalt, inasmuch as being the poorer sort of People in those Countries, they could not be suppos’d to afford the expence of a better Embalment, for the Rich and Noble, whose Bodies were Embalm’d more costly with 278Myrrh, Aloes, Cinamon, Balsam, Saffron, and the like, were so carefully inclos’d in their private Sepulchres, that it was not only a very difficult matter to get at them, but also more rare to bring any of them over; whereas the Bodies of the Poor and Ignoble, stuff’d only with Pissasphalt, of so mean a price and after so slight a manner, were to be come at with little trouble and less suspicion. Thus the Syrians and Egyptians were wont to condite their Bodies, and the Arabians also, from what Matthiolus could learn from their Writings, esteem’d Mummy to be Pissasphalt rather than Asphalt, for, as Avicenna writes, Mummy performs the very same thing as Asphalt does, when mix’d with Pitch; from whence we may easily conjecture, that the Bodies were only prepar’d with Pissasphalt. |Bodies only prepar’d with Pissasphalt.| With this also Serapio agrees, who, discoursing of Mummy, according to the Authority of Dioscorides, delivers the very same words as he does of Pissasphalt, affirming, there is Mummy or Pissasphalt in the Land of Apollonia, which, descending from the Mountains by the course of the River, is cast upon its Banks, and there coagulated like Wax, having the Smell of Pitch mix’d with Asphalt, with some Fætor, and its Virtue is like to Pitch and Asphalt mix’d together, whence ’tis also thought our Mummy is rather Pissasphalt than Asphalt; for altho’ Strabo says, The Bitumen Judaicum was us’d for preserving Bodies, nevertheless he does not deny but they mix’d Pitch with Bitumen, which makes an artificial Pissasphalt; |Artificial Pissasphalt.| but Serapio and Avicenna knew these Mixtures very well, since not only the Syrians, but, their Countrymen the Mauritanians also made use of it. Also that which is sold to us for Mummy, is only the Body of an Egyptian, Arabian, or the like, Embalm’d 279with Pissasphalt, neither is it always properly so, says Struppius, for they sometimes us’d to lay the Bones of a Human Body in their proper places, and pour’d over them melted Pissasphalt, |Sophisticate Mummy.| which working into the natural form and shape of the Body, they sent over for Mummy, and such is that which is brought to us even at this Day, having no particle of Myrrh, Aloes, Balsam, &c. mix’d with it, as manifestly appears from its Smell, Taste and Colour.

Thus having shew’d how the Egyptians preserv’d their Dead after several ways, as by Salination with Aromatics, Salination with Cedar, Asphalt or Pissasphalt, and by Salination with Salt alone, according to the Accounts of Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus and the Observations of other Persons upon them, I will next add some other Remarks concerning the Nature of their Embalmings, and the respective Works of the several Persons employ’d therein; likewise, the manner of Rouling, Painting and Dressing their Dead, with the Ceremonies of Judging them, ferrying them over the Lake, keeping them in their Houses, setting them at their Tables, pawning them, &c.

First then, we will suppose the Egyptians had a certain Temple or Office wherein all Things were kept in order for Embalming a Body, |An Office of Embalming.| to which there belong’d, and where there resided all sorts of Persons who perform’d any particular part of that Art, as Washing, Salting, Anointing, &c. or else prepar’d any kind of Necessaries for the Funeral Pomp. Now these were distinguish’d by the several Names of a Priest or Physician, an Embalmer or Surgeon, a Pollinctor or Apothecary, a Dissector or Anatomist, a Salinator or Salter and a Designer or Painter, also Νεκροκόσμος, a Dresser 280of the Dead, and Ἐνταφιαστής, one that furnish’d all Necessaries for the Funeral, and bury’d the Body, being call’d in Latin Libitinarius: That there was such an Office, appears not only from these several Persons, mention’d by Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus, who were employ’d therein, and either profess’d the Art of Embalming, or perform’d some other part belonging to the Funeral Pomp, but is also prov’d from their saying, That the dead Body was carry’d out to be Embalm’d, which plainly implies some certain place allotted for that purpose. First therefore, we will suppose there belong’d to this Office a Clerk, |The Clerk.| who shew’d, the Friends of the Deceas’d, Patterns of all sorts of things belonging either to the Libitinarii or Furnishers of the Funeral, or to the Curatores Corporis, the Embalmers, who having agreed with them after what manner, and at what Price they would have it done, enter’d it into a Book, and took care to see it perform’d accordingly. The President or Head of this College, we take to be one who was both a Priest and Physician, |The Physician.| and therefore was highly Honour’d, and had in the greatest Esteem and Respect. As a Priest he was qualify’d to instruct the several Officers in all Funeral Rites and Ceremonies, and confirm the People in the Metempsychosis, upon which those Matters were grounded: As a Physician, being skill’d in the Art of Embalming, and the Nature of all Vegetables and Minerals, he prescrib’d balsamic Medicines and odoriferous Unguents for the Apothecary to compound and apply pursuant to his Directions, and instructed the Surgeon how to perform the manual Operation. That there was a Physician made use of in Embalming, appears very plainly from the Second Verse of the 50th Chapter of Genesis, 281where Moses, speaking of the Death of Jacob, says his Son Joseph commanded his Servants, the Physicians, to Embalm his Father, and the Physicians Embalm’d Israel; where by his Servants, the Physicians, seems to be meant either those properly belonging to his Person, it being antiently a Custom for Princes and Noble Men to have such in their Families to wait upon and take care of them, or by the Repetition The Physicians Embalm’d Israel, might be meant those of the Office, since Joseph, being Viceroy of Egypt, might well command them, they being all his Servants and in subjection to him. |Embalming of Jacob.| This leads me to digress a little in order to give a further Account of the Embalming Jacob, whereby will appear how far those Heathen Writers before-mention’d agree with the Scripture. First then there was a great necessity for Embalming Jacob, by reason his Body was to be carry’d a great way to his Sepulchre, and both Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus tell us, there were those in Egypt that profess’d the Art of preserving Bodies from Corruption, which ’tis plain was part of the Physicians Emploiment, for the word Ropheim (which we Translate Physicians) constantly signifies in Scripture such as cur’d or heal’d sick Bodies; but the LXX. here aptly enough Translate it Ἐνταφιαστὰς, (those that prepar’d and fitted Bodies for their Interment by Embalming as we, says the Bishop of Ely, likewise Translate it) because that was their proper Business; whence ’tis Pliny, Lib. 11. chap. 37. says, Mos est Ægyptiis Cadavera asservare Medicata, ’Tis the Custom among the Egyptians to preserve dead Bodies by the Physicians Art. In this Art they excell’d all the World besides, Bodies of their Embalming remaining entire even to this Day, and no question but Joseph, 282who spar’d neither Cost nor Pains, had his Father Embalm’d after the noblest manner. |Perform’d in Forty Days.| And Forty Days were fulfill’d for him (for so are fulfill’d the Days of those that are Embalm’d) and the Egyptians Mourn’d for him Threescore and Ten Days, ver. 3. That is, Forty Days were spent in Embalming him, which could not be finish’d in a shorter Time, for Diodorus Siculus tells us of several Officers that were employ’d about it one after another, and that they anointed the dead Body with Balsam of Cedar for above 30 Days, and afterwards with Myrrh, Cinamon, and the like, which might make up the residue of 40 Days: But Herodotus differs from him in this, by adding 30 Days more for Salting the Body with Nitre, which makes in all 70 Days, the full Time of their Mourning, |The Time of their Mourning.| they being accustom’d to spend all that Time, which they were Embalming the Body and preparing for the Funeral, in Mourning, the manner of which we have before describ’d, p. 241, 243, 245, 247. so shall here only farther take notice what some object, that this Mourning was immoderate, having more of Ambition than Piety in it; to which Jacobus Capellus answers, That granting it be true, that Joseph did not bring in this Custom, and had peculiar Reason to follow what he found in use, that they might be more condemn’d who vex’d the innocent Posterity, on whose Parent they had bestow’d Royal Honours; there is besides something due to Kings and great Men to distinguish them from common People. Now when the Days of Mourning were past, that is 70 Days, Joseph went up to Bury his Father, and with him went up all the Servants of Pharaoh, the Elders of his House, and all the Elders of the Land of Egypt, |Funeral Procession.| ver. 7. The principal Persons in Authority and Dignity 283throughout the whole Country, as well such as were Governors of Provinces and Cities, Counsellors, &c. as such as were principal Officers at Court. And all the House of Joseph, and his Brethren, and his Fathers House, ver. 8. And there went up with him both Chariots and Horsemen, v. 9. as a Guard to him, which ’tis likely always attended him, as Viceroy of the Kingdom, but now might be necessary for his safety as he pass’d thro’ the Desarts. And it was a very great Company. That he might appear in great State at such a Solemnity. When they came beyond Jordan they mourn’d with a great and very sore Lamentation seven Days, the Time of public Mourning among the Jews in succeeding Ages, as appears from several Instances, particularly, 1 Sam. 31. 13. Eccl. 22. 13. Judith 16. 20. Moreover this shows the Lamentation was so exceeding great, that the Place where it was made was afterwards call’d Abel-Mizraim, |Abel-Mizraim.| that is, The Mourning of the Egyptians. But how they bury’d Jacob when they came into Canaan, as also concerning the nature of the Cave wherein they laid him, see the Bishop of Ely’s Notes on the 50th Chapter of Genesis, from whom I have chiefly extracted this; and other Commentators, for I think it high time to return to the Embalming of the Egyptians, according to the propos’d institution of an Office, in which having already shown the respective Emploiments of the Clerk and Priest or Physician, we shall next proceed to speak of the Surgeon or Embalmer, and of all other inferior Officers under him, such as the Dissector, Emboweller, Pollinctor, Salter, and other dependant Servants, as Dressers of the Dead, Painters, Carvers, and the like.