Front matter (continued 2)

Suits may be brought in Federal or State court; typically, they are based on a claim that a student's constitutional or statutory rights have been violated. Frequently, these suits will seek to revoke the school district's imposition of some disciplinary measure, for example, by ordering the reinstatement of a student who has been expelled or suspended. Suits may also attempt to recover money damages from the school district or the employee involved, or both, however, court awards of money damages are extremely rare. Moreover, although there can be no guarantee of a given result in any particular case, courts in recent years have tended to discourage such litigation.

In general, disciplinary measures imposed reasonably and in accordance with established legal requirements will be upheld by the courts. As a rule, Federal judges will not substitute their interpretations of school rules or regulations for those of local school authorities or otherwise second-guess reasonable decisions by school officials. [25] In addition, school officials are entitled to a qualified good faith immunity from personal liability for damages for having violated a student's Federal constitutional or civil rights. [26] When this immunity applies, it shields school officials from any personal liability for money damages. Thus, as a general matter, personal liability is very rare, because officials should not be held personally liable unless their actions are clearly unlawful, unreasonable, or arbitrary.

When a court does award damages, the award may be "compensatory" or "punitive." Compensatory damages are awarded to compensate the student for injuries actually suffered as a result of the violation of his or her rights and cannot be based upon the abstract "value" or "importance" of the constitutional rights in question. [27] The burden is on the student to prove that he suffered actual injury as a result of the deprivation. Thus, a student who is suspended, but not under the required procedures, will not be entitled to compensation if he would have been suspended had a proper hearing been held. If the student cannot prove that the failure to hold a hearing itself caused him some compensable harm, then the student is entitled to no more than nominal damages, such as $1.00. [28] "Punitive damages" are awarded to punish the perpetrator of the injury. Normally, punitive damages are awarded only when the conduct in question is malicious, unusually reckless, or otherwise reprehensible.

Parents and students can also claim that actions by a school or school officials have violated State law. For example, it can be asserted that a teacher "assaulted" a student in violation of a State criminal law. The procedures and standards in actions involving such violations are determined by each State. Some States provide a qualified immunity from tort liability under standards similar to the "good faith" immunity in Federal civil rights actions. Other States provide absolute immunity under their law for actions taken in the course of a school official's duties.

Nondiscrimination in Enforcement of Discipline

Federal law applicable to programs or activities receiving Federal financial assistance prohibits school officials who are administering discipline from discriminating against students on the basis of race, color, national origin, or sex. Schools should therefore administer their discipline policies even-handedly, without regard to such considerations. Thus, as a general matter, students with similar disciplinary records who violate the same rule in the same way should be treated similarly. For example, if male and female students with no prior record of misbehavior are caught together smoking marijuana, it would not, in the absence of other relevant factors, be advisable for the school to suspend the male for 10 days while imposing only an afternoon detention on the female. Such divergent penalties for the same offense may be appropriate, however, if, for example, the student who received the harsher punishment had a history of misconduct or committed other infractions after this first confrontation with school authorities.

School officials should also be aware of and adhere to the special rules and procedures for the disciplining of handicapped students under the Education of the Handicapped Act, 20 USC § 1400-20, and Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, 29 USC § 794.

(For legal citations, see reference section.)

RESOURCES

Specific Drugs and Their Effects

CANNABIS

Effects

All forms of cannabis have negative physical and mental effects. Several regularly observed physical effects of cannabis are a substantial increase in the heart rate, bloodshot eyes, a dry mouth and throat, and increased appetite.

Use of cannabis may impair or reduce short-term memory and comprehension, alter sense of time, and reduce ability to perform tasks requiring concentration and coordination, such as driving a car. Research also shows that students do not retain knowledge when they are "high." Motivation and cognition may be altered, making the acquisition of new information difficult. Marijuana can also produce paranoia and psychosis.

Because users often inhale the unfiltered smoke deeply and then hold it in their lungs as long as possible, marijuana is damaging to the lungs and pulmonary system. Marijuana smoke contains more cancer-causing agents than tobacco.

Long-term users of cannabis may develop psychological dependence and require more of the drug to get the same effect. The drug can become the center of their lives.

Type What is it called? What does it look like? How is it used?

Marijuana Pot Grass Weed Reefer Dope Mary Jane Sinsemilla Acapulco Gold Thai Sticks Dried parsley mixed with stems that may include seeds Eaten Smoked

Tetrahydro-cannabinol THC Soft gelatin capsules Taken orally Smoked

Hashish Hash Brown or black cakes or balls Eaten Smoked

Hashish Oil Hash Oil Concentrated syrupy liquid varying in color from clear to black Smoked—mixed with tobacco

INHALANTS

Effects

Immediate negative effects of inhalants include nausea, sneezing, coughing, nose-bleeds, fatigue, lack of coordination, and loss of appetite. Solvents and aerosol sprays also decrease the heart and respiratory rates, and impair judgment. Amyl and butyl nitrite cause rapid pulse, headaches, and involuntary passing of urine and feces. Long-term use may result in hepatitis or brain hemorrhage.

Deeply inhaling the vapors, or using large amounts over a short period of time, may result in disorientation, violent behavior, unconsciousness, or death. High concentrations of inhalants can cause suffocation by displacing the oxygen in the lungs or by depressing the central nervous system to the point that breathing stops.

Long-term use can cause weight loss, fatigue, electrolyte imbalance, and muscle fatigue. Repeated sniffing of concentrated vapors over time can permanently damage the nervous system.

Type What is it called? What does it look like? How is it used?

Nitrous Oxide Laughing gas Whippets Propellant for whipped cream in aerosol spray can Small 8-gram metal cylinder sold with a balloon or pipe (buzz bomb) Vapors inhaled

Amyl Nitrite Poppers Snappers Clear yellowish liquid in ampules Vapors inhaled

Butyl Nitrite Rush Bolt Locker room Bullet Climax Packaged in small bottles Vapors inhaled

Chlorohydrocarbons Aerosol sprays Aerosol paint cans Containers of cleaning fluid Vapors inhaled

Hydrocarbons Solvents Cans of aerosol propellants, gasoline, glue, paint thinner Vapors inhaled

STIMULANT: COCAINE

Effects

Cocaine stimulates the central nervous system. Its immediate effects include dilated pupils and elevated blood pressure, heart rate, respiratory rate, and body temperature. Occasional use can cause a stuffy or runny nose, while chronic use can ulcerate the mucous membrane of the nose. Injecting cocaine with unsterile equipment can cause AIDS, hepatitis, and other diseases. Preparation of freebase, which involves the use of volatile solvents, can result in death or injury from fire or explosion. Cocaine can produce psychological and physical dependency, a feeling that the user cannot function without the drug. In addition, tolerance develops rapidly.

Crack or freebase rock is extremely addictive, and its effects are felt within 10 seconds. The physical effects include dilated pupils, increased pulse rate, elevated blood pressure, insomnia, loss of appetite, tactile hallucinations, paranoia, and seizures.

The use of cocaine can cause death by disrupting the brain's control of the heart and respiration.

Type What is it called? What does it look like? How is it used?

Cocaine Coke Snow Flake White Blow Nose Candy Big C Snowbirds Lady White crystalline powder, often diluted with other ingredients Inhaled through nasal passages Injected Smoked

Crack or cocaine Crack Freebase rocks Rock Light brown or beige pellets—or crystalline rocks that resemble coagulated soap; often packaged in small vials Smoked

OTHER STIMULANTS

Effects

Stimulants can cause increased heart and respiratory rates, elevated blood pressure, dilated pupils, and decreased appetite. In addition, users may experience sweating, headache, blurred vision, dizziness, sleeplessness, and anxiety. Extremely high doses can cause a rapid or irregular heartbeat, tremors, loss of coordination, and even physical collapse. An amphetamine injection creates a sudden increase in blood pressure that can result in stroke, very high fever, or heart failure.

In addition to the physical effects, users report feeling restless, anxious, and moody. Higher doses intensify the effects. Persons who use large amounts of amphetamines over a long period of time can develop an amphetamine psychosis that includes hallucinations, delusions, and paranoia. These symptoms usually disappear when drug use ceases.

Type What is it called? What does it look like? How is it used?

Amphetamines Speed Uppers Pills Ups Tablets Black Beauties Pep Pills Copilots Bumblebees Hearts Benzedrine Dexedrine Footballs Biphetamine Capsules Taken orally Injected Inhaled through nasal passages

Methamphetamines Crank Crystal Meth Crystal Methedrine Speed White powder Pills A rock which resembles a block of paraffin Taken orally Injected Inhaled through nasal passages

Additional Stimulants Ritalin Cylert Preludin Didrex Pre-State Voranil Tenuate Tepanil Pondimin Sandrex Plegine Ionamin Pills Capsules Tablets Taken orally Injected

DEPRESSANTS

Effects

The effects of depressants are in many ways similar to the effects of alcohol. Small amounts can produce calmness and relaxed muscles, but somewhat larger doses can cause slurred speech, staggering gait, and altered perception. Very large doses can cause respiratory depression, coma, and death. The combination of depressants and alcohol can multiply the effects of the drugs, thereby multiplying the risks.

The use of depressants can cause both physical and psychological dependence. Regular use over time may result in a tolerance to the drug, leading the user to increase the quantity consumed. When regular users suddenly stop taking large doses, they may develop withdrawal symptoms ranging from restlessness, insomnia, and anxiety to convulsions and death.

Babies born to mothers who abuse depressants during pregnancy may be physically dependent on the drugs and show withdrawal symptoms shortly after they are born. Birth defects and behavioral problems also may result.

Type What is it called? What does it look like? How is it used?

Barbiturates Downers Barbs Blue Devils Red Devils Yellow Jacket Yellows Nembutal Seconal Amytal Tuinals Red, yellow, blue, or red and blue capsules Taken orally

Methaqualone Quaaludes Ludes Sopors Tablets Taken orally

Tranquilizers Valium Librium Equanil Miltown Serax Tranxene Tablets Capsules Taken orally

HALLUCINOGENS

Effects

Phencyhdine (PCP) interrupts the functions of the neocortex, the section of the brain that controls the intellect and keeps instincts in check. Because the drug blocks pain receptors, violent PCP episodes may result in self-inflicted injuries.

The effects of PCP vary, but users frequently report a sense of distance and estrangement. Time and body movement are slowed down. Muscular coordination worsens and senses are dulled. Speech is blocked and incoherent.

Chronic users of PCP report persistent memory problems and speech difficulties. Some of these effects may last 6 months to a year following prolonged daily use. Mood disorders—depression, anxiety, and violent behavior—also occur in later stages of chronic use, users often exhibit paranoid and violent behavior and experience hallucinations.

Large doses may produce convulsions and coma, heart and lung failure, or ruptured blood vessels in the brain.

Lysergic acid (LSD), mescaline, and psilocybin cause illusions and hallucinations. The physical effects may include dilated pupils, elevated body temperature, increased heart rate and blood pressure, loss of appetite, sleeplessness, and tremors.

Sensations and feelings may change rapidly. It is common to have a bad psychological reaction to LSD, mescaline, and psilocybin. The user may experience panic, confusion, suspicion, anxiety, and loss of control. Delayed effects, or flashbacks, can occur even after use has ceased.

Type What is it called? What does it look like? How is it used?

Phencychdine PCP Angel Dust Loveboat Lovely Hog Killer Weed Liquid Capsules White crystalline powder Pills Taken orally Injected Smoked—can be sprayed on cigarettes, parsley, and marijuana

Lysergic Acid Diethylamide LSD Acid Green or Red Dragon White Lightning Blue Heaven Sugar Cubes Microdot Brightly colored tablets Impregnated blotter paper Thin squares of gelatin Clear liquid Taken orally Licked off paper Gelatin and liquid can be put in the eyes

Mescaline and Peyote Mesc Buttons Cactus Hard brown discs Tablets Capsules Discs—chewed, swallowed, or smoked Tablets and capsules— taken orally

Psilocybin Magic mushrooms Mushrooms Fresh or dried mushroom Chewed and swallowed

NARCOTICS

Effects

Narcotics initially produce a feeling of euphoria that often is followed by drowsiness, nausea, and vomiting. Users also may experience constricted pupils, watery eyes, and itching. An overdose may produce slow and shallow breathing, clammy skin, convulsions, coma, and possibly death.

Tolerance to narcotics develops rapidly and dependence is likely. The use of contaminated syringes may result in diseases such as AIDS, endocarditis, and hepatitis. Addiction in pregnant women can lead to premature, stillborn, or addicted infants who experience severe withdrawal symptoms.

Type What is it called? What does it look like? How is it used?

Heroin Smack Horse Brown Sugar Junk Mud Big H Black Tar Powder, white to dark brown Tar-like substance Injected Inhaled through nasal passages Smoked

Methadone Dolophine Methadose Amidone Solution Taken orally Injected

Codeine Empirin compound with Codeine Tylenol withCodeine Codeine Codeine in cough medicines Dark liquid varying in thickness Capsules Tablets Taken orally Injected

Morphine Pectoral syrup White crystals Hypodermic tablets Injectable solutions Injected Taken orally Smoked

Meperidine Pethidine Demerol Mepergan White powder Solution Tablets Taken orally Injected

Opium Paregoric Dover's Powder Parepectolin Dark brown chunks Powder Smoked Eaten

Other Narcotics Percocet Percodan Tussionex Fentanyl Darvon Talwin Lomotil Tablets Capsules Liquid Taken orally Injected

DESIGNER DRUGS

Effects

Illegal drugs are defined in terms of their chemical formulas. To circumvent these legal restrictions, underground chemists modify the molecular structure of certain illegal drugs to produce analogs known as designer drugs. These drugs can be several hundred times stronger than the drugs they are designed to imitate.

The narcotic analogs can cause symptoms such as those seen in Parkinson's disease—uncontrollable tremors, drooling, impaired speech, paralysis, and irreversible brain damage. Analogs of amphetamines and methamphetamines cause nausea, blurred vision, chills or sweating, and faintness. Psychological effects include anxiety, depression, and paranoia. As little as one dose can cause brain damage. The analogs of phencyclidine cause illusions, hallucinations, and impaired perception.

Type What is it called? What does it look like? How is it used?

Analogs of Fentanyl (Narcotic) Synthetic Heroin China White White powder resembling heroin Inhaled through nasal passages Injected

Analogs of Meperidine (Narcotic) Synthetic Heroin MPTP (New Heroin) MPPP PEPAP White powder Inhaled through nasal passages Injected

Analogs of Amphetamines and Methamphetamines (Hallucinogens) MDMA (Ecstasy, XTC, Adam, Essence) MDM STP PMA 2, 5-DMA TMA DOM DOB White powder Tablets Capsules Taken orally Injected Inhaled through nasal passages

Analogs of Phencyclidine (PCP) (Hallucinogens) PCPy PCE TCP White powder Taken orally Injected Smoked

Sources of Information

TOLLFREE INFORMATION

1-800-554-KIDS— THE NATIONAL FEDERATION OF PARENTS FOR DRUG-FREE YOUTH (NFP).

A national information and referral service that focuses primarily on preventing drug addiction in children and adolescents. By referral to the caller's "State networker" or a member group in the caller's community, NFP also provides assistance to anyone concerned about a child already using alcohol or drugs. Call between 9:00 am and 5:00 pm (Eastern time).

1-800-241-9746—PRIDE DRUG INFORMATION LINE.

A national resource and information center, Parents' Resource Institute for Drug Education (PRIDE) refers concerned parents to parent groups in their State or local area, gives information on how parents can form a group in their community, provides telephone consulting and referrals to emergency health centers, and maintains a series of drug information tapes that callers can listen to, free-of-charge, by calling after 5:00 pm.

1-800-638-2045— NATIONAL INSTITUTE ON DRUG ABUSE (NIDA), U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES.

A national information service that provides technical assistance to individuals and groups wishing to start drug prevention programs. Currently, the program focuses on the establishment of the "Just Say No To Drugs" clubs.

1-800-662-HELP—NIDA HOTLINE.

NIDA Hotline is a confidential information and referral line that directs callers to cocaine abuse treatment centers in the local community. Free materials on drug abuse are also distributed in response to inquiries.

1-800-COCAINE—COCAINE HELPLINE.

A round-the-clock information and referral service. Reformed cocaine addict counselors answer the phones, offer guidance, and refer drug users and parents to local public and private treatment centers and family learning centers.

GENERAL READINGS AND VIDEOTAPES

The publications in the following list that are followed by an (a) or (b) are available from these organizations:

(a) National Federation of Parents for Drug-Free Youth (NFP), 8730 Georgia Avenue, Suite 200, Silver Spring, MD 20910. Telephone tollfree nationwide 1-800-554-KIDS or, in the Washington, DC area, 585-KIDS.

(b) Parents' Resource Institute for Drug Education, Inc. (PRIDE), Woodruff Bldg., Suite 1002, 100 Edgewood Avenue, Atlanta, GA 30303. Telephone tollfree nationwide 1-800-241-9746.

Adolescent Drug and Alcohol Abuse, by Donald I. MacDonald, 1984. A 200-page book on stages of drug involvement, drugs, diagnosis, and treatment. The author, a pediatrician who experienced the problem in his own family, addresses physicians and parents. Year Book Publishers, 35 East Wacker Drive, Chicago, IL 60601. Telephone 1-800-621-9262. Paperback, $15.95.

Courtwatch Manual. A 111-page manual explains the court system, the criminal justice process, Courtwatch activities, and what can be done before and after a criminal is sentenced. Washington Legal Foundation, 1705 N Street, NW, Washington, DC 20036. Enclose $2.00 for postage and handling.

Drug Use Among American High School Students, College Students, and Other Young Adults: National Trends Through 1985, by Jerald G. Bachman, Lloyd D. Johnson, and Patrick M. O'Malley, 1986. A 237-page book reporting on trends in drug use and attitudes of high school seniors, based on an annual survey conducted since 1975. The National Institute on Drug Abuse, Rockville, MD 20857, ADM 86-1450. Single copies are available free.

Getting Tough on Gateway Drugs, by Robert DuPont, Jr., 1984. A 330-page book describing the drug problem, the drug-dependence syndrome, the gateway drugs, and ways that families can prevent and treat drug problems. American Psychiatric Press Inc., paperback, $7.95 (a)(b).

Gone Way Down, Teenage Drug-Use Is a Disease, by Miller Newton, 1981. A 72-page book describing the stages of adolescent drug use. American Studies Press, paperback, $2.95(a).

How to Talk to Your Kids About Growing up Without Drugs and Alcohol. A videotape that offers a practical, easy-to-follow approach to improve family communications, particularly on the subject of adolescent drug and alcohol use. It includes interviews with experts in the field. $23.00(a).

Kids and Drugs: A Handbook for Parents and Professionals, by Joyce Tobias, 1986. A 96-page handbook about adolescent drug and alcohol use, the effects of drugs and the drug culture, stages of chemical use, parent groups and their creation and maintenance, and resources available to parents and professionals. PANDA Press, 4111 Watkins Trail, Annandale, VA 22003. Telephone (703) 750-9285, paperback, $3.95 (volume discounts).

Marijuana Alert, by Peggy Mann, 1985. A 526-page book about marijuana: the crisis, health hazards, and activities of parent groups, industry, and government. McGraw-Hill Paperbacks, $15.95(a)(b).

Not My Kid, by Beth Polson and Miller Newton, 1984. A 224-page guide for parents to aid in prevention, recognition, and treatment of adolescent chemical use. It is especially strong on overcoming denial and recognizing problems, with numerous personal vignettes. Avon Paperback Books, #69997-4, $2.95; hardcover, $15.95(b).

Parents, Peers and Pot, by Marsha Manatt, 1979. A 96-page book that recounts the evolution of the drug culture, the development of the first parent peer group, actions for parents to take, and information on marijuana. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, $3.00(b).

Parents, Peers and Pot II: Parents in Action, by Marsha Manatt, 1983. A 160-page book that describes the formation of parent groups in rural, suburban, and urban communities. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, $1.00(b).

Peer Pressure Reversal, by Sharon Scott, 1985. A 183-page guidebook for parents, teachers, and concerned citizens to enable them to provide peer pressure reversal skills to children. Human Resource Development Center, Amherst, MA, $9.95(a)(b).

Pot Safari, by Peggy Mann, 1982. For parents and teenagers. Distinguished research scientists are interviewed on the subject of marijuana. Woodmere Press, New York, NY, $6.95(a)(b).

Strategies for Controlling Adolescent Drug Use, by J. Michael Polich et al., 1984. A 196-page book that reviews the scientific literature on the nature of drug use and the effectiveness of drug law enforcement, treatment, and prevention programs. The Rand Corporation, 1700 Main Street, P.O. Box 2138, Santa Monica, CA 90406-2138, paperback, $15.00.

Team Up for Drug Prevention With America's Young Athletes. A free booklet for coaches that includes alcohol and drug information, reasons why athletes use drugs, suggested activities for coaches, a prevention program, a survey for athletes and coaches, and sample letters to parents. Drug Enforcement Administration, Public Affairs Staff, 1405 I Street, NW, Washington, DC 20537.

FREE CATALOGS OF DRUG ABUSE PUBLICATIONS

COMP CARE PUBLICATIONS. A source for pamphlets, books, and charts on drug and alcohol abuse, chemical awareness, and self-help. Telephone 1-800-328-3330.

HAZELDEN EDUCATIONAL MATERIALS. A source for pamphlets and books on drug abuse and alcoholism and curriculum materials for drug prevention. Telephone 1-800-328-9000.

SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY RESOURCES

ALCOHOL AND DRUG ABUSE EDUCATION PROGRAM, U.S. Department of Education. The "School Team" approach offered in this program is designed to develop the capability of local schools to prevent and reduce drug and alcohol abuse and associated disruptive behaviors. Five regional centers now provide training and technical assistance to local school districts that apply. For information, write to the U.S. Department of Education, Alcohol and Drug Abuse Education Program, 400 Maryland Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20202-4101.

AMERICAN COUNCIL ON DRUG EDUCATION (ACDE). ACDE organizes conferences; develops media campaigns; reviews scientific findings; publishes books, a quarterly newsletter, and education kits for physicians, schools, and libraries; and produces films. 5820 Hubbard Drive, Rockville, MD 20852. Telephone (301) 984-5700.

COMMITTEES OF CORRESPONDENCE, INC. This organization provides a newsletter and emergency news flashes that give extensive information on issues, ideas, and contacts. Provides a resource list and sells many pamphlets. Membership is $15.00. 57 Conant Street, Room 113, Danvers, MA 09123. Telephone (617) 774-2641.

FAMILIES IN ACTION. This organization maintains a drug information center with more than 100,000 documents. Publishes Drug Abuse Update, a 16-page newsletter containing abstracts of articles published in medical and academic journals and newspapers throughout the Nation. $10.00 for 4 issues. 3845 North Druid Hills Road, Suite 300, Decatur, GA 30033. Telephone (404) 325-5799.

NARCOTICS EDUCATION, INC. This organization publishes pamphlets, books, teaching aids, posters, audiovisual aids, and prevention magazines especially good for classroom use: WINNER for preteens and LISTEN for teens. 6830 Laurel Street, NW, Washington, DC 20012. Telephone 1-800-548-8700, or in the Washington, DC area, call 722-6740.

NATIONAL FEDERATION OF PARENTS FOR DRUG-FREE YOUTH (NFP). This national umbrella organization helps parent groups get started and stay in contact. Publishes a newsletter, legislative updates, resource lists for individuals and libraries, brochures, kits, and a Training Manual for Drug-Free Youth Groups. It sells many books and offers discounts for group purchases. Conducts an annual conference. Membership: Individual $15.00, Group $35.00 (group membership offers tax-exemption). 8730 Georgia Avenue, Suite 200, Silver Spring, MD 20910. Telephone: Washington, DC area 585-KIDS, or toll-free HOTLINE 1-800-554-KIDS.

PARENTS' RESOURCE INSTITUTE FOR DRUG EDUCATION, INC. (PRIDE). This national resource and information center offers consultant services to parent groups, school personnel, and youth groups, and provides a drug use survey service. It conducts an annual conference; publishes a newsletter, youth group handbook, and many other publications; and sells and rents books, films, videos and slide programs. Membership $8.00. Woodruff Bldg., Suite 1002, 100 Edgewood Avenue, Atlanta, GA 30303. Telephone 1-800-241-9746.

TARGET. Conducted by the National Federation of State High School Associations, an organization of interscholastic activities associations, TARGET offers workshops, training seminars, and an information bank on chemical abuse and prevention. A computerized referral service to substance abuse literature and prevention programs will begin operating in 1987. National Federation of State High School Associations, 11724 Plaza Circle, P.O. Box 20626, Kansas City, MO 64195. Telephone (816) 464-5400.

TOUGHLOVE. This national self-help group for parents, children, and communities emphasizes cooperation, personal initiative, avoidance of blame, and action. It publishes a newsletter and a number of brochures and books and holds workshops across the country each year. P.O. Box 1069, Doylestown, PA 18901. Telephone (215) 348-7090.

U.S. CLEARINGHOUSES. (A publication list is available on request, along with placement on mailing list for new publications. Single copies are free.)

National Institute on Alcoholism and Alcohol Abuse (NIAAA), P.O. Box 2345, Rockville, MD 20852. Telephone (301) 468-2600.

National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), Room 10-A-43, 5600 Fishers Lane, Rockville, MD 20852. Telephone (301) 443-6500.

ADOLESCENT DRUG REHABILITATION PROGRAMS

To find programs, call your city or county substance abuse or mental health agency, hospitals, schools, local hotlines listed in the yellow pages, and the hotlines listed previously. It is best to visit prospective programs and to talk with people who have completed the program.

This section lists several unique national adolescent programs that illustrate the wide diversity of long-term intensive treatment programs available at low cost.

PALMER DRUG ABUSE PROGRAM (PDAP). PDAP is a free program supported by private donations and located mainly in southwestern, western, and midwestern States. It accepts out-of-town clients. It is a long-term out-patient counseling program with daycare capability based on the 12 steps of Alcoholics Anonymous (AA). It uses recuperating users as peer counselors. The program also maintains parent groups that may be attended by parents who do not have children in the PDAP program. National Office: 3300 North A Street, Building 8, Suite 204, Midland, TX 79705. Telephone (915) 687-4311.

STRAIGHT INC. Located in selected States, primarily in the East and Midwest, the program accepts out-of-town clients. The program is a long term, highly structured outpatient program based on the 12 steps of Alcoholics Anonymous (AA). During the early phase of the program, the new client lives in the home of another child advanced in the program. This family system provides positive role modeling, close supervision, and a 24-hour, drug-free environment at low cost. National Office: Straight Inc. National Training and Development Center, 3001 Gandy Blvd., P.O. Box 21686, St. Petersburg, FL 33742. Telephone (813) 576-8929.

TEEN CHALLENGE. This Christian-oriented residential program has facilities across the country and overseas. It serves young people with a variety of behavior problems besides drug use. Occupational skills are taught. National Office: Teen Challenge Training Center, Inc., P.O. Box 198, Rehrersburg, PA 19550. Telephone (717) 933-4181.

READINGS ON LEGAL ISSUES

American Public School Law, Alexander, Kern. 2d ed., St. Paul, MN: West Publishing Company, 1985.

Education Law, Rapp, J. A. New York, NY: Matthew Bender and Company, Inc., 1986. A comprehensive, frequently updated, four-volume, looseleaf treatise on all issues of education law.

The Journal of Law and Education includes articles on a wide range of education issues and includes a section on recent developments in the law. It is published quarterly by Jefferson Law Book Company, P.O. Box 1936, Cincinnati, OH 45201.

The Law of Public Education, Reuter, E. Edmund. 3d ed. Mineola, NY: Foundation Press, 1985.

School Law Bulletin is a quarterly magazine published by the Institute of Government, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27514-6059.

School Law News is a newsletter that describes recent developments in the field. It is published by Capitol Publications, Inc., 1300 North 17th Street, Arlington, VA 22209.

The Schools and the Courts contains briefs of selected court cases involving elementary and secondary schools. It is published quarterly by School Administration Publications, P.O. Box 8492, Asheville, NC 28814.

Specialty Law Digest: Education Cases is a monthly compilation of cases and comments published by the Bureau of National Affairs, Inc., Suite 204, 10301 University Avenue, NE, Blaine, MN 55433.

West's Education Law Reporter reprints the full text of Federal and State education law cases. Also included in this series are education articles and comments selected from legal periodicals. It is published by West Publishing Company, 50 W. Kellogg Blvd., P.O. Box 64526, St. Paul, MN 55164-0526.

OTHER SOURCES OF MATERIALS ON LEGAL ISSUES

COUNCIL OF SCHOOL ATTORNEYS, NATIONAL SCHOOL BOARDS ASSOCIATION provides a national forum on the practical legal problems faced by local public school districts and the attorneys who serve them. This organization conducts programs and seminars and publishes monographs on a wide range of legal issues affecting public school districts. 1680 Duke Street, Alexandria, VA 22314. Telephone (703) 838-NSBA.

NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF SECONDARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS (NASSP) publishes periodic newsletters and monographs on legal issues, some of which relate to school discipline and student behavior. 1904 Association Drive, Reston, VA 22091. Telephone (703) 860-0200.

NATIONAL ORGANIZATION ON LEGAL PROBLEMS OF EDUCATION (NOLPE) is a nonprofit, nonadvocacy organization that disseminates information about current issues in school law. NOLPE publishes newsletters, serials, books, and monographs on a variety of school law topics; hosts seminars; and serves as a clearinghouse for information on education law. 3601 Southwest 29th, Suite 223, Topeka, KS 66614. Telephone (913) 273-3550.

References

Children and Drugs

Friedman, Alfred. "Does Drug and Alcohol Use Lead to Failure to Graduate from High School?" Journal of Drug Education, Vol. 15(4), 1985.

Johnston, Lloyd D., Jerald G. Bachman, and Patrick M. O'Malley. Monitoring the Future Questionnaire Responses From the Nation's High School Seniors. Ann Arbor, MI, University of Michigan, Institute for Social Research, forthcoming (and unpublished information).

Tobias, Joyce M. Kids and Drugs. Annandale, VA, Panda Press, 1986.

Extent of Drug Use

Johnston, Lloyd D., Jerald G. Bachman, and Patrick M. O'Malley. Monitoring the Future Questionnaire Responses From the Nation's High School Seniors. Ann Arbor, MI, University of Michigan, Institute for Social Research forthcoming (and unpublished information).

Johnston, Lloyd D., Patrick M. O'Malley and Jerald G. Bachman. Drug Use Among American High School Students, College Students, and Other Young Adults National Trends Through 1985. Rockville, MD, National Institute on Drug Abuse, 1986 (ADM 86-1450).

Miller, Judith D., Ira H. Cisin, and Herbert I. Abelson. National Survey on Drug Abuse Main Findings, 1982. Rockville, MD, National Institute on Drug Abuse, 1983 (ADM) 83-1263.

National Center for Juvenile Justice. Delinquency in the United States, 1982. Pittsburgh, PA, National Council of Juvenile and Family Court Judges, 1985.

National Police Agency of Japan Drug Problems in Japan. National Police Agency of Japan, 1985.

O. Malley, Patrick M., Jerald G. Bachman, and Lloyd D. Johnston. Student Drug Use in America Differences Among High Schools. Ann Arbor, MI, University of Michigan, Institute for Social Research, (unpublished) preliminary draft.

Statistics Bureau, Management and Coordination Agency. Japan Statistics Yearbook, 1985, 1985.

Washton, Arnold M., and Mark S. Gold. "Recent Trends in Cocaine Abuse A View from the National Hotline, 800-COCAINE," Advances in Alcohol and Substance Abuse, forthcoming.

How Drug Use Develops

Bolton, Iris M. "Educated Suicide Prevention," School Safety. Spring, 1986.

DuPont, Robert L. Getting Tough on Gateway Drugs. Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Press, 1984.

Gold, Mark S., Linda Semlitz, Charles A. Dackis, and Irl Extein. "The Adolescent Cocaine Epidemic," Seminars in Adolescent Medicine, Vol. 1(4). New York, NY, Thieme Inc., December, 1985.

Holzman, David. "Crack Shatters the Cocaine Myth," Insight. June 23, 1986.

Holzman, David. "Hot Line Taking 1,200 Calls a Day," Insight. June 23, 1986.

Jaffe, Jerome H. Testimony before Subcommittee on Children, Family, Drugs and Alcoholism. February 20, 1986. Washington, DC, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1986.

Mann, Peggy. Marijuana Alert. New York, NY, McGraw Hill, 1985.

Mills, Carol J., and Harvey L. Noyes. "Patterns and Correlates of Initial and Subsequent Drug Use Among Adolescents," Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, Vol. 52(2), 1984.

Morganthau, Tom, Mark Miller, Janet Huck, and Jeanne DeQuinne. "Kids and Cocaine," Newsweek. March 17, 1986.

National Institute on Drug Abuse. Cocaine Addiction It Costs Too Much. Rockville, MD, National Institute on Drug Abuse, 1985.

Tobias, Joyce M. Kids and Drugs. Annandale, VA, Panda Press, 1986.

Weekly Reader Publications. A Study of Children's Attitudes and Perceptions About Drugs and Alcohol. Middletown, CT, Xerox Educational Publications, 1983.

Effects of Drug Use

Deadwyler, Sam A. "Correlating Behavior with Neural Activity An Approach to Study the Action of Drugs in the Behaving Animal," Neuroscience Methods in Drug Abuse Research, Rockville, MD, National Institute on Drug Abuse, 1985.

Mann, Peggy. Marijuana Alert. New York, NY, McGraw-Hill, 1985.

Tobias, Joyce M. Kids and Drugs. Annandale, VA, Panda Press, 1986.

Drug Use and Learning

Friedman, Alfred. Does Drug and Alcohol Use Lead to Failure to Graduate from High School? Journal of Drug Education, Vol. 15(4), 1985.

Johnston, Lloyd D., Jerald G. Bachman, and Patrick M. O'Malley. Monitoring the Future Questionnaire Responses from the Nation's High School Seniors. Ann Arbor, MI, University of Michigan, Institute for Social Research, forthcoming (and unpublished information).

Niven, Robert G. "Marijuana in the School Clinical Observation and Needs," Marijuana and Youth. Rockville, MD, National Institute on Drug Abuse, 1982.

Washton, Arnold M. and Mark S. Gold. "Recent Trends in Cocaine Abuse A View from the National Hotline, '800-COCAINE'". Advances in Alcohol and Substance Abuse, forthcoming.

What Parents Can Do

American Association of School Administrators and the Quest National Center. Positive Prevention Successful Approaches to Preventing Youthful Drug and Alcohol Use. Arlington, VA, American Association of School Administrators, 1985.

Fraser, M. W., and J. D. Hawkins. Parent Training for Delinquency Prevention A Review. Seattle, WA, Center for Law and Justice, University of Washington, 1982.

Manatt, Marsha. Parents, Peers, and Pot II. Rockville, MD National Institute on Drug Abuse, 1983.

Mann, Peggy. Marijuana Alert. New York, NY, McGraw-Hill, 1985.

National Institute on Drug Abuse. Drugs and the Family. Rockville, MD, National Institute on Drug Abuse, 1981 (ADM 83 1151).

National Institute on Drug Abuse. Parents What You Can Do About Drug Abuse—Get Involved. Rockville, MD, National Institute on Drug Abuse, 1983 (ADM 84 1267).

Tobias, Joyce M. Kids and Drugs. Annandale, VA, Panda Press, 1986.

What Schools Can Do

Adams, Tom, with Bernard R. McColgan, Steven E Gardner, and Maureen E. Sullivan. Drug Abuse Prevention and the Schools. Rockville, MD, National Institute on Drug Abuse, June, 1984 (unpublished paper).

Assisting Athletes with Alcohol and Other Drug Problems. Rockland, ME, The State of Maine, March, 1986.

Hampshire Informed Parents, Inc. "Evaluation of Drug Literature". Amherst, MA, Hampshire Informed Parents, Inc.

Hawley, R. A School Answers Back Responding to Student Drug Use. Rockville, MD, American Council for Drug Education, 1984.

Kennedy, Dorothy. "A Teacher, Help Me Stop Drug Abuse," The Executive Educator. October, 1980, p. 23.

National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. Prevention Plus Involving Schools, Parents, and the Community in Alcohol and Drug Education. Washington, DC, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1983 (ADM 83 1256).

National Institute on Drug Abuse. Handbook for Prevention Evaluation. Rockville, MD, National Institute on Drug Abuse, 1981.

National School Boards Association. Resolutions of the NSBA. Alexandria, VA, National School Boards Association, April, 1986.

Pyramid Project. School Drug Policy. Berkeley, CA, Pacific Institute for Research and Evaluation, July, 1986.

The Rand Corporation. Teens In Action Creating a Drug Free Future for America's Youth. Rockville, MD, National Institute on Drug Abuse, 1985 (ADM 85-1376).

Rubel, Robert J. A Comprehensive Approach to Drug Prevention. Austin, TX, National Alliance for Safe Schools, 1984.

South Dakota High School Activities Association. Chemical Health School Athletics and Fine Arts Activities. Pierre, SD, South Dakota High School Athletics Association, 1968.

Strong, Gerald. "It's Time to Get Tough on Alcohol and Drug Abuse in Schools," The American School Board Journal. February, 1983.

U.S. Department of Justice. For Coaches Only How to Start a Drug Prevention Program. Washington, DC, Drug Enforcement Administration, 1984.

U.S. Department of Justice. Team Up for Prevention. Washington, DC, Drug Enforcement Administration, 1984.

What Communities Can Do

Blizard, R. A. and R. W. Teague. "Alternatives to Drug Use An Alternative Approach to Drug Education," The International Journal of the Addictions, 1981, pp 371-375.

Evaluation and Training Institute. Final Evaluation Report, 1984 85 Project DARE (Drug Abuse Resistance Education). Los Angeles, CA,, Evaluation and Training Institute, August, 1985.

Manatt, Marsha. Parents, Peers, and Pot II. Rockville, MD, National Institute on Drug Abuse, 1983.

National Institute on Drug Abuse. Preventing Adolescent Drug Abuse Intervention Strategies. Rockville, MD, National Institute on Drug Abuse, 1983.

Teaching About Drug Prevention

Bausen, William B. and C. Kevin Molotte. Well and Good. Hollywood, CA, Health Promotion Associates, 1984.

Ellickson, Phyllis L. and Gail Zellman. Adapting the Social Influence Model to Drug Prevention, The Project Alert Curriculum. Paper presented at annual meeting of the American Public Health Association, Washington, DC, November, 1985.

Health Behavior Research Institute. Project SMART. Los Angeles, CA, University of Southern California, 1982.

National Institute on Drug Abuse. Adolescent Peer Pressure. Rockville, MD, National Institute on Drug Abuse, 1981 (ADM 84-1152).

National Institute on Drug Abuse. Teaching Tools for Primary Prevention. Rockville, MD, National Institute on Drug Abuse, December, 1982 (unpublished paper).

New Hampshire State Department of Education. K-12 Guidelines for School Preventive Drug Education. Concord, NH, The State of New Hampshire, 1979.

How the Law Can Help

Specific Drugs and Their Effects

Drug Enforcement Administration. Drugs of Abuse. U.S. Government Printing Office, 1985.

Mann, Peggy. Pot Safari A Visit to the Top Marijuana Research in the U.S. New York, NY, Woodmere Press, 1985.

National Institute on Drug Abuse. Cocaine Use in America Epidemiologic and Clinical Perspectives. ADM 85-1414, 1985.

National Institute on Drug Abuse. Drug Abuse and Drug Abuse Research. ADM 85-1372, 1984.

National Institute on Drug Abuse. Hallucinogens and PCP. ADM 83-1306, 1983.

National Institute on Drug Abuse. Inhalants. ADM 83-1307, 1983.

National Institute on Drug Abuse. Marijuana. ADM 83-1307, 1983.

National Institute on Drug Abuse. NIDA Capsules, various issues.

National Institute on Drug Abuse. Opiates. ADM 84-1308, 1984.

National Institute on Drug Abuse. Phencyclidine An Update. ADM 86-1443.

National Institute on Drug Abuse. Sedative Hypnotics. ADM 84-1309, 1984.

National Institute on Drug Abuse. Stimulants and Cocaine. ADM 84-1304, 1984.

Newsweek. March 17, 1986, page 58.

Tobias, Joyce. Kids and Drugs. Annandale, VA, Panda Press, May, 1986.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The following employees of the U.S. Department of Education assisted in the preparation of this volume:

Beverley Blondell

Henry Bretzfield

Ronald Bucknam

Adriana de Kanter

Elizabeth Farquhar

Alan Ginsburg

Gregory Henschel

Daphne Kaplan

Amy Katz

Ross McNutt

Valena White Plisko

Sandra Richardson

Daniel Schecter

Amy L. Schwartz

Barbara Vespucci

John P. Walters

ORDERING INFORMATION

To obtain an additional copy of this handbook free of charge, please call the Department of Education's tollfree number:

1-800-624-0100

In the Washington, DC, metropolitan area, call 659-4854.

Or send your name and address to:

Schools Without Drugs Pueblo, CO 81009

The Resources Section contains lists of recommended readings and organizations to contact for information and help in combating student drug use.

We welcome your comments on or questions about the material contained in this handbook. Please contact the Department's Information Office at 1-800-424-1616, or write to:

Information Office U.S. Department of Education 555 New Jersey Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20208