Chapter IV · PRODUCTION AND COMMERCE.

Details concerning the different modes of cultivating and curing, and of the extent of the production and commerce in tobacco in the various countries, will best be given in the alphabetical order of the countries.

Afghanistan.—The tobacco grown at Kandahar is celebrated in all the neighbouring states for its mild and agreeable flavour, and is largely exported to Hindustan and Bokhara. Three kinds are grown, viz.:—Kandahari, Balkhi, and Mansurabadi. Of these, the last named is the most esteemed, and fetches the highest price, viz. 6 lb. for 2s.-4s. The Kandahari sells for a little less than half this price, and the Balkhi for a little more. The Mansurabadi is not much exported, being mostly consumed in the country. The cultivation is conducted with great care, and the same plants yield two crops of leaves in the year. Of these, the first, which is called sargul, is the best, the leaves having a mild and sweet flavour; it is mostly consumed by the wealthy classes, or exported. The second crop is called mundhai: the leaves have a tough and fibrous texture, and a strong acrid taste; it is usually smoked by the poor people, and is also made into snuff. The plants are raised from seed in small beds, prepared for the purpose by careful manuring with wood-ashes and stable-refuse mixed together. From these nurseries, the young plants are transplanted into the 138fields, previously prepared for their reception, the earth being laid out in regular ridges and furrows. The plants are fixed into the sides of these little ridges, and watered by means of the intervening furrows. Often the young plants, packed in moist clay, and bound up in straw, are conveyed to distant parts of the country; but the produce of these, it is said, does not equal that of the plants reared at Kandahar. About six weeks after transplanting, that is, about May-June, the first crop is reaped, the whole plant being cut away about 6 inches from the ground, and only some 5 or 6 of the lowest leaves being left. Each plant, as cut, is laid on the ridge, and here each side is alternately exposed for a night and a day to the effects of the dew and sun, by which their green colour becomes brown. After this, they are collected in large heaps in a corner of the field, and covered over with mats, or a layer of straw, &c., and allowed to remain so for 8–10 days, during which the stems shrivel, and give up their moisture to the leaves. At the end of this time, the heaps are conveyed away into the villages, where the stalks are separated from the leaves, the latter are then dried in the shade and tightly packed in bundles about 14 inches square, and in this shape are sold by the grower. After the first crop is gathered, the ground is turned with a spade, well manured, and freely irrigated. In due course, the old stems shoot up and produce fresh leaves, and in six weeks or two months, the second crop is cut. Sometimes, though seldom, a third crop is realized, but the quality of this tobacco is very inferior, and it is only fit for making snuff.

Africa.—The tobacco-plant extends throughout Central 139and East Africa, wherever the equinoctial rains fall. It is cultivated to some extent in the Bondei of Usambara, but seems to be the special product of the Handei district, whence considerable quantities are sent to Pangani for export. Usambara also exports to Zanzibar stiff, thin, round cakes, which have been pounded in wooden mortars, and neatly packed in plaintain-leaves. It is dark and well-flavoured. The Cape of Good Hope, in 1865, had 933 morgen (of 2·116 acres) under tobacco, yielding 1,632,746 lb.; in 1875, 1243 morgen afforded 3,060,241 lb. Tobacco is grown considerably in Oudtshorn and other districts of the Cape Colony, and on the warmer farms in the Transvaal, but to the greatest extent on the coast. The supply is already sufficient for local demands, and tobacco promises to become a staple of South African agricultural industry.

A recent writer on this portion of the British colonies says, “tobacco, though cultivated as an article of commerce for export, has not met with much success, as the passion for the weed has become deeply rooted in the natives of the coast and interior, so that it is cultivated by them in many parts of the province for their own consumption, and forms a regular article of sale and barter amongst themselves.” The tobacco leaf is dried very carelessly by the natives, and is made up in a peculiar way, as follows:—It is first plaited, and when the plait has reached a length of 3–4 feet, it is wound up in the form of a spiral. Gradually drying in this shape, it preserves its form without any binding, and it is unwound and cut off in short pieces when required for use or sale. This mode of preparation is invariable among the Makua 140and Yao, between the Roouma and Zambesi. Consul O’Neill says that “were the natives instructed in some simple method of drying and pressing the leaf, the valuable product would be probably brought down by them in considerable quantities, affording, as it would do, a larger margin for profit than does the culture of oil seeds, and it might become a regular article of colonial manufacture and export.”

Tobacco-growing is a very important industry in Algeria. The culture and manufacture are quite free, but the French Government buys all the best produce, for manufacture and sale by the State factory in Paris. The cultivation continues to increase, and is highly remunerative where the land is capable of irrigation. In 1876–7, the 1889 Europeans engaged in it cultivated 2471 hectares (of 2½ acres), and produced 2,782,500 kilo. (of 2·2 lb.); the 8021 natives cultivated 4154 hectares, which yielded 1,889,124 kilo. The year 1877–8 was less favourable, and the area decreased by 425 hectares. Still worse results were expected in 1878–9, owing to scarcity of water. The kind most grown is called chebli. The produce per hectare of fine and chebli is estimated at 6–8 quintals; the other kinds give 10–12. The exports in 1877 and 1878 respectively were as follows:—Manufactured, 121,090 kilo., and 124,117 kilo.; unmanufactured, 3,445,441 kilo. and 1,509,266 kilo. In 1879, 1087 Europeans planted 3180 hectares, and gathered 1,226,181 kilo.; 11,079 natives planted 6584 hectares, and produced 1,384,802 kilo.; the exports were 2,481,218 kilo. unmanufactured, and 146,345 kilo. manufactured.

The figures for 1883 were:—1240 European planters 141cultivated 2278 hectares and produced 2,250,671 kilo., whilst 8735 native planters cultivated 6416 hectares and produced 2,977,067 kilo., the total product being 5,227,738 kilo. This does not differ to any great extent from the result of the previous year. Tobacco is capable of being produced in much greater quantity, says the British Consul, but the market is limited. The colonists themselves and the Government appear to be the only purchasers.

Australia.—In the year ending 31st March, 1879, New South Wales had 835 acres under tobacco, and the crop amounted to 7932 cwt. In the same year, Victoria cultivated 1936 acres, which yielded 15,662 cwt., valued at 43,853l. Queensland grew 36 acres of tobacco in 1879.

Austro-Hungary.—The manufacture and sale of tobacco is a Government monopoly in the Austro-Hungarian empire, and the revenue thus derived is the most lucrative item of the indirect income of the State. The only tobacco-growing provinces of Austria are Galicia and Bukowina, producing about 4 million kilo. from 2900 hectares; and South Tyrol, where 290 hectares yield almost 4 million kilo. of green tobacco. The respective approximate values of the two products are 18⅓ florin (of 1s. 11½d.) and 4⅔ florin per 100 kilo. The chief supplies are furnished by Hungary, which was once so noted for its tobacco, but the industry is now completely crippled by the fiscal regulations. The area (in acres) under cultivation fluctuates remarkably; in 1860, it was 679¼; in 1865, 68,141; in 1869, 843¾; in 1875, 26,817; in 1879, 7316. The total areas (in acres) under cultivation in the whole empire in 1421876, 1877, and 1878 respectively were, 144,493, 148,126, 143,447; the yields in kilo., 46,033,163, 44,164,038, 40,978,540; and the yield (in kilo.) per joch (of 1·43 acre), 445, 426, 408. Fiume, in 1877, exported by sea 2862 cwt. of manufactured tobacco; and by land, 31,200 cwt. of leaf, and 53,712 cwt. of manufactured. In 1879, it shipped 9900 kilo. of leaf tobacco direct to England. In 1883, the tobacco harvest was 26,560 metrical centners (about equivalent to cwts.), being 1595 in advance of 1882. The total exports of raw tobacco were 55,842 metrical centners in 1883, and 74,475 in 1884. The port of Fiume shipped 613 tons of tobacco leaf in 1883, of which 189,300 kilo. value 75,720 florins, went to Gibraltar. In 1884, the shipments from Fiume were 1673 tons.

Borneo.—Tobacco is grown in small quantities by the Dyaks and people of Bruni; but they are unskilful in its manufacture, though the flavour of the product of Bruni is much esteemed by Europeans. Under skilful management, and by introducing a better kind if necessary, it might become as profitable to this island as it now is to the neighbouring ones of the Philippines, Java, &c. The Dyaks might be more readily induced to cultivate this plant, the nature of which they know, than plants which are strange to them. More recently it is announced that plantations have been commenced in British North Borneo, and samples of the leaf sent to Europe have been favourably reported on. The exports from Sarawak in 1884 were valued at 2020 dollars to foreign ports, and 34,257 dollars in coasting vessels, making a total of 36,277 dollars. In the same year, British North Borneo shipped 2113 dollars’ worth; and Sandakan, 1537 dollars’ worth.

143Bourbon.—Efforts are being made to successfully introduce tobacco into the rotation of crops on the sugar estates, with the object of supplying the article to the French régie or Government monopoly, which buys annually upwards of 40 million francs’ worth of tobacco in the islands of Cuba, Java, and other colonies. The results hitherto obtained are not unsatisfactory, and this article may shortly acquire importance among Bourbon products. The exports in 1884 were 10,185 kilo., value 61,110 fr.

Brazil.—In Brazil, tobacco is chiefly cultivated in the provinces of Bahia, Minas, Sao Paulo, and Para. The town of Purificaçao, in Bahia, is the centre of an important district. The cultivation is increasing, and greater care is being taken in the preparation. The common up-country method is to pick the leaves from the stalks, dry them under the hut-roofs, remove the midribs, and spread them in superposed layers, amounting to 2–8 lb., for rolling together and binding with bark strips. These rolls are bound very tightly with cord, and left for several days, when the cord is replaced by strips of jacitára, the split stem of a climbing palm (Desmoncus sp. div.), and have a stick-like form 1½ inch in diameter. They are sold in masas of 4–6 feet in length, but the tobacco is not considered good till it has fermented for 5–6 months, when it is hard and black, and shaved off as required for pipes, cigarettes, and cigars, the last made with wrappers of tauari bark (Couratari guianensis). The Tapajos tobacco is considered the finest in the Amazon valley. The export of tobacco from Bahia in 1877–8 was 17,272,678 kilo., and in 1878–9, 18,149,201 kilo., almost the whole being to Germany. Santos, in 1878–9, shipped 381,310 kilo. Bahia sends 144away immense numbers of cigars coastwise. Maceio exported 4336l. worth in 1876, but none in 1879.

Some interesting particulars are given in the last report of the United States Consul-General at Rio de Janeiro, as to the cultivation and manufacture of tobacco in Brazil. It appears that the cultivation began about the year 1600, in the province of Bahia, and from thence extended to all the other districts along the coast. Among the localities earliest known for their tobacco production was the lake district of Pernambuco, now the province of Alagoas, where an excellent quality was produced, which commanded very high prices. During the following century the cultivation increased so rapidly in Alagoas and Bahia, that at the commencement of the succeeding century, the average annual export had reached 2857 tons from the latter, and 285 tons from the former province. The earliest export statistics available for the whole empire, are for the year 1839–40, in which the export amounted to 295,966 arrobas, the arroba being equivalent to about 32 lb.; and the value exceeded 65,000l. For the next thirteen years, the exports averaged 8,000,000 lb. annually, with a value steadily increasing. During each of the years 1853–55, the amount exported was 22,000,000 lb., of the total value each year of 200,000l. In 1879–80, the export was 50,000,000 lb., of the value 659,000l.; in 1880–81, 44,000,000 lb., of the value of 650,000l., and in 1881–82, 52,000,000 lb., of the value of 680,000l. Though the principal tobacco-producing province of the empire is Bahia, tobacco of good quality is grown in every part of Brazil, from the Amazon to the Rio Grande frontier. Some localities in the province of Amazonas have long 145been known for the excellent quality of their tobacco, while in the Rio market one of the brands most esteemed comes from the province of Goyaz. The local consumption of tobacco is very great, and principally in smoking. Bahia tobacco used to be largely exported in rolls, weighing 8 arrobas, or 256 lb. each; of late years, however, large quantities of the leaves in bales are exported to Hamburg. Cigar factories are established in all large cities throughout the tobacco-growing regions, which give employment to a large number of men, women, and children. The methods employed in the cultivation and preparation of the plant are very much the same as they were nearly 200 years ago. The labour employed is that of slaves, to whom are assigned special descriptions of work. In former times curing tobacco in rolls required much constant labour, the ropes composing each roll being unwound, twisted, and re-wound during a period varying from 10 to 15 days. The Brazilian tobacco is generally characterized by its strength and dark colour, particularly in Bahia. In that province the practice is to manure heavily, which occasions a very rank growth and strong flavour. In Minas Geraes the tobacco is somewhat milder, and some advance has lately been made in a few localities towards improved processes of curing. This seed may be germinated in any season of the year, but the months of June, July, and August are generally preferred for planting, because germination and transplanting are brought into or near the rainy season. Tobacco plants planted in this season are considered the best growers, and produce the largest leaves. Those, however, which are germinated in the dry season, and sustained by irrigation, grow with 146greater vigour, and possess a finer aroma. The land selected for the plants is cleared, and the surface worked with the hoe, after which it is marked off into parallel rows about 3 feet apart, according to locality and the size of the mature plants. In transplanting, the young plants are set from 2 to 3 feet apart, and are manured heavily in the pits opened for them. Great care is necessary for a time to protect the shoots from the sun, and to irrigate plentifully when the transplanting occurs in a dry season. The work of cultivation and keeping down the weeds is performed entirely with the hoe, and only two or three times during the season. In gathering in the crops, planters wait until the plants are fully matured, this being determined by doubling and breaking one of the top leaves. In Bahia and other Brazilian provinces the lower leaf is often picked by itself, and in a few days the next, and so on as long as the plant will develop the lower leaves into what is classed first quality. These leaves are hung up two and two, under cover and across poles, 24 hours after picking and sweating. When it is intended to twist the leaves into ropes, they are left hanging about 2 days, when they are taken down, carefully freed from the heavy parts of the midrib, doubled in halves, and laid away for the rope twister. This operation requires considerable dexterity, and is generally entrusted to the best slave on the plantation. The operation requires a rude windlass, which is slowly turned in winding the rope, which is twisted by hand. A boy is usually employed entirely to hand leaves to the twister. These ropes are unwound and re-wound once or twice a day, for a period of 10–15 days, according to the weather, and are twisted 147a little harder each time. In curing, the tobacco grows darker and darker, until it becomes jet black. The juices exuding from the rolls are carefully caught and preserved until the last winding, when, mixed with lard, syrup, and various aromatic herbs, they are used to pass the rope through, previous to the final winding. The last step is to cut the cured ropes in certain lengths, and to re-wind them upon light wooden sticks, about 2 feet in length, the winding being very compact and regular. The rolls are then covered with leather or strong canvas, when they are ready for market. Formerly, these rolls were made to weigh 8 arrobas, or 256 lb., though rolls of 3 arrobas were made for the home markets. At the present day the weights vary according to the locality. The large exportation of tobacco in leaf has considerably changed the character of tobacco-growing in Bahia, the process of curing and packing the leaf being simpler than the old process of manufacturing rolos. Tobacco-growing is heavily protected and taxed in Brazil, nearly all the provinces imposing separate protective taxes, in addition to those imposed by the Government. Besides these, the municipalities are permitted to levy taxes on the article. The present export tax on tobacco, in Brazil, amounts to as much as 18 per cent.

The local market quotations are thus given:—

s. d. s. d.

Patentes 6808–8170 real (=12 2–14 7) per 10 kilo. (= 22 lb.)

Santo Amaro, assorted 3 7– 5 8 ” ”

Alagrinhas 2791–5106 (5 0– 8 2) ” ”

São Felix 3745–4425 (6 8– 7 10½) ” ”

The Bahia export in 1883–4 was 15,644,010 kilo., value 400,246l.

148Canary Islands.—With the declining importance of cochineal, tobacco-growing is gaining ground, and the quality of the article has been much improved, while factories for drying and preparing the leaf have been established in various localities. The exports for the year 1883–4 were:—27 lb., value 8l., to France; 2268 cwt., value 9809l., to Spain; 1753 lb., value 375l., to Germany; and 939 lb., value 189l., to West Coast of Africa.

China.—The chief tobacco-growing provinces of China are Chihli, Hopih, Hoonan, Szechuen, and Shingking. The use of tobacco is wide-spread and common, and considerable local trade is carried on in it. The exports from Amoy were 2573 piculs (of 133⅓ lb.), value 13,561l., in 1877; and 3994½ piculs, value 17,936l., in 1878. Wenchow exported 27¾ piculs of leaf in 1878, and 321⅓ in 1879. The exports and re-exports from Hankow in 1878 were 65,070¾ piculs of leaf, and 46,241¾ of prepared. In 1879, Hankow exported and re-exported 63,180 piculs prepared, value 311,754l., and 58,094 of leaf, value 118,534l. There is an immense supply from the provinces, and the leaf is fine in colour, texture, and fragrance, but though sent to America and England for cigar-making, the trade has not been remunerative. It is now used in cigarettes and various cut mixtures as “Turkish,” but when better known, will be smoked on its own merits. Canton exported 1730¾ piculs in 1877, 1742¾ in 1878, and 2397 in 1879. The exports of leaf from Ningpo were 407 piculs in 1874, 571 in 1875, 211 in 1876, 530 in 1877, 378 in 1878, and 165 in 1879. Kiungchow exported 449¼ piculs of leaf in 1878; and 85½ piculs, value 136l., in 1879. Kiukiang 149exported 28,120½ piculs of leaf, value 35,678l., in 1878; and 14,659 of leaf, and 802 of stalk, in 1879.

Chinkiang imported 13,328 piculs of leaf, and 1914 of prepared, in 1879. Macao receives tobacco from the Hokshan district, and prepares it for exportation to Java, the Straits, and California, the annual export being about 10,000 piculs. The Newchwang imports of prepared native tobacco were 8052 piculs in 1877, 8354 in 1878, and 6630 in 1879. Shanghai, in 1879, imported 58,460 piculs of native leaf, 79,081½ of prepared, and 1187½ of stalk; and exported and re-exported 31,541 of leaf, and 29,672¼ of prepared. Taiwan imported 3017¼ piculs of prepared native in 1879. Tientsin exported 1047⅓ piculs native tobacco in 1878, and 693½ in 1879. Tobacco is grown in the hilly districts near Wuhu; the leaves are gathered in October, and sun-dried on wicker-work frames. The exports in 1879 were 597½ piculs of leaf, and 742 of prepared.

Cochin-China.—The culture of tobacco is extending in Cochin-China, and it is even said that a considerable quantity is exported to China, but it improves little in quality. The area reported to be under tobacco cultivation in 1878 (including coffee) was 2361 acres.

Costa Rica.—The free cultivation of tobacco was stopped in January 1884, and its free sale only permitted till December 31, 1885.

Ecuador.—The tobacco crop of Ecuador for 1879 was not so large as usual, owing to an unfavourable season. Esmeraldas, the most northerly port, and whence nearly all the tobacco shipments are made, despatched about 3000 quintals in 1879. Guayaquil exported 150 quintals in 1501877, none in 1878, and 10 in 1879. In 1883, the exports from Guayaquil were 1374 quintals, value 5496l.; in 1884, only 96 quintals, 192l.

Fiji.—The Fiji Islands are well adapted to tobacco culture. The natives produce a good deal, which nearly approaches the American leaf. With careful curing, it would find a market in England. The native product is rolled, which prevents its being made into cigars. Samples of leaf-tobacco in hands, raised from foreign seeds, exhibited very unequal qualities, and a tendency to revert to American forms, the Havana returning to the Virginian type. Cut up for smoking, they were deficient in flavour, but were considered satisfactory as a first experiment.

France.—The area occupied by tobacco in France in 1873 was 14,858 hectares (of 2½ acres), yielding at the rate of 12 quintals (of 220½ lb.). The amount of land authorized, to grow tobacco in Pas de Calais in 1879 was 2100 acres, and the quantity furnished to the Government was 3,659,636 lb., the prices (per kilo.) paid by the Government being 1 fr. 45c. for 1sts, 1 fr. 12c. for 2nds, 88c. for 3rds, and 10–66c. for other inferior qualities. The number of plants grown per acre is about 17,000. The department Nord affords rather more than Pas de Calais.

By the Imperial decrees of December 29th, 1810, and January 12th, 1811, it was ordained that the purchase of tobacco in leaf and the fabrication and sale, whether wholesale or retail, of manufactures of tobacco, should be exclusively confined to the Administration of Indirect Taxes (Régie des Droits Unis) in all the departments of 151France. At present the Régie has in operation 16 large manufactories, 27 “magasins de culture,” and 4 “magasins de transit.” It employs over 19,000 workpeople, of whom about 80 per cent. are women and girls. The usual daily earnings are, for men, from 2s. 7d. to 3s. 11d., and for women, from 1s. 2d. to 2s. 4d. For faithful or exemplary services, the workpeople receive annually rewards, varying in amounts from 15s. to 20l. Mr. Scidmore, the United States Consular Agent in Paris, gives the following description of the manner in which the operations of the Régie are carried on. At the beginning of each year the Minister of Finance designates the number of hectares upon which, and the departments within which, the cultivation of tobacco may be undertaken during the following season. The last ministerial decree upon this subject confines the privilege to the departments of the Alpes Maritimes, Bouches du Rhône, Dordogne, Gironde, Ille-et-Vilaine, Landes, Lot-et-Garonne, Meurthe-et-Moselle, Nord, Pas de Calais, Puy de Dôme, Hautes-Pyrénées, Haute-Saöne, Savoie, Haute Savoie, and Var. In the month of October or November, an agent of the Régie proceeds to the communes among which the prefects have apportioned the allotments, and receives the declaration of every proprietor desiring to profit by the authorization. A Commission, composed of the prefect, of the director of indirect taxes, a superior agent of cultivation, a member of the council general, and of a member of the council of the arrondissement, not being planters, then examine the declarations, and admit, reduce, or reject them. After a planter is accorded permission to cultivate, he is subjected to close official 152supervision, and to numerous stringent regulations concerning details as to the prohibition to sow any other seed than that furnished to him by the administration, the mode of planting, &c.; and, in addition to the surveillance as to these matters, two official inventories are taken of the growing crop—the first to ascertain the extent of land under cultivation and the number of plants, the second to determine the number of leaves for which the planter will be held accountable. When the tobacco has been gathered in a manner described by regulations of minute detail, the planter takes it to the magazine of the Régie, where it is subjected to the inspection of a commission of five disinterested experts, who separate the leaves into three portions, according to quality; the planter is then paid for each portion in accordance with the tariff of prices promulgated by the Minister of Finance. Foreign tobacco is obtained through contract with private parties, after published proposals by the Minister of Finance through the French Consular Corps abroad, and through a special government agency established at Havana. At present a little over one-third of the tobacco purchased by the Régie is of French growth; over one-half consists of foreign leaf, mostly obtained from the United States, and the remainder is made up by importations of cigars from Havana and Manilla, and by cigarettes and miscellaneous productions of various countries, and by custom-house seizures. The magazines distributed throughout the country are of two sorts, “magasins de transit” for foreign tobacco, and “magasins de culture” for indigenous tobacco. In the “magasins de transit” the foreign leaves have not to 153submit to any other manipulation than the sampling of packages, after which they are forwarded to the factories in such quantities as may be demanded. With the indigenous tobacco the course is different; this when received from the hands of the French grower is usually very imperfectly dried, and has to be subjected to a curing process. After the bundles are thoroughly thrashed, they are put in heaps according to maturity, and fermented in a temperature as high as 30° to 40° Centigrade. This maturation lasts from six to nine months, depending upon the locality, and the condition of the leaves as received, and is interrupted from time to time by the operation of shaking and turning in order to prevent too great fermentation. When this fermentation is concluded, those leaves containing less than twenty per cent. of water are ready to be packed. At this point certain of the leaves undergo a stemming process; they are then packed by hydraulic pressure in bales and hogsheads weighing from 400 to 500 kilo. each, and in this state they remain stored in the magazine for some months to acquire further ripeness. It is usually 15–18 months after they are gathered that the leaves are considered to be in a fit condition to be sent to the manufactory. Upon arrival at the manufactory, the packages are sorted and emptied; the leaves are spread out in large bins or receive a preparatory wetting with water containing 10 per cent. of sea salt, in order to produce flexibility and prevent powdering. This process occupies 24 hours. Then follows the sorting according to quality, and the distribution to the various workrooms for composition.

When intended for the manufacture of snuff, the leaves 154are put into machines and chopped into strips of the width of a finger; they are then moistened with pure water or tobacco juice of various strengths, the necessary quantity and quality of which is determined by chemical analysis. These strips are then piled up in masses containing from 35,000 to 40,000 kilogrammes, in rooms where a high and even temperature is maintained by steam-pipes and ventilators. Here they remain to ferment during a month or six weeks, when they are dried, ground into powder, and sifted. This powder then receives a wetting, is packed in stout wooden bins, in quantities ranging from 25,000 to 30,000 kilo., and so remain to ferment for several months. During the course of the final fermentation, the powder is tested and moved from one bin to another from time to time, in order to ensure a successful issue of the process. When the samples taken from the bins indicate maturity, the snuff is packed in barrels and casks, and is ready for the market. For the manufacture of smoking-tobacco, the leaves, after the stemming process, receive their first moistening, which lasts 24 hours. They are then neatly arranged, with their edges parallel, and are taken to the chopping machines; the machines in use at the Régie are capable of chopping 220 lb. per hour, the knives being renewed twice during that time. The tobacco, on leaving the choppers, contains about 25 per cent. of humidity, and is immediately conveyed into one end of a revolving drying cylinder, heated to a uniform temperature of 203° Fahrenheit, from the opposite end of which it issues, at the expiration of fifteen minutes, in a dried state and freed from albumen. It is then put through a second cylinder, similar in construction to the last, but which 155subjects the tobacco to a strong draught of cold air to eliminate all dust and heat. The tobacco is then packed in well-aired bins, where it remains from four to six weeks, after which it is carefully overhauled by hand to remove the pieces of stems and foreign matter that may have escaped notice in the previous operations. It is then put up in packages, varying in weight from 40 grammes upwards. These packages are surrounded with a paper band, upon which are printed the Government tax stamp, the date of manufacture, the weight, the price, and the letter “H,” followed by figures. The last mark signifies the amount of humidity contained in the tobacco at the time it was put into the packets. Consul Scidmore says that in no instance since its inauguration has there been a year without enormous profits to the tobacco monopoly in France, and in a table appended to his report, it appears that from the date of its foundation (1811) to the end of 1878, the net total gain to the French Government amounted to 287,703,881l.

The following table from a recent report shows that the consumption of tobacco in France has been steadily increasing:—

Year. Population. Amount consumed. Amount per Head.

Kilogrammes. Grammes.

1815 29,250,000 8,981,403 307

1826 31,673,853 11,595,084 366

1831 32,731,256 11,071,088 338

1841 34,018,715 16,461,934 484

1851 35,546,919 19,718,089 555

1864 37,133,424 28,019,803 755

1866 37,807,203 30,627,663 810

1872 35,844,414 27,031,000 754

1876 36,643,087 31,188,846 851

156The amount consumed in the different departments varies very much. Snuff-taking is most practised in Oise, Seine Inférieure, Eure, and Eure-et-Loir, at the maximum rate of 375 grm. per head; and least in the departments of Doubs, Pyrénées Orientales, Nord, Haut Rhin, and Haute Savoie, where the average is but 100 grm. In smoking, however, there is rather a reverse order of things, the Nord, Haut-Rhin, and Pas de Calais consuming at the rate of 2 kilo. per head, while the minimum is found in Haute Savoie, Cantal, Corrèze, Creuse, Aveyron, Dordogne, Lot, and Lozère. Ten departments only consume tobacco above the average, while 70 are actually below it. If all France smoked the same quantity as do the people of Nord, Haut-Rhin, and Pas de Calais, the consumption for the whole country would be 73,286,174 kilo. instead of 31,000,000; and vice versâ it would be only 6,265,968 kilo. if calculated according to the average of Lozère, which is only at the rate of 171 grm. per head.

The department of the Nord, in 1884, had 449 hectares (of 2·47 acres) under tobacco, the yield of which was 1,168,206 kilo.

Germany.—The total area of land engaged in growing tobacco in Germany in 1878 was about 44,520 acres; nearly two-thirds of this total was distributed among Rhenish Bavaria, Baden, S. Hesse, and Alsace-Lorraine. The total consumption of tobacco in the German empire in that year was 2,196,000 cwt. The home production was 596,776 cwt., the remainder being imported.

The aggregate area of land cultivated with tobacco in the States of the German Customs Union did not vary 157considerably during ten years, being 21,509 hectares in 1863, and 20,918 in 1872, to which must be added the newly annexed provinces of Alsace and Lorraine, which bring up the total to 24,745 hectares. It appears that, with particular regard to the year 1872, the cultivation was carried on in 4067 different localities, by 94,916 taxable growers, and by 83,675 smaller growers, whose production, owing to its limited extent, was exempt from taxation. By far the larger number were small growers, the area cultivated by each not exceeding an average of 10 ares. In Prussia the aggregate of land cultivated during the year 1871 amounted to 5925 hectares, or 26 per cent. of the entire territory of the kingdom; the aggregate yield of the harvest in the same year was 198,890 centners. It appears that the extent of tobacco-growing land has, during the last fifty years, been gradually diminishing in Prussia, and that accordingly the expectations entertained in the beginning of that period of a great future development of this branch of agriculture have not been realized. The reasons for the gradual decline are considered to be, on the one hand, the growing competition of the South German growers, and the increase in the importations of American tobacco; on the other hand, the fact that the cultivation of beetroot for sugar, and of potatoes for distilling purposes, has proved to be a more profitable business than tobacco production. It has, moreover, been found by many years’ experience, that whilst the quality of the tobacco cultivated in most parts of Prussia is not such as to enable the growers to compete successfully with the importers of foreign, particularly North American sorts, the labour 158attending its cultivation and its preparation for the market, as well as the uncertainty of only an average crop, are out of proportion, as a rule, to the average profits arising therefrom. The cultivation of the plant has consequently gradually “become restricted chiefly to those districts of the country where either the soil is peculiarly adapted for the purpose, or where it is carried on for the private use of the producer.

In Bavaria, as is well known, tobacco is cultivated very extensively, particularly in the Palatinate and in Franconia, viz. the districts around Nuremberg and Erlangen. The area of land in 1871 was 4721 hectares, which produced 144,153 centners. In Saxony but little tobacco is grown, the total area planted therewith in 1871 not having exceeded 6 hectares, upon which 130 centners were produced. Although in parts of Wirtemberg the soil and climate are said to be very favourable to the growth of the plant, the area of land cultivated is, upon the whole, a very limited one, and did not exceed 178 hectares. The yield of the harvest is given at 5571 centners. In the year 1858 the extent of production in Wirtemberg is stated to have been four times as great as it is at present. The Grand Duchy of Baden has at all times been the chief tobacco-growing part of Germany, and as far back as the end of the seventeenth century special laws for regulating the cultivation, preparation, and warehousing of this article were in force. The great importance accordingly attaching to this branch of agriculture and industry for so large a proportion of the inhabitants of Baden, renders it but natural that any project of increasing the tobacco tax should meet with 159very strong opposition amongst most classes of the Grand Duchy. The most prominent tobacco-growing districts of Baden are those of Carlsruhe, Mannheim, Heidelberg, Badenburg, Schwitzingen, and Lahr; the quality of the plant grown in these parts being a very inferior one. The produce of the districts mentioned is therefore applied chiefly to the manufacture of “cigar-wrappers,” and is exported in considerable quantities to Bremen, Hamburg, Switzerland, Holland, and even to America, for the use of the cigar-makers. The prices of the best kinds of Baden tobacco are consequently also, on an average, much higher than those realized by other German growers. The area in Hesse was 979 hectares, the chief district being around the town of Darmstadt; the production was 31,311 centners. The most prominent amongst the Thuringian States as regards tobacco production, is the Duchy of Saxe-Menningen; the land cultivated in 1871 in all of them put together was 202 hectares, the yield of the harvest in that year having been 4806 centners. In the two German states of Mecklenburg, 6106 centners were raised from 165 hectares of land. The most important district is that of Neu-Brandenburg, in Mecklenburgh-Strelitz. Only a small extent of land, viz. 69 hectares, is used for tobacco in the Duchy of Brunswick, the same being situated near the town of Helmstadt; the amount raised was 2391 centners.

In the recently acquired provinces of Alsace-Lorraine, tobacco cultivation has been extensively carried on for many years, more especially in the country around Strasburg, Mülhausen, Schirmeck, and Münster, and to a 160smaller extent near Metz and Thionville. The aggregate area of land cultivated in 1871 in both provinces is given at 3159 hectares, upon which 115,518 centners of tobacco were raised. According to the statistics and information furnished by Consul Ward, the quantity of tobacco produced in Germany in the year 1871 amounted to 713,845 centners, the whole being estimated in value at 60,284,210 dols., or about 9,042,613l. sterling.

A Consular report of March 31, 1885, remarks that one of the most prominent branches of agriculture in Baden is that of tobacco, of which about 300,000 to 350,000 cwt. annually are grown, whereof large quantities are exported. Owing to the comparatively high tax on production of 22½ marks per 50 kilo., the grower has been forced to seek a more rational system of cultivation, and a more careful treatment of the plant and the curing of the leaf. Government pays particular attention to this culture. A Commission has been appointed for the purpose of studying and investigating the treatment of tobacco in Holland, and the results are to be adopted and propagated, so far as the climate admits.

It is very doubtful whether the labours of the Commission will greatly influence the farmers, who are of a very conservative disposition; moreover, there is a greater obstacle to struggle against, namely, their desire to increase the quantity of the production, and with it their income, without regard to the question of deterioration of the quality of tobacco; the peasantry, like other classes, participates in the desire to better its material condition.

The surface of land occupied by tobacco plantations represented in 1883 for the whole of the empire the considerable 161figure of 22,068 hectares; this year a reduction is to be noted, as official reports bring the total to 21,108 hectares only.

The Grand Duchy of Baden participated in the above figures with 7788 hectares for 1883, and 7647 hectares for 1884.

Notwithstanding this difference, the result of the crop will not essentially be smaller (as regards the weight of the total), the new produce proving heavier in weight and in substance. While in 1883 the hectare produced about 1900 kilo., it is supposed that for 1884 it will yield from 1800 to 2000 kilo. These figures tend to prove that the 1884 tobacco is richer in quality, and consequently more durable, and less capable of treatment than that of the preceding years; although the quality is somewhat inferior to that of 1882 and 1883 it may fairly be considered as good.

The subjoined remarks deal with the tobacco trade of Bremen. The number of casks of Kentucky tobacco sold in 1884 fell considerably below that disposed of in 1883. This is explainable by the circumstance that lugs and cuttings were altogether wanting. The prices of leaf on the whole remained steady, except in October and November, when they soon regained their firmness through no more supplies from America being expected, owing to the continued demand for strong tobacco in that country. Business in Virginia tobacco also suffered from the want of inferior qualities. Prices, considered high from the beginning, showed even a rising tendency at the end of the season. Transactions in Maryland and scrubs exceeded the average of the last five years. Ohio and Bay 162suffered, as hitherto, from the protection afforded to home growths. Operations in stems were, considering the depression in trade, not unsatisfactory.

A good business was done in almost all descriptions of tobacco in serons, chests, bales, and baskets, and sales surpassed those of previous years.

The subjoined table presents a comparison of the transactions in the various sorts of tobacco during the last two years:—

Description of Description of Imports. Sales.

Tobacco. Packing. 1883. 1884. 1883. 1884.

Kentucky Casks 20,828 12,084 20,012 12,514

Virginia ” 3,937 5,250 4,848 5,196

Maryland ” 4,929 5,615 4,579 5,811

Scrubs ” 383 1,363 383 1,027

Ohio ” 581 1,155 566 1,174

Bay ” 101 136 234 134

Stems ” 5,013 7,332 8,163 5,403

Havana Serons 16,127 15,027 13,121 11,967

Cuba and Yara ” 22,467 22,259 29,297 17,383

St. Domingo ” 83,836 59,665 58,121 44,065

Seed-leaf Chests 17,070 18,723 77,000 18,203

Porto Rico Bales 1,133 300 1,137 2,210

Esmeralda ” 705 549 776 599

Columbia Serons and bales 11,862 21,041 14,032 22,659

Varnias Leaves and rolls 922 2,065 3,174 2,065

Brazil, in leaves Bales 131,982 185,061 139,397 189,246

Paraguay ” 2,672 2,601 2,879 2,819

Rio Grande ” 4,571 .. 10,199 1,340

Manilla ” 50 77 21 106

Mexican ” .. 10 .. 10

Turkish and Greek ” 6,155 6,825 8,235 8,105

Other varieties ” 1,496 2,017 1,441 3,357

Good qualities of Havana fetched adequate prices. The demand for Cuba, Yara, Carmen, and Domingo was brisk; 163Brazilian and Felix found ready buyers, owing to the last good crop, the prices rising towards the close of the year. The stock of Porto Rico was realized at a low figure. In seed-leaf Pennsylvania plants were chiefly imported, and, being of a good quality, were for the most part promptly disposed of. Much inclination was shown for Turkish tobacco, and the same remark applies to business in Paraguay, of which the supplies might have been greater. Chinese tobacco, very brisk at first on account of its fine quality, later on fell off again considerably.

The value of the tobacco consumed in Germany in 1878 is calculated to have been 353 million marks, or 17,650,000l. sterling, the total return to the revenue being 26,383,966 marks, or 1,319,198l. The quantity consumed in that empire in the year is stated at 2,196,000 cwt., or rather more than 100,000 tons. Of this quantity 582,600 cwt., or upwards of 29,000 tons, were consumed in the form of cigars. Reckoning a hundred cigars to a pound in weight, the number of cigars consumed in Germany in 1878 would be upwards of seven thousand millions, which would give two cigars a day all the year round to ten million smokers. But besides cigars the Germans smoked in the year 1,327,200 cwt., or upwards of 60,000 tons of tobacco more or less manufactured. In the form of snuff they took 160,600 cwt., or 8000 tons, in the course of the year, while in the way of chewing-tobacco they limited themselves to the moderate quantity of 14,200 cwt., or about 700 tons. Rather more than one-third of the total weight of tobacco consumed was grown within the limits of Germany, the quantity so produced in 1878 being 596,776 cwt., while the imports amounted to 1,768,855 cwt. of tobacco leaves, 1644827 cwt. of roll tobacco, 14,170 cwt. of cigars, 8321 cwt. of stems for snuffs, 513 cwt. of snuff, and 101 cwt. of chewing-tobacco. The total area of land engaged in growing the plant in 1878 was 18,016 hectares, or about 44,520 acres. Two-thirds of that quantity was grown in Rhenish Bavaria, Baden, South Hesse, and Alsace-Lorraine, in which districts 11,623 hectares were employed in the cultivation of the plant.

Great Britain.—The proposal to re-establish tobacco culture in the United Kingdom has called for the following sensible article in the Planters’ Gazette.

“The question of growing tobacco in the United Kingdom is not so simple as patriotic Irishmen and enthusiasts of acclimatization might think. Tobacco has been classed, like tea and coffee, as among those necessaries of life which could not be grown with any advantage in the United Kingdom, and might therefore be freely taxed for revenue purposes. It is, indeed, true that a passable herb may be grown and called tobacco, in many parts of the United Kingdom, but the fact has been generally recognized that competition with more tropical countries is practically fruitless, and therefore to be abandoned. It is easily to be understood that so aromatic a crop, monopolizing so many of the best and rarest qualities of the soil, would require high manuring; and that, just as is the case of any other crop—such as hops, or even wheat—one could get nothing of the special excellence of the herb required but what one has previously put into the soil. But, to be profitable, the plant requires good heat as well as good soil. This, therefore, is the whole economical question, and upon that the matter mainly hinges. The 165claim to grow real tobacco in England or Ireland is based upon the allegation that the herb can be grown at a profit. The best evidence furnished to the House of Commons on Monday evening on this point was that of Lord Harris, who affirmed boldly that Ireland and parts of England were prepared to enter into a fair competition with the recognized productive colonies. The Government, and with them, Lord Iddesleigh, are in favour of an experiment largely granting all that is asked, and carefully observing the result. Then, when the British tobacco comes upon the ordinary market, let it be taxed as any other similar product would be. The Government could not view with anything but dismay the prospect of a fall in revenue; and there is no question, therefore, that the home-grown tobacco must pay duty to the full. The crux of the question is how such duty can be enforced without an army of revenue officers, whose practical duties would bear no reasonable proportion to their probable cost. Our own impression is that tobacco can never be grown in these islands on any large scale to compete with the growers within the tropics, and that the expense of collecting revenue would be out of all proportion to the amount collected. At the same time, it ill becomes us as a Free-trading nation to shut out any class of our own countrymen, by duties distinctly prohibitive, from following a branch of agriculture which they think they could make profitable. It is against our principle to offer a bounty on the forced cultivation of exotics, such as tobacco undoubtedly is when grown in these islands, but it would be still worse to maintain, on merely pedantic grounds, a prohibitive import on a crop which many men think the 166smaller tenants could produce to the great advantage of their holdings. We are by no means sanguine of their success; but that is no reason why they should not try.”

Greece.—The production of tobacco in Greece is about 4 million okes (of 2¾ lb.) annually. Patras, in 1878, exported 300 tons to Holland, Austria, and Turkey, at a value of 25–30l. a ton. The values of the exports from Syra, in 1879, were 3503l. to Great Britain, 2325l. to Turkey, 88l. to the Danubian Principalities, 236l. to France, 554l. to Austria, 436l. to Egypt, 1605l. to Russia; and in 1878, 1528l. to Turkey, 1875l. to Great Britain, 93l. to the Danubian Principalities, 441l. to Austria, 334l. to France, 266l. to Russia, 39l. to Egypt.

In 1884, Nauplia exported 13,000l. worth of tobacco; and Calamata, 2400l. worth. The value at Patras was 45s. per cwt. Syra imported 439l. worth of tobacco and 305l. worth of tumbeki from Turkey; but exported 10,459l. worth of tobacco to Turkey, 697l. worth to Great Britain, 17,723l. worth to Egypt, 200l. worth to Russia, 120l. worth to Roumania, 2963l. worth to Italy, 1176l. worth to France, and 200l. worth to Austria.

Holland.—There were 4117 acres under tobacco in Holland in 1878, which produced 3,132,875 kilo. The imports of tobacco into Holland in 1878 were as follows:—Maryland, 5249, Kentucky, 500, and Virginian, 107 hogsheads; Java, 87,998, seed-leaf, 100, Sumatra, 33,671 packages. In 1876 and 1877, there were 5900 and 3993 packages respectively from Rio Grande. The exports of leaf from Holland in 1879 were 3,900,000 kilo.

167Comparative Statement of the Imports of the Various Kinds

of Tobacco during the Five Years 1879–83.

Maryland. Virginia and Kentucky. Java. Seed-leaf. Brazil. Sumatra.

Hhds. Hhds. Packages. Packages. Packages. Packages.

In 1879 7,234 85 102,791 192 1,548 44,477

1880 4,775 147 34,037 1,007 339 52,151

1881 2,989 151 81,225 454 1,098 59,468

1882 3,405 26 103,384 905 Nil. 73,444

1883 4,240 976 30,975 2,500 675 10,111

India.—An immense area is occupied in producing tobacco in India. In Madras, Dindigul is the great tobacco district, and cheroots are manufactured at Trichinopoli. The islands in the delta of the Godavari also yield lunka tobacco, the climate being suitable, and the plants being raised on rather poor, light soil, highly manured and well watered. Manilla seeds have been tried on the lower Palnai Hills, but the Wynaad has proved to be the best locality. In Bombay, the Kaira and Khandesh tobaccos are superior; altogether over 40,000 acres were under the crop in this presidency in 1871–2, and the exports were 3 million lb. Shiraz and Manilla seeds yield good plants in Gujrat and Khandesh. The total areas under tobacco in 1871–2 were thus returned:—Bengal, about 300,000 acres; Punjab, over 90,000; Oudh, 69,500; Rungpore, 60.000 (affording the so-called “Burma cheroots”); Central Provinces, 55,000; Tirhoot, 40,000; Cooch Behar, 24,000; Mysore, 20,000; Dinagepore, 20,000; Purneah, 20,000; Behar, 18,500; Burma, 13,000; Monghyr, 9–10,000; Nuddea, 9–10,000. The best tobacco districts are said to be Sandoway and the island of Cheduba, in 168Arracan; Rungpore, in Bengal; and Bhilsa, in the Central Provinces. The results of many analyses of South Indian tobaccos show that their ash seldom contains more than 5–6 per cent. of carbonate of potash, while American range from 20–40 per cent., indicating the poverty of the Indian soils in this important ingredient. It might, however, be supplied at moderate cost in the shape of saltpetre, which is actually exported largely from the tobacco-growing districts.

The bulk of the Indian tobacco exported consists of leaf, the kinds chiefly shipped being the “Bispah” and “Poolah” varieties of the Rungpore kind; the quantities of cigars and other manufactured tobacco exported are very small. The exports in lb. for the four years 1875–79 were:—

1875–76. 1876–77. 1877–78. 1878–79.

Unmanufactured 22,861,711 10,508,720 10,594,604 13,279,158

Manufactured:

Cigars 152,189 190,136 189,742 196,759

Other sorts 232,720 205,033 317,887 247,743

Total 23,246,620 10,903,889 11,102,233 13,723,660

On the other hand, a considerable quantity of manufactured tobacco, averaging over 1½ million lb. yearly, is imported, showing that India is still merely a producer of raw material, and is dependent upon other countries for the manufactured article in a condition fit for consumption. Even as regards the raw material, India might do a great deal more than at present, for there would be a large and constant demand on the continent 169of Europe for Indian leaf, if it could be obtained of somewhat better quality. The French and Italian tobacco departments are prepared to take Indian tobacco in large quantities, if it can be supplied of a quality suited to their purposes; and there would also be an extensive demand from Austria and Germany. Although the shipments consist mainly of leaf tobacco, and that not of good quality, tobacco manufacture is now making a promising beginning. In the enterprise being carried on at Ghazipore, in the North-West Provinces, and at Poosah, in Bengal, both the cultivation and manufacture are under the supervision of skilled American growers and curers. Some of this tobacco sent to the Administration des Tabacs in Paris has been very favourably reported on. The factory at Ghazipore is now turning out about 500 lb. a day of all classes, the greater part being black cavendish and honeydew, for the army. The machinery is capable of turning out 3500 lb. a day, as soon as sufficient hands have been trained.

Hitherto no Indian tobacco has realized any valuation approaching that of American. The average price of the American “shipping tobacco” is 5–6d. a lb., higher classes of bright leaf from Virginia realize as much as 7–13d. a lb., while the price of Indian tobacco has generally been 1–2d. a lb. But the 15,000 lb. of Poosah leaf from the 1877 crop reached England when American shipping leaf was at 4–5d. a lb., or 25 per cent. below the normal rate. The consignment was, moreover, packed in rather damp order, and contained a quantity of moisture which caused it to be assessed under the highest rate of the new tariff, which imposes 3s. 10d. duty when the moisture is 170over 10 per cent., against 3s. 6d. under 10 per cent. This made a difference in the value, estimated at 1d. a lb. The price obtained was 3¾d., which would have been 4¾d. had the tobacco been drier, and the sale has been followed by orders of large shipments.

The high prices, too, realized for the best samples of the 1876 and 1877 crops, indicate that Indian leaf can be turned out equal to the best shipping tobacco from America. A tierce of strips from the 1876–77 crop from Ghazipore sold for 7d. a lb., and the greater part of the rest for 5d. or more, while a portion of the Poosah leaf of 1877–78 was valued at 5d. when the market was 25 per cent. below normal rates. These facts seem to guarantee future success, since the quantity of the higher classes can be largely increased, and a greater portion of the crop be brought to the same higher level. The chief point to be ascertained was whether a sufficiently high level could be attained at all. It has been attained. The cured leaf of 1878 is very much superior to any hitherto turned out, especially that from Ghazipore. A new market is not unlikely to open in France. The French Government have already asked for a consignment for trial of 1000–1500 lb.

The reason why the manufacture of smoking-tobacco for Indian consumption has occupied so large a share in the operations is, that the Indian market, though small, pays far more handsome profits than the English market.

The price paid for reasonably good American manufactured tobacco in India ranges from one to three rupees a lb. Ghazipore and Poosah tobacco is sold at half that 171price, at a much higher profit than can be obtained by sending cured leaf to England.

While Indian cured leaf can find a sale in the English market at prices which will enable it to compete there with American cured leaf, Indian manufactured leaf is proved to compete successfully with American manufactured leaf in India itself, with a fair prospect of success in a similar competition in the colonies. It may be stated in general terms that 4d. a lb. for cured leaf in England, and 6–10 annas for manufactured leaf in India, will secure sufficient or even handsome profits. The opening for profits will perhaps be better understood if it is explained that 1d. a lb. represents an asset of about 5l. an acre. The one great advantage which India has over America is cheap labour. It is now proved that the leaf is, for all practical purposes, as good as the American leaf, and there is hardly any doubt that America cannot afford to send home leaf at the price at which India can sell.

The exports of tobacco from British India during the years 1874–5 to 1878–9 have been as follows:—

1875. 1876. 1877. 1878. 1879.

Unmanufac- tured } lb. 33,411,504 22,861,711 10,508,720 10,594,604 13,279,158

Manufactured { lb. No. 425,040 2,999,940 384,909 .. 395,169 .. 507,629 .. 444,502 ..

The following letter from the manager of the Poosah tobacco farms, Tirhoot, describes the system of growing and curing now adopted in India.

172“Preparation of Soil.—Tobacco land should be well-drained upland which has lain fallow some time or that has had some light crop in it; this land should be well manured with well-rotted manure. We plough our lands twice monthly. Just before the time for transplanting the soil is ploughed up and well pulverized by a henger or beam of wood drawn by bullocks over the upturned soil so as to bend it and to break up any lumps of earth. The soil should be sufficiently dry for this purpose so as not to cake and harden.

“Seed-beds.—These should be made up in a suitable situation, that is, protected from the afternoon sun, having some building or grove of trees on the west side. The seed-beds should be raised some six inches off the ground and have trenches dug all round so as to carry off any superfluous moisture, the beds should be well worked with a kodalie and good, rotted manure well worked in. After pulverizing the soil and levelling it, pick off any stones or other rubbish and it will be ready for sowing the seed. The size of the bed should be about 4 feet by 15 feet; this is more convenient than square beds, as it enables the plants to be attended to without risk of destroying them by trampling on them.

“Sowing the Seed.—The seed is sown broadcast with the hand, mixed with some sand or ashes so as to sow evenly; care should be taken not to sow too thickly. About one chittak of seed ought to be found sufficient for one of these beds which would furnish enough plants for one beegah of land. After having sown and if there is a hot sun, it would be advisable to cover the beds with light mats. This seed should germinate in seven or ten days at least. 173American seed does; Sumatra takes much longer. The plants may require watering, which should be done with a watering-can with a rose, when the plants are well up and large. Only water seed-beds in the evening. As soon as the seedlings have leaves of the size of a penny, they are capable of bearing transplanting. Before taking up the seedling to transplant, water the beds well an hour beforehand; this is done to loosen the earth about the roots so that the plants may be taken up without injury. To take up the seedlings they should be seized by the under side of the two largest leaves by the finger and thumb, having one leaf on each side, not by the stem, then pull up gently, taking care not to break the leaves. They may then be placed in an open basket. When the basket is full it should be covered with a cloth if the sun is hot, and the seedlings slightly sprinkled with water and then carried off to transplant. The seedlings are planted out in rows 3 feet by 2 feet apart, for which purpose a knotted cord is used, the knots being 3 feet apart. This cord is drawn by two men—one at each end. Across the field or portion of the field at a distance of 2 feet from the outer edge, the cord is drawn out and then trampled upon by coolies. The knots leave an impression in the soil where the seedlings have to be planted. The cord is then raised and put down again at another distance of 2 feet from the first, and so on till sufficient land has been marked off. This work can be done during the day, and the transplanting in the evening.

“Transplanting.—Transplanting should be done in the evening if there is any sun; in cloudy weather it can be done all the day long. Rainy weather is most suitable as 174it dispenses with watering and the plants settle better. A boy takes a basket of seedlings and walks up the row, dropping a plant here and there where the marks have been made; he is followed by a man who makes a hole with a kurpie, into which he places a seedling, and then presses the soil around the roots firmly with his fingers, and then goes on with the rest. As transplanting can hardly be done here without watering, a boy carrying a can without a rose follows the man who is transplanting, and waters each plant he comes across; but, as I mentioned above, if the transplanting could be done in rainy weather, the watering would be unnecessary. When growing the young plants require some attention. After the plants have been planted a week or so, weather permitting, it is advisable to loosen and open the soil around them with a kurpie, and also to eradicate weeds which may appear. Later on a kodalie may be used to work the earth between the rows. As soon as the plants have made growth and begin to throw out flower or seed-heads, which will take place in about eight weeks or so, they should be topped, viz. the flower heads should be broken off before they flower in this way. The stem on which the head was found should be seized about two to three feet from the ground and snapped clean off by the hand or fingers. This topping will cause the plant to throw out heavy leaves. The higher up the stem is broken off, so will the leaves of the plant become thinner and smaller. We generally leave about ten to twelve leaves to each plant. After topping, numerous suckers and offshoots will spring up; these should be promptly broken off as soon as they appear, as they take a lot of nourishment from the 175plant. The plant ripens in about three months. We cut here in January, and none but ripe plants should be cut.

“How to Cut Ripe Plants.—A tobacco plant is known to be ripe if the leaf cracks when taken between finger and thumb and pressed, and also when the leaves present a swollen appearance and have a heavy look. The stem when cut is full of sap, very thin rind on edge, the leaves are carved over and look mottled, the ribs of the plant get brittle, and are easily broken off; when fully ripe, the plant is cut at one stroke close to the ground. The best instrument to cut the plant with is a kurpie. When cut, the plant is allowed to hang over on its side and wilt or droop in the sun. This wilting takes from one to two hours according to the strength of the sun. When sufficiently wilted (which is known when the plants look drooping and the ribs can be bent slightly without breaking) the plants are placed in a cart and taken to the curing-house. Plants should not be cut in rainy or cloudy weather, as it is obvious the sun would not be hot enough to wilt were the weather cloudy, and the rain washes off the gum and thereby decreases the weight of the plant. Plants should not be cut after the rain unless the gum has returned to the leaves, which is known by their sticky, gummy feeling.”

The results of many analyses of the tobacco of South India show that the ashes of these tobaccos seldom contain more than 5 or 6 per cent. of potash carbonate, while the ashes of American tobacco contain from 20 to 40 per cent., proving the poverty of Indian tobacco soils in this important plant-food—a plant-food, however, easily obtainable 176in the shape of saltpetre, and at a moderate cost. But, though saltpetre is largely exported from the tobacco-growing districts, it is never employed as a manure for tobacco.

Italy.—Tobacco is cultivated in Italy in the provinces of Ancona, Benevento, Terra di Lavoro, Principato Citeriore, Terra d’Otranto, Umbria, Vicenza, and Sardinia. The area and produce in the following years were:—in 1870, 9544 acres, 67,192 cwt.; 1872, 12,256 acres, 82,349 cwt.; 1874, 8202 acres, 90,300 cwt. The exports from Naples in 1879 were 2006 kilo., value 401l.

The British Consul at Cagliari reports that the cultivation of tobacco is only carried on in the district of Sassari, and in the plains of Sassari, Portotorres, Nurra, Sorso, and Sennori. No positive data on this branch of industry can be had, it having been exclusively carried on till 1883 by a private company, called the Regía Cointeressata. Without fear of being wrong, it may be calculated that the tobacco cultivators reach the number of 100, who employ during the period of five months from 600 to 700 labourers; the plantation varies from 4,000,000 to 5,000,000 plants, producing a harvest from 2000 to 2500 quintals of tobacco leaves, at a value of about 125,000 lire.

Japan.—Japanese tobacco is well known in the London market, but it is often in a soft condition, and then scarcely saleable. More care is needed in drying it before packing.

Java.—Tobacco, termed by the natives tombáku, or sáta, is an article of very general cultivation in Java, but is only extensively raised for exportation in the central districts of Kedu and Banyumas. As it requires a soil of 177the richest mould, but at the same time not subject to inundations, these districts hold out peculiar advantages to the tobacco-planter, not to be found on the low lands. For internal consumption, small quantities are raised in convenient spots everywhere. In Kedu, tobacco forms, after rice, by far the most important article of cultivation, and, in consequence of the fitness of the soil, the plant grows to the height of 8–10 feet, on lands not previously dressed or manured, with a luxuriance seldom witnessed in India. Cultivated here alternately with rice, only one crop of either is obtained within the year; but after the harvest of the rice, or the gathering of the tobacco leaves, the land is allowed to remain fallow, till the season again arrives for preparing it to receive the other. The young plant is not raised within the district, but procured from the high lands in the vicinity, principally from the district of Kalibéber, on the slope of the mountain Diéng or Práhu, where it is raised and sold by the hundred to the cultivators of the adjoining districts. The transplantation takes place in June, and the plant is at its full growth in October. The exports in the year 1877–8 were 212,500 piculs to Holland, and 213 to Singapore; in 1878–9, they were 248,566 piculs to Holland, and 872 to Singapore. The value of the export to Holland in 1879 was stated at 1,250,000l. The exports in 1884 were 140,351 piculs to Holland, and 2490 to Great Britain.

New Zealand.—This colony has not yet figured as a tobacco grower, but the duty on locally produced tobacco is only 1s. a lb., and this is expected to stimulate the home industry.

Nicaragua.—It appears that the total exports of tobacco 178were 13,787 lb., value 4830 dollars, in 1883, but only 300 lb., value 240 dollars, in 1884. At present it is a Government monopoly.

Paraguay.—Consul Baker, of Buenos Ayres, states that one of the most valuable crops of Paraguay is tobacco; in 1829, its production amounted to only 2,675,000 lb., while in 1860, the crop amounted to 15,000,000 lb.; but the war with the allies almost ruined this source of wealth. It has, however, somewhat recovered its importance, the exports alone last year amounting to 8,975,000 lb. A large proportion of the crop is annually worked up into cigars, a branch of industry which is almost entirely in the hands of the women. The tobacco planted in Paraguay originally came from Havana, with the exception of a particular kind which is called in Paraguay, blue tobacco, peti-hoby, the origin of which is unknown. The favourite leaf is a yellow tobacco, peti-para, grown chiefly in Villa Rica, which possesses about 6 per cent. of nicotine.

Persia.—The whole of the eastern coast of the Black Sea, i. e. Mingrelia, Lazistan, Abkhasia, and Circassia, is admirably suited for tobacco cultivation. The country between Poti and Súkhúm Kalé contains admirable sites for tobacco plantations, labour for which can be got from Trebizond. A great demand for tobacco of good quality exists in the country, and a practical planter should do well. A quantity of coarse, badly-cured tobacco, of no commercial value, is produced in Imeritia and Georgia. Great success has attended the culture in Ghilan. The first seed introduced was from Samsoun; since then Yenija seed has been tried, and some parcels attained the standard of the best Turkish tobacco. It can be produced at about 17920s. a pood (of 36 lb.), giving a profit of 22s. a cwt. Hitherto the cultivation has been confined to the plains, where both soil and atmosphere are damp, but it might be worth trying the hill-skirts. About 2000 cwt. were produced in 1878. The exports of tobacco, the produce of Ghilan, from Resht to Russia, were valued at 4615l. in 1878, and 6154l. in 1879. The values (in rupees) of the exports in 1879 were 13,000 from Bushire, 73,500 from Lingah, and 35,000 from Bahrein.

At the time when I wrote the article on tobacco in Spons’ Encyclopædia, the true source and history of an article called “tumbeki” was still in doubt. From researches made at the instigation of my friend E. Morell Holmes, F.L.S., the Curator of the Pharmaceutical Society’s Museum, it is now clear that it is a Persian tobacco, and as such calls for mention here. The following paragraph reproduces what I said on the subject in Spons’ Encyclopædia.

“Tumbeki.—This word, under a multitude of forms, is the common name in several Eastern languages (Bengali, Hindustani, Telugu, Sunda, Javanese, Malayan, Persian, Guzerati, Deccan) for ordinary tobacco. But in Asia Minor, it is applied to a narcotic leaf which is spoken of as distinct from tobacco, and is separately classified in the Consular Returns. Botanical authorities are at variance as to the plant which affords it, some attributing it to a Lobelia, while others consider it a kind of tobacco. The latter appears to be the more correct supposition. The flower resembles the tobacco in being trumpet-shaped; the leaf is broader, larger, and rounder than that of the tobacco raised in Turkey, and is also wrinkled like the inner leaf 180of the cabbage. The plant is raised from seed in nurseries, and when it has 4 or 5 leaves, is planted out in April in the prepared field, and watered sparingly. It is ‘set’ in a day or two, and is then hoed occasionally to free it from weeds. After inflorescence, and when the plant is sufficiently ‘cooked,’ it is cut down, or pulled up bodily, and re-set in the ground till the leaves are wilted. These leaves are dried, and, after exposure to the dew, are pressed heavily, when they undergo a kind of fermentation which develops the aroma. It is exceedingly narcotic: so much so, that it is usually steeped in water before use, and placed in the pipe (a narghilé or water-pipe) while still wet. The exports of this article (the produce of Persia) from the port of Trebizonde are considerable:—In 1877, they were 13,342 bales (of 1¾ cwt.), value 106,736l., to Turkey; in 1878, 11,571 bales, 92,568l., to Turkey; in 1879, 9659 bales, 77,272l., to Turkey, and 866 bales, 6928l., to Greece. Aleppo, in 1878, sent 4 tons, value 320l., to Turkey, and 11 tons, 880l., to Egypt. The exports of the article, the produce of the interior of Persia, from Resht to Russia, were valued at 5000l. in 1877, and 3846l. in 1878.”

It will be interesting to compare this with Holmes’ paper read before the Pharmaceutical Society on February 10, 1886:—

“Tumbeki is the name under which an article of regular commerce between Persia and Turkey is mentioned in the consular reports, especially in that for Trebizonde.

“Two or three years ago an inquiry was made at this institution concerning the nature and botanical source of umbeki, and the only information I was then able to 181give was that in the ‘Treasury of Botany’ tumbeky is stated to be the narcotic leaf of a species of lobelia.

“From its frequent occurrence in the Blue Books in the same list with tobacco, and from the large quantities mentioned as an export from Trebizonde, my correspondent suggested that it was probably something used for smoking like tobacco. In the hope that tumbeki might prove to be some drug possessing important narcotic or possible medicinal properties, I wrote to Mr. A. Biliotti, Consul at Trebizonde, for information. In reply, he forwarded samples of tumbeki of different growths and qualities. This proved on examination to be unquestionably some kind of tobacco, and being puzzled to know why it figured in the Blue Books as a distinct article, I asked Mr. Thomas Christy, F.L.S., to make inquiries for me in Persia. He received the following note through Mr. Zanni, the well-known chemist at Constantinople, from whom I received the following information:—

“‘There are three qualities of the teymbeki, all derived from the Nicotiana persica.

“‘1. Shiraz teymbeki, valued at twenty gold piastres per oke.^[A]

“‘2. Kechan teymbeki, valued at ten gold piastres.

“‘3. Teheran teymbeki, equal in value to No. 2.

“‘The Shiraz is the best quality, the leaves are four decimetres long and half a decimetre wide. The leaves of the two other qualities are not so large. The quantity of alkaloid in the leaves of teymbeki is more than in the leaves of Nicotiana Tabacum; it is much used in Constantinople, but more so in Egypt, Syria, and particularly in 182Persia. Teymbeki is smoked in a special apparatus known as the narghileh.^[B] The apparatus is found in every coffee-house and even in a great number of private houses. It resembles somewhat the wash bottle used in laboratories for washing filters with distilled water, but is often made of metal. The teymbeki is placed in a small reservoir on the top of the flask and burns in contact with a piece of incandescent charcoal. The vapour is drawn through the tube, which passes to the bottom of the water and collects above it, whence it is inhaled through the longer tube.^[C] It is in fact a water-pipe.’

“Having ascertained then that tumbeki was a species of tobacco, I sought for further confirmation of the statement that it is the produce of N. persica, and wrote on the subject to Professor Hausknecht, who is well known as one of the best authorities on the botany of Persia. He kindly replied as follows:—

“‘Tumbeki is the produce of Nicotiana rustica, and is almost exclusively used for the water-pipes called kalian or narghileh. The plant is cultivated throughout the whole of Persia, especially in Ispahan and Shiraz, whence the best kind comes.’

“But the statement of M. Zanni that tumbeki contains more alkaloid than tobacco, and that of Professor Hausknecht that tumbeki is the produce of N. rustica, seemed to conflict with the statements in books that N. rustica is less active than N. Tabacum.

183“In the ‘Commercial Report,’ No. 25, 1883, p. 1056, under ‘Smyrna,’ Consul Dennis confirms M. Zanni’s statement concerning tumbeki. He says:—‘It is much stronger than ordinary tobacco, and cannot be smoked in the usual way, therefore it is exclusively used for the narghili.’ He also adds that a large quantity is consumed in the district of Smyrna, but much is also re-exported to Egypt and other parts of Turkey. It is imported from Persia, both through Trebizonde and Bushire on the Persian Gulf.

“Mr. J. B. Fraser, in his work on Persia (1826), remarks, ‘The tobacco smoked in the kalian is called tumbaku in distinction to tootoon, or that smoked in pipes or cigarettes. It is sold in the leaf, which is packed dry in layers, and is preserved in bags sewn up in raw hide. It improves by age, but is quite unsmokable the first year. The best comes from Jaroum, south of Shiraz.’

“In an interesting article in ‘Harper’s Magazine’ (January 1886, p. 224) on the ‘Domestic and Court Customs of Persia,’ the writer remarks concerning tumbeki:—‘The kaliân or water pipe differs from the Turkish narghileh by having a short straight stem. In it is smoked the tobacco called tumbakee—a species grown only in Persia. That of Shiraz is very delicate in flavour and is the best. The tumbakee must be first soaked in water and squeezed like a sponge or it will cause vertigo. A live coal, made from the root of the vine, is placed on the tobacco, and the smoke is drawn through the water with a gentle inhaling, depositing the oil in its passage through the water.’

“In De Candolle’s ‘Prodromus,’ vol. xii., pt. 1, p. 567, 184it is stated under Nicotiana persica, that it yields the celebrated tobacco of Shiraz. This species closely resembles N. Tabacum in the form of its leaves, which are, however, rather acute than acuminate; but the flowers are different both in shape and colour. In N. Tabacum the stem leaves are sessile, and the corolla is funnel-shaped or inflated below the limb, and is of a pinkish-red colour; in N. persica, the tube of the corolla is club-shaped and the limb more spreading; the colour is white inside and greenish outside. When in blossom, therefore, the two plants are easily distinguished. N. rustica, on the other hand, has stalked cordate leaves and a short yellowish corolla, with the tube and limb both short.

“The leaves of tumbeki which I have received from Trebizonde and Constantinople both correspond with N. persica in character, but not with N. rustica, since they have no trace of a petiole. So far as it is possible to ascertain therefore, in the absence of flowers, the weight of evidence is in favour of tumbeki being the produce of N. persica. In order to ascertain the correctness of the statement that tumbeki is stronger than tobacco, I handed some specimen to Messrs. E. J. Eastes and W. H. Ince for chemical examination, which they kindly undertook at my request.”

Following is the report of these gentlemen on the chemistry of the subject:—

“Four samples of tumbeki were brought under our notice by Mr. Holmes, Curator of the Museum of the Pharmaceutical Society, being of interest on account of their reported greater strength in nicotine as compared with tobacco. The following are the results of our investigations. 185We may state that so far as we have been able to ascertain no previous researches have been undertaken on the subject.

“Preliminary Examination.—The presence of an alkaloid was demonstrated on the addition of the usual reagents to the acid infusion.

“Isolation of Alkaloid for Physical Examination.—The powdered tumbeki was placed in a retort with milk of lime and steam passed through it till the distillate was no longer alkaline. Alkaloid in abundance was found in the distillate, which had a distinct odour of nicotine. The distillate was then extracted with ether, and the ether slowly driven off. The residue obtained was a light straw coloured oily liquid of powerful odour, giving off irritating fumes when heated.

“Estimation of Nicotine.—In the estimation of nicotine much difficulty was experienced, owing to imperfect knowledge of the alkaloid, and to the imperfect methods recommended in various papers on the subject. The only method we found reliable was by using a standard solution of Mayer’s reagent, obtained by mixing 13·546 grams of mercuric chloride in solution with 49·8 grams of potassic iodide, in solution, and adding water to make 1 litre.^[D] One c.c. of this solution represents ·003945 grams of nicotine, the precipitate having the formula C₁₀H₁₆N₂I₂.HgI₂.

“The method we adopted of working with this solution was as follows:—One or more grams of dried and powdered tumbeki were treated with diluted sulphuric 186acid (2·5 per cent.) for several hours on a water-bath, filtered, and the leaves washed with hot 1 per cent. acid till the filtrate was colourless.

“The filtrate was then either evaporated to a low bulk and extracted with alcohol, to get rid of albuminous matters which interfered with the reaction, or neutralized with sodic hydrate and the alkaloid extracted with chloroform, the chloroformic solution being shaken with diluted sulphuric acid as in the ordinary methods of alkaloid extraction.

“The objection to the first method is that the alcohol has to be driven off before the Mayer’s reagent can be added, which is troublesome and lengthens the process.

“The solution of the alkaloid in excess of sulphuric acid having been obtained, Mayer’s reagent was carefully added till no more precipitation was observed, the end of the reaction being ascertained when on filtering some of the nicotine solution into a watch-glass and adding a drop of the reagent, no precipitate was formed. With careful manipulation concordant results were obtained.

“Other methods tried were as follows:

“Volumetric method.—Ten or more grams of powdered tumbeki were distilled with a solution of sodic or potassic hydrate, the distillate being passed into a known volume of decinormal standard solution of sulphuric acid, and the amount of acid neutralized by the nicotine was determined by a standard decinormal solution of soda and the nicotine calculated.

“By this method the results obtained were invariably too high owing to an appreciable quantity of ammonium 187salts contained in the leaves. Dr. Kissling^[E] has also noticed the high percentages obtained by this method of estimating nicotine.

“Kosutány treats the leaves with milk of lime till all the ammonia is driven off, and then extracts with water; shakes the aqueous solution with petroleum ether and proceeds as before.

“This method was not found to give good results, for though the ammonium salts do not interfere with the reaction, yet the petroleum ether does not extract the whole of the alkaloid, and thus a low percentage is obtained.

“Extraction by Ammoniacal Ether.—This consists in extracting the powdered leaves in an upright extractor, by an ethereal solution of ammonia, and either driving off the ether and weighing the residue as nicotine; or volumetrically estimating the residue by decinormal solution of sulphuric acid, or precipitating the alkaloid by platinum perchloride. In either case, whichever way the residue is estimated, the results are too high, owing to the difficulty of entirely getting rid of the ammonia.

“The following are the percentages of nicotine in the tumbeki:—

‘Ispahan.’—I. By Mayer’s Reagent.

A. (midrib) 8·156 per cent.

B. (leaf) 5·508 ” ”

C. (leaf and midrib) 5·589 ” ”

D. (leaf) 5·3865 ” ”

——————

5·4945 per cent. average.

188II. By Volumetric Method.

By working on 10 grams = 7·2 per cent.

By working on 50 grams = 7·228 ” ”

‘Hidjaz.’—I. By Mayer’s Reagent.

A. (leaf and midrib) 2·025 per cent.

B. (leaf and midrib) 2·268 ” ”

C. (leaf and midrib) 2·028 ” ”

D. (leaf and midrib) 1·863 ” ”

—————

2·046 per cent. average.

II. By Volumetric Process.

A. 2·37 per cent.

III. By Ethereal Solution of Ammonia.

3·6 per cent.

‘Kechan.’—By Mayer’s Solution.

A. (leaf and midrib) 2·835 per cent.

B. (leaf and midrib) 3·0375 ” ”

C. (leaf and midrib) 2·85525 ” ”

——————

2·90925 per cent. average.

‘Shiraz.’—By Mayer’s Solution.

A. (leaf and midrib) 5·8725 per cent.

B. (leaf and midrib) 5·7975 ” ”

——————

5·835 per cent. average.

“Estimation of Saccharoid Matter; calculated as cane sugar.—The fermentation process was the one adopted, not that we consider it by any means a good one, but because it was the only one practicable. Fehling’s solution was inadmissible, owing to the precipitation of colouring and other matters, and the polariscope gave no 189indication. The objections to the fermentation process are due to the small amount of alcohol produced in the relatively large bulk of liquid. This renders the solution liable to acetification, and the ultimate distillate obtained is very weak in spirit, making it extremely difficult to obtain the correct specific gravity; the specific gravities obtained were always between ·998 and unity.

“We worked as follows:—200 grains of dried tumbeki were exhausted by repeated infusion in boiling water. The filtered liquid when cool was mixed with 100 grains of German yeast and allowed to stand three days in a warm place to ferment.

“About one-third was then distilled, the distillate being redistilled and three successive fractions of 500 fluid grains collected, the alcohol in each being estimated; the third portion contained little if any spirit.

“It being stated that basic acetate of lead removes saccharoid matter from the kindred plant tobacco; we tried its action on the infusion of tumbeki.

“At the onset it was found impossible to thoroughly wash the bulky precipitate caused by the lead; so, to ensure a definite result, sufficient basic acetate of lead was added to the infusion of 200 grains of tumbeki and the whole made up to 30 fluid ounces with distilled water and well mixed. An aliquot part (20 fluid ounces) was then filtered off, excess of lead removed by sulphuretted hydrogen, the sulphide filtered out, the solution boiled to drive off the sulphuretted hydrogen and the infusion, when cool, was fermented in the usual way. But acetic acid was necessarily present from the decomposition of the lead salt by the sulphuretted hydrogen, and this on 190distilling would tend to raise the specific gravity. To remedy this, slaked lime, or preferably potassic hydrate, was added before redistilling, but considering that from one to three per cent. of ammoniacal salt is contained in the original tumbeki, it is probable that some might still remain and by the action of the fixed alkali furnish a trace of free ammonia which would lower the specific gravity, and thus apparently raise the percentage of alcohol. As far as we can judge basic acetate of lead does not seem to remove fermentable matter from infusion of tumbeki.

I. II.

Pb treatment. Pb treatment.

Ispahan 2·64 2·67 — 2·35

Hidjaz 3·00 2·8 2·7 —

Kechan 5·58 5·33 — —

Shiraz 3·48 3·88 3·23 3·1

“Ash.—The following bases and acids were uniformly found in the ashes:—Sodium, potassium, lithium, magnesium, calcium, iron, aluminium, silica, chlorine, phosphoric acid, sulphuric acid, carbonic acid.

General Table of Results.

Ispahan. Hidjaz. Kechan. Shiraz.

Nicotine 5·4945 2·046 2·909 5·835

Saccharoid matter 2·64 2·85 5·58 3·355

Saccharoid matter after

Pb treatment 2·51 2·80 5·33 3·49

Soluble in water 42·0 42·3 39·9 55·6

Insoluble in water 58·0 57·7 60·1 44·4

Ash 22·0 28·5 28·5 26·15

191“The foregoing work has been carried out in the laboratories of the Pharmaceutical Society.”

Philippines.—The soil and climate of the Philippines are eminently suited to tobacco culture; but the unjust Spanish monopoly cripples the industry, and it is declining. Next to the Cuban (Vuelta abajo) and a few prime Turkish sorts, Manilla tobacco is admitted to be the best. Most of the Philippines produce it. According to the quality of the produce, the provinces rank as follows:—(1) Cayagan and Ysabel, (2) Ygorrotes, (3) Island of Mindanáo, (4) Bisayas, (5) New Ecija. On the average, over 400 million cigars, and a quantity of tobacco sufficient to bring up the total weight to 56,000 cwt., are annually exported. The advantage of the plantations in Cayagan lies in the annual deposit of alluvial matters by the overflowing of the large streams. The cultivation in Bisayas promises to become extinct, whereas if the natives were free to sell in the best market, the industry would increase immensely. The yield of the Cebu district in 1878 was 8780 quintals, the whole of which went to the cigar factories of Cadiz and Alicante. The exports from Manilla were:—in 1877 17,526,700 lb. tobacco, value 525,801l.; 87,007,000 cigars, value 243,619l.; 1878, 15,630,400 lb. tobacco, value 468,918l.; 136,835,000 cigars, value 383,136l.; 1879, 9971 quintals (of 101½ lb.) tobacco leaf to Great Britain, and 74,490 quintals to Spain; cigars, 10,571,000 to Great Britain, 6,557,000 to Australia, 44,586,000 to the Straits Settlements and India, 25,861,000 to China and Japan, 693,000 to the United States, 100,000 to California, 1,521,000 to Spain and the Continent; the total values 192amounted to 480,263l. The exports of tobacco from Yloilo were 25,454 piculs (of 133⅓ lb.) in 1878, and 20,600 quintals (of 101½ lb.) in 1879, all to Spain.

Roumania.—Tobacco was extensively cultivated at one time, with success, near Macin and in other parts; but the monopoly has greatly affected the condition of the industry.

Russia.—As regards the production of tobacco, Russia ranks second among continental countries, but the consumption is less per head than in other lands. Consul Stanton says that smoking began in the latter part of the sixteenth century, and the habit steadily increased, notwithstanding the fact that it was punished by the knout, slitting of the nostrils, and banishment to Siberia. It is most extensively cultivated in Tshernigoff, Poltava, Bessarabia, and Samara. In Poland, the production is not large, and is mainly confined to the vicinity of Warsaw. It is chiefly cultivated by the peasants and is often their only occupation.

In 1883, Riga exported 70,722 pouds of leaf tobacco, valued at 194,486 rubles. Sevastopol shipped 59 pouds, value 1100 rubles. Tobacco is now cultivated largely in all parts of the Crimea, and is likely to become an export of considerable importance. In Taganrof plantations are on the increase, and the culture promises well.

San Salvador.—The exports of tobacco in 1884 were 16,113 dollars’ worth of leaf, 5898 dollars’ worth of manufactured, and 826 dollars’ worth of other sorts.

Servia.—It is estimated that there are 4000 acres under tobacco culture in Servia.

Spain.—The port of Cadiz is a great centre of the 193tobacco industry. The imports here in 1878 were:—123 kilo. from Germany, 304,538 kilo. from the United States, and 6,776,900 kilo. from Spanish colonies; the exports were 15,600 kilo. to Germany, and 213,846 kilo. to France. Corunna exported 58,280 kilo., value 87,420 pesetas, in 1884. Cadiz exported 514,817 kilo., value 2,574,085 pesetas, in the same year.

Sumatra.—This great island is assuming a first-rate importance in the tobacco industry.

The year 1883 was an exceptionally favourable one, as the harvest in Sumatra was very good, while prices for Java tobacco were higher than of late years, in consequence of the short harvest of 1882.

Large quantities of Sumatra tobacco found buyers in the United States, in consequence of the protectionist measure introduced in that country in favour of the home tobacco producers. The duty was raised from 35 c. to 75 c. per lb. on and after the 1st July, 1883, and great efforts were made to import as much as possible at the lower duty before that date.

The principal owners of the plantations are Dutchmen, and the labour employed is Chinese coolies, brought to the island principally from the Malaya peninsula. The crop, according to one of these successful planters, is scarcely ever reared two years in succession on the same lands. The jungle is first cleared, and then the seed planted. After the first crop of tobacco is gathered, it is the next season used for rice, or something else, and tobacco is not planted again until the sixth or seventh year after the jungle is cleared. By adopting this method, a better result is obtained.

194The drying-house is thus described by a recent visitor to the island:—

“The interior is very much like a rick-yard, with tobacco stalks instead of hay-ricks, among which a perfect army of half-clad Chinese coolies, 400 strong, are hard at work sorting, ranging and stowing. So overpoweringly strong is the scent of the half-dried tobacco leaves that a smoker would have nothing to do but to take in an empty pipe with him and enjoy a good hard smoke gratis, merely by inhaling the air through it. But the Chinamen, whether habituated to it by long use, or fortified against it by the superior power of opium, breathe this perfumed atmosphere as easily as if it were the purest air of the sea. ‘That is how we measure the heat, you see,’ says our host, calling our attention to the hollow bamboos thrust through the heart of each stack, with a stick inside it, which, when pulled out, is almost too hot to touch. ‘It must never be above or below a certain point, you know. Instead of stripping off the leaves at once, we hang up the whole plant to dry, and do not strip it till it is quite dried. The Sumatra tobacco, however, will not do for cigars. It is only used for what we call the ‘deckblatt’ (cover leaf), which covers the outside of the cigar.’”

Consul Kennedy reports that “the main cause of the prosperity in Deli is the tobacco, the first crop of which was shipped in 1869.

“The crop for 1884 will turn out about 122,000 bales, valued at 2,080,000l.

“The accompanying table shows the export during the last 11 years:—

195

Year. Bales. Value.

£

1873 9,238 208,333

1874 12,811 250,000

1875 15,147 291,666

1876 28,947 520,833

1877 36,167 541,666

1878 48,155 750,000

1879 57,544 875,000

1880 64,965 937,500

1881 82,356 1,187,500

1882 102,032 1,750,000

1883 92,000 1,583,333

[Estimated.]

Note.—One bale equals 176 English lb.

“Prices for Deli tobacco have ruled on the whole fairly high, the special quality of the leaf lying in the fact of its being light and elastic in texture, with thin fibres, so that it is admirably adapted to serve as cover-leaf, and as such is a good substitute for Havana tobacco. As a smoking-tobacco it lacks flavour. There is a pretty general concurrence of opinion that the seed of the Deli tobacco was indigenous, and obtained from Batak tribes in the interior; and although many experiments have been made with seeds from Java, Manilla, and other places, the planters have invariably come back to the original seed, finding that the new kinds develop a coarseness of leaf attributed to the extraordinary richness of the virgin soil, a soil partly alluvial and partly volcanic, but covered throughout with dense forests.

“The tobacco estates consist of grants of land taken out by individuals or companies, and are as a rule of such an extent that every year a new district can be cleared and 196used for the coming crop, and this state of things will continue for many years to come; indeed, hitherto only a small portion of the ground cultivated (not one-fifth) has borne two crops, although it is expected that, unless fresh ground is taken up by the planters, a time will arrive when use must be made of old fallow lands, and then guano will be required.

“The planters consist of three or four large companies, principally Dutch—such as the Deli Company, the Amsterdam Deli, and the Batavia Deli—as well as of individual planters of many nationalities, Germany and Switzerland being strongly represented, while there are also a good sprinkling of Englishmen, the principal English firm being the Langkat Plantations Company, with its headquarters in London.