Chapter IX
Reading edition
PROVENÇAL INFLUENCE IN GERMANY, FRANCE AND ENGLAND
Provençal influence in Germany is apparent in the lyric poetry of the minnesingers. Of these, two schools existed, connected geographically with two great rivers. The earlier, the Austro-Bavarian school, flourished in the valley of the Danube: the later minnesingers form the Rhine school. In the latter case, Provençal influence is not disputed; but the question whether the Austro-Bavarian school was exempt from it, has given rise to considerable discussion. The truth seems to be, that the earliest existing texts representing this school do show traces of Provençal influence; but there was certainly a primitive native poetry in these Danube districts which had reached an advanced stage of development before Provençal influence affected it. Austria undoubtedly came into touch with this influence at an early date. The Danube valley was a high road for the armies of crusaders; another route led from Northern Italy to Vienna, by which Peire Vidal probably found his way to Hungary. At the same time, though Provençal influence was strong, the Middle High German lyric rarely relapsed into mere imitation or translation of troubadour productions. Dietmar von Aist, one of the earliest minnesingers, who flourished in the latter half of the twelfth century has, for instance, the Provençal alba theme. Two lovers part at daybreak, when awakened by a bird on the linden: if the theme is Provençal, the simplicity of the poet's treatment is extremely fresh and natural. This difference is further apparent in the attitude of minnesingers and troubadours towards the conception of "love." The minnesong is the literary expression of the social convention known as "Frauendienst," the term "minne" connoting the code which prescribed the nature of the relation existing between the lover and his lady; the dominant principle was a reverence for womanhood as such, and in this respect the German minnesang is inspired by a less selfish spirit than the Provençal troubadour poetry. Typical of the difference is Walter von der Vogelweide's—
Swer guotes wîbes minne hât, der schamt sich aller missetât.
("He who has a good woman's love is ashamed of every ill deed"), compared with Bernart de Ventadour's—
Non es meravilha s'ieu chan Melhs de nul autre chantador Car plus trai mos cors ves Amor E melhs sui faitz a son coman.
("It is no wonder if I sing better than any other singer, for my heart draws nearer to love and I am better made for love's command.") The troubadour amor, especially in its Italian development, eventually attained the moral power of the minne; but in its early stages, it was a personal and selfish influence. The stanza form and rime distribution of the minnesinger poems continually betray Provençal influence: the principle of tripartition is constantly followed and the arrangement of rimes is often a repetition of that adopted in troubadour stanzas. Friedrich von Hausen, the Count Rudolf von Fenis, Heinrich von Morungen and others sometimes translate almost literally from troubadour poetry, though these imitations do not justify the lines of Uhland.
In den Thälern der Provence ist der Minnesang entsprossen, Kind des Frühlings und der Minne, holder, inniger Genossen.
Northern France, the home of epic poetry, also possessed an indigenous lyric poetry, including spring and dance songs, pastorals, romances, and "chansons de toile." Provençal influence here was inevitable. It is apparent in the form and content of poems, in the attempt to remodel Provençal poems by altering the words to French forms, and by the fact that Provençal poems are found in MS. collections of French lyrics. Provençal poetry first became known in Northern France from the East, by means of the crusaders and not, as might be expected, by intercommunication in the centre of the country. The centre of Provençal influence in Northern France seems to have been the court of Eleanor of Poitiers the wife of Henry II. of England and the court of her daughter, Marie of Champagne. Here knights and ladies attempted to form a legal code governing love affairs, of which a Latin edition exists in the De arte honeste amandi of André le Chapelain, written at the outset of the thirteenth century. Well-known troubadours such as Bertran de Born and Bernart de Ventadour visited Eleanor's court and the theory of courtly love found its way into epic poetry in the hands of Chrétien de Troyes.
The Provençal school in Northern France began during the latter half of the twelfth century. The chanson properly so called is naturally most strongly represented: but the Provençal forms, the tençon (Prov. tenso) and a variant of it, the jeu-parti (Prov. jocs partitz or partimens) are also found, especially the latter. This was so called, because the opener of the debate proposed two alternatives to his interlocutor, of which the latter could choose for support either that he preferred, the proposer taking the other contrary proposition: the contestants often left the decision in an envoi to one or more arbitrators by common consent. Misinterpretation of the language of these envois gave rise to the legend concerning the "courts of love," as we have stated in a previous chapter. One of the earliest representatives of this school was Conon de Bethune, born in 1155; he took part in the Crusades of 1189 and 1199. Blondel de Nesles, Gace Brulé and the Châtelain de Coucy are also well-known names belonging to the twelfth century. Thibaut IV., Count of Champagne and King of Navarre (1201-1253), shared in the Albigeois crusade and thus helped in the destruction of the poetry which he imitated. One of the poems attributed to him by Dante (De Vulg. El.) belongs to Gace Brulé; his love affair with Blanche of Castile is probably legendary. Several crusade songs are attributed to Thibaut among some thirty poems of the kind that remain to us from the output of this school. These crusade poems exhibit the characteristics of their Provençal models: there are exhortations to take the cross in the form of versified sermons; there are also love poems which depict the poet's mind divided between his duty as a crusader and his reluctance to leave his lady; or we find the lady bewailing her lover's departure, or again, lady and lover lament their approaching separation in alternate stanzas. There is more real feeling in some of these poems than is apparent in the ordinary chanson of the Northern French courtly school: the following stanzas are from a poem by Guiot de Dijon,34 the lament of a lady for her absent lover—
Chanterai por mon corage Que je vueill reconforter Car avec mon grant damage Ne quier morir n'afoler, Quant de la terra sauvage Ne voi nului retorner Ou cil est qui m'assoage Le cuer, quant j'en oi parler Dex, quant crieront outree, Sire, aidiés au pelerin Por cui sui espoentee, Car felon sunt Sarrazin. De ce sui bone atente Que je son homage pris, E quant la douce ore vente Qui vient de cel douz païs Ou cil est qui m'atalente, Volontiers i tor mon vis: Adont m'est vis que jel sente Par desoz mon mantel gris. Dex, etc.
"I will sing for my heart which I will comfort, for in spite of my great loss I do not wish to die, and yet I see no one return from the wild land where he is who calms my heart when I hear mention of him. God! when they cry Outre (a pilgrim marching cry), Lord help the pilgrim for whom I tremble, for wicked are the Saracens.
"From this fact have I confidence, that I have received his vows and when the gentle breeze blows which comes from the sweet country where he is whom I desire, readily do I turn my face thither: then I think I feel him beneath my grey mantle."
The idea in the second stanza quoted is borrowed from Bernard de Ventadour—
Quant la douss' aura venta Deves vostre païs. Vejaire m'es qu'eu senta Un ven de Paradis.
The greater part of this poetry repeats, in another language, the well-worn mannerisms of the troubadours: we find the usual introductory references to the spring or winter seasons, the wounding glances of ladies' eyes, the tyranny of love, the reluctance to be released from his chains and so forth, decked out with complications of stanza form and rime-distribution. Dialectical subtlety is not absent, and occasionally some glow of natural feeling may be perceived; but that school in general was careful to avoid the vulgarity of unpremeditated emotion and appealed only to a restricted class of the initiated. Changes in the constitution and customs of society brought this school to an end at the close of the thirteenth century, and a new period of lyric poetry was introduced by Guillaume de Machaut and Eustache Deschamps.
Of the troubadours in England there is little to be said. The subject has hitherto received but scanty attention. Richard Coeur de Lion was as much French as English; his mother, Queen Eleanor, as we have seen, was Southern French by birth and a patroness of troubadours. Richard followed her example; his praises are repeated by many troubadours. What truth there may be in Roger of Hovenden's statement concerning his motives cannot be said; "Hic ad augmentum et famam sui nominis emendicata carmina et rhythmos adulatorios comparabat et de regno Francorum cantores et joculatores muneribus allexerat ut de illo canerent in plateis, et jam dicebatur ubique, quod non erat talis in orbe." The manuscripts have preserved two poems attributed to him, one referring to a difference with the Dauphin of Auvergne, Robert I. (1169-1234), the other a lament describing his feelings during his imprisonment in Germany (1192-1194). Both are in French though a Provençal verson is extant of the latter. The story of Richard's discovery by Blondel is pure fiction.35
From the time of Henry II. to that of Edward I. England was in constant communication with Central and Southern France and a considerable number of Provençals visited England at different times and especially in the reign of Henry III.; Bernard de Ventadour, Marcabrun and Savaric de Mauleon are mentioned among them. Though opportunity was thus provided for the entry of Provençal influence during the period when a general stimulus was given to lyric poetry throughout Western Europe, Norman French was the literary language of England during the earlier part of that age and it was not until the second half of the thirteenth century that English lyric poetry appeared. Nevertheless, traces of Provençal influence are unmistakably apparent in this Middle English lyric poetry. But even before this time Anglo-Latin and Anglo-Norman literature was similarly affected. William of Malmesbury says that the Norman Thomas, Archbishop of York, the opponent of Anselm wrote religious songs in imitation of those performed by jongleurs; "si quis in auditu ejus arte joculatoria aliquid vocale sonaret, statim illud in divinas laudes effigiabat." These were possibly hymns to the Virgin. There remain also political poems written against John and Henry III. which may be fairly called sirventes, Latin disputes, such as those Inter Aquam et Vinum, Inter Cor et Oculum, De Phillide et Flora, are constructed upon the principles of the tenso or partimen. The use of equivocal and "derivative" rimes as they are called in the Leys d'Amors is seen in the following Anglo-Norman stanzas. A poem with similar rimes and grouped in the same order is attributed to the Countess of Die, the Provençal trobairitz; but this, as M. Paul Meyer points out, may be pure coincidence.36
En lo sesoun qe l'erbe poynt E reverdist la matinée E sil oysel chauntent a poynt En temps d'avril en la ramée, Lores est ma dolur dublée Que jeo sui en si dure poynt Que jeo n'en ai de joie poynt, Tant me greve la destinée. Murnes et pensif m'en depart, Que trop me greve la partie; Si n'en puis aler cele part, Que ele n'eyt a sa partie Mon quor tot enter saunz partie. E puis qu'el ad le men saunz part, E jeo n'oy unkes del soen part A moi est dure la partie.
"In the season when the grass springs and the morn is green and the birds sing exultantly in April time in the branches, then is my grief doubled, for I am in so hard a case that I have no joy at all, so heavy is my fate upon me.
"Sad and thoughtful I depart, for the case is too grievous for me: yet I cannot go thither, for she has in her power my heart whole and undivided. And since she has mine undivided and I never have any part of hers, the division is a hard one to me."
This influence was continued in Middle English lyric poetry. These lyrics are often lacking in polish; the tendency to use alliteration as an ornament has nothing to do with such occasional troubadour examples of the trick as may be found in Peire d'Auvergne. Sometimes a refrain of distinctly popular origin is added to a stanza of courtly and artificial character. Generally, however, there is a freshness and vigour in these poems which may be vainly sought in the products of continental decadence. But Provençal influence, whether exerted directly or indirectly through the Northern French lyric school, is plainly visible in many cases. Of the lyrics found in the important MS. Harleian 2253,37 "Alysoun" has the same rime scheme as a poem by Gaucelm Faidit: it opens with the conventional appeal to spring; the poet's feelings deprive him of sleep. The Fair Maid of Ribbesdale has a rime-scheme almost identical with that shown by one of Raimbaut d'Aurenga's poems; the description of the lady's beauty recalls many troubadour formulae: the concluding lines—
He myhte sayen pat crist hym seze, pat myhte nyhtes neh hyre leze, heuene he hevede here.
are a troubadour commonplace. Many other cases might be quoted. Hymns and songs to the Virgin exhibit the same characteristics of form. The few Provençal words which became English are interesting;38 colander or cullender (now a vegetable strainer; Prov. colador), funnel, puncheon, rack, spigot, league, noose are directly derived from Provençal and not through Northern French and are words connected with shipping and the wine trade, the port for which was Bordeaux.
In the year 1323 a society was formed in Toulouse of seven troubadours, the "sobregaya companhia," for the purpose of preserving and encouraging lyric poetry (lo gay saber). The middle class of Toulouse seems at all times to have felt an interest in poetry and had already produced such well-known troubadours as Aimeric de Pegulhan, Peire Vidal and Guillem Figueira. The society offered an annual prize of a golden violet for the best chanso; other prizes were added at a later date for the best dance song and the best sirventes. Competitors found that songs to the Virgin were given the preference and she eventually became the one subject of these prize competitions. The society produced a grammatical work, the Leys d'Amors, under the name of its president, Guillem Molinier, in 1356,39 no doubt for the reference and instruction of intending competitors. The competition produced a few admirable poems, but anxiety to preserve the old troubadour style resulted generally in dry and stilted compositions. The Academie des jeux floraux40 altered the character of the competition by admitting French poems after 1694. At the end of the sixteenth century, Provençal poetry underwent a revival; in our own time, poets such as Jasmin, Aubanel, Roumanille and above all, Mistral, have raised their language from a patois to a literary power. The work of the félibres has been to synthetise the best elements of the various local dialects and to create a literary language by a process not wholly dissimilar to that described at the outset of this book. But the old troubadour spirit had died long before; it had accomplished its share in the history of European literature and had given an impulse to the development of lyric poetry, the effects of which are perceptible even at the present day.
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND NOTES
LITERARY HISTORY
F. Diez, Leben und Werke der Troubadours, 2nd edit., re-edited by K. Bartsch, Leipsic, 1882. Die Poesie der Troubadours, 2nd edit., re-edited by K. Bartsch, Leipsic, 1883.
K. Bartsch, Grundriss zur Geschichte der provenzalischen Literatur, Elberfeld, 1872. A new edition of this indispensable work is in preparation by Prof. A. Pillet of Breslau. The first part of the book contains a sketch of Provençal literature, and a list of manuscripts. The second part gives a list of the troubadours in alphabetical order, with the lyric poems attributed to each troubadour. The first line of each poem is quoted and followed by a list of the MSS. in which it is found. Modern editors have generally agreed to follow these lists in referring to troubadour lyrics: e.g. B. Gr., 202, 4 refers to the fourth lyric (in alphabetical order) of Guillem Ademar, who is no. 202 in Bartsch's list.
A list of corrections to this list is given by Gröber in Böhmer's Romanische Studien, vol. ii. 1875-77, Strassburg. In vol. ix. of the same is Gröbers' study of troubadour MSS. and the relations between them.
A. Stimming, Provenzaliscke Literatur in Gröber's Grundriss der Romanischen Philologie, Strassburg, 1888, vol. ii. part ii. contains useful bibliographical notices.
A. Restori, Letteratura provenzale, Milan, 1891 (Manuali Hoepli), an excellent little work.
A. Jeanroy, Les origines de la poésie lyrique en France, 2nd edit., Paris, 1904.
J. Anglade, Les troubadours, Paris, 1908, an excellent and trustworthy work, in popular style, with a good bibliography.
J. H. Smith, The troubadours at Home, 2 vols., New York, 1899; popularises scientific knowledge by impressions of travel in Southern France, photographs, and historical imagination: generally stimulating and suggestive, Most histories of French literature devote some space to Provençal; e.g. Suchier & Birch-Hirschfeld, Geschichte der französischen Litteratur, Leipsic, 1900. The works of Millot and Fauriel are now somewhat antiquated. Trobador Poets, Barbara Smythe, London, 1911, contains an introduction and translations from various troubadours.
DICTIONARIES AND GRAMMARS
F. Raynouard, Lexique roman, 6 vols., Paris, 1838-1844, supplemented by.
E. Levy, Provenzalisches supplement-Wörterbuch, Leipsic, 1894, not yet completed, but indispensable.
E. Levy, Petit dictionnaire provençal-français, Heidelberg, 1908.
J. B. Roquefort, Glossaire de la langue romane, 3 vols., Paris, 1820.
W. Meyer-Lübke, Grammaire des langues romanes, French translation of the German, Paris, 1905.
C. H. Grandgent, An outline of the phonology and morphology of old Provençal, Boston, 1905.
H. Suchier, Die französiche und provenzalische Sprache in Gröber's Grundriss. A French translation, Le Français et le Provençal, Paris, 1891.
TEXTS
The following chrestomathies contain tables of grammatical forms (except in the case of Bartsch) texts and vocabularies.
Altprovenzalisches Elementarbuch, O. Schultz-Gora, Heidelberg, 1906, an excellent work for beginners.
Provenzalische Chrestomathie, C. Appel, Leipsic, 1907, 3rd edit.
Manualetto provenzale, V. Crescini, Padua, 1905, 2nd edit.
Chrestomathie provençal, K. Bartsch, re-edited by Koschwitz, Marburg, 1904.
The following editions of individual troubadours have been published.
Alegret. Annales du Midi, no. 74.
Arnaut Daniel. U. A. Canello, Halle, 1883.
Bernart de Rovenac. G. Borsdorff, Erlangen, 1907.
Bartolomeo Zorzi. E. Levy, Halle, 1883.
Bertran d'Alamanon. J. Salverda de Grave, Toulouse, 1902 (Bibliothèque Méridionale).
Bertran de Born. A. Thomas, Toulouse, 1888 (Bibliothèque Méridionale).
Bertran de Born. A. Stimming, Halle, 1892 (and in the Romanischz Bibliothek, Leipsic).
Blacatz. O. Soltau, Leipsic, 1890.
Cercamon. Dr Dejeanne, Toulouse, 1905 (Annales du Midi, vol. xvii.).
Elias de Barjols. Stronski, Paris, 1906 (Bibliothèque Méridionale vi.).
Folquet de Marselha. Stronski, Cracow, 1911.
Folquet de Romans. Zenker (Romanische Bibliothek).
Gavaudan. A. Jeanroy, Romania, xxxiv., p. 497.
Guillaume IX. Comte de Poitiers. A. Jeanroy, Toulouse, 1905.
Guillem Anelier de Toulouse. M. Gisi, Solothurn, 1877.
Guillem de Cabestanh. F. Hüffer, Berlin, 1869.
Guillem Figueira. E. Levy, Berlin, 1880.
Guillem de Montanhagol. J. Coulet, Bibliothèque Méridionale, iv., Toulouse.
Guiraut de Bornelh. A. Kolsen, Berlin, 1894 and 1911.
Guiraut d'Espanha. P. Savi-Lopez. Studj mediaevali, Fasc. 3, Turin, 1905.
Guiraut Riquier, Étude sur, etc. J. Anglade, Paris, 1905.
Jaufre Rudel. A Stimming, Kiel, 1873.
Marcabrun. Dr Dejeanne. Bibliothèque Méridionale, 1910.
Marcoat. Dr Dejeanne, Toulouse, 1903 (Annales du Midi, xv.).
Monk of Montaudon. E. Philippson, Halle, 1873; O. Klein, Marburg, 1885.
N' At de Mons. Bernhard. Altfranzösische Bibliothek, Heilbronn.
Paulet de Marselha. E. Levy, Paris, 1882.
Peire d'Alvernhe (d'Auvergne). R. Zenker, Rostock, 1900.
Peire Vidal. K. Bartsch, Berlin, 1857 (an edition by J. Anglade is about to appear).
Peire Rogier. C. Appel, Berlin, 1892.
Perdigon. H.J. Chaytor, Annales du Midi, xxi.
Pons de Capdoill. M. Napolski, Halle, 1879.
Raimbaut de Vaqueiras. O. Schultz, Halle, 1893.
Raimon de Miraval, Etude sur, etc. P. Andraud, Paris, 1902.
Sordel. De Lollis, Halle, 1896 (Romanische Bibliothek).
Numerous separate pieces have been published in the various periodicals concerned with Romance philology, as also have diplomatic copies of several MSS. Of these periodicals, the most important for Provençal are Romania, les Annales du Midi, Zeitschrift der Romanischen Philologie, Archiv fur das Studium der neueren Sprachen, Romanische Studien, Studj di filologia romanza, Revue des langues romanes. Mahn's Gedichte der Troubadours, 4 vols., Berlin, 1856-71, contains diplomatic copies of MSS.; his Werke der Troubadours, Berlin, 1846-55, contains reprints from Raynouard, Choix des poésies originales des Troubadours, Paris, 1816. Suchier, Denkmäler provenzalischer Sprache, Halle, 1883; Appel, Provenzalische Inedita, Leipsic, 1890; Chabaneau, Poesies inédites des Troubadours du Perigord, Paris, 1885; P. Meyer, Les derniers troubadours de Provence, Paris, 1871, should be mentioned. Most of the pieces in the Parnasse Occitanien, Toulouse, 1819, are to be found better edited elsewhere. Other pieces are to be found in various Festschriften and occasional or private publications, too numerous to be detailed here. C. Chabaneau, Les biographies des Troubadours, Toulouse, 1885 (part of the Histoire générale de Languedoc) is full of valuable information. The biographies have been translated by I. Farnell, Lives of the Troubadours, London, 1896.
NOTES
CHAPTER I
CHAPTER II
CHAPTER III
CHAPTER IV
CHAPTER V
CHAPTER VI
CHAPTER VII
Most histories of Italian literature deal with this subject. See Gaspary's Italian Literature to the death of Dante: H. Oelsner, Bohn's Libraries. See also the chapter, La poésie française en Italie in Jeanroy's Origines. For Dante, see Storia letteraria d'Italia, scritta di una società di professori, Milan, vol. iii., Dante, by Zingarelli. The Troubadours of Dante, Chaytor, Oxford, 1902. Useful are A. Thomas, Francesco da Barberino et la littérature provençale en Italie au moyen âge, Paris, 1883. O. Schultz, Die Lebensverhältnisse der Italienischen Trobadors, Berlin, 1883.
CHAPTER VIII
Milà y Fontañals, Los trovadores en España, Barcelona, 1861, remains the best work on the subject. On Portugal, the article in Gröber's Grundriss, ii. 2, p. 129, by C. Michaelis de Vasconcellos and Th. Braga is admirable: see the bibliographical references there given and the introduction to R. Lang, Das Liederbuch des Königs Denis von Portugal, Halle, 1894.
CHAPTER IX
Troubadour influence in Germany is discussed at greater or less length in most histories of German literature. See Jeanroy, Origines, p. 270 ff. A. Lüderitz, Die Liebestheorien der Provenzalen bei den Minnesingern der Slauferzeit, Literarhistorische Forschungen, Berlin, 1904.
For France. A. Jeanroy, De nostratibus medii aevi poetis qui primum Aquitaniae carmina imitati sint, Paris, 1889.
For England. Schofield, English Literature from the Norman Conquest to Chaucer, London, 1906. O. Heider, Untersuchungen zur mittelenglischen erotischen Lyrik, Halle, 1905. A. Brandl, Spielmann's verhältnisse in frühmittelenglischer Zeit, Sitzungs-berichte der Königl. preuss., Akademie, 1910.
INDEX.
Alamanon, Bertran d', 104 Alba, 33, 128 Albigeois, 13, 23, 75, ff. Alcuin, 7 Alfonso II. of Aragon, 51, 59, 69, 74, 110, 113 Alfonso VIII. of Castile, 110, 113, 114 Alfonso X. of Castile, 118, 124 André le Chapelain, 19, 130 Aquino, Rinaldo d', 82 Aquitaine, 42 Arabs, 8, 105 Aragon, 54, 71, 110 —— Pedro II. of, 78, 83, 113 Arles, 5 Aurenga, Raimbaut d', 35, 85, 64 Auvergne, 3 —— Dauphin of, 134 —— Peire d', 36, 67, 70, 135 Azalais, 71, 79 Ballata, 33 Barral, 71, 79 Belenoi, Aimeric de, 118 Bethune, Conon de, 131 Bezaudun, Raimon Vidal of, 115, 122 Béziers, 50, 78 Blacatz, 103 Born, Bertran de, 13, 57, 111, 130 Bornelh, Giraut de, 23, 35, 37, 53, 68, 86, 113 Brunei, Uc, 113 Cabestanh, Guillem de, 73 Cabreira, Guiraut de, 122 Caen, Raoul de, 6 Cairel, Elias, 12 Calanso, Guiraut de, 115, 122 Calha, Albertet, 12 Calvo, Bonifacio, 100, 118 Carcassonne, 78 Cardenal, Peire, 11, 82, 84, 92, 117, 118 Castile, 54, 71 —— Sancho III. of, 67 Catalonia, 3, 5, 71, 109, 121 ff. Cercamon, 9, 42 Chabaneau, 20 Chanso, 23 Cigala, Lanfranc, 39, 100, 116 Circ, Uc de San, 100, 113 Corbiac, Peire de, 93 Comjat, 23 Compostella, 109, 124 Courts of Love, 19 Cunizza, 101 Daniel, Arnaut, 55 Dante, 24, 53, 55, 57, 63, 104, 108, 131 Denis, 124 Descort, 33, 97 Die, Countess of, 11, 65 Dietmar von Aist, 128 Dominic, 77, 80 Ebles II., 46 Eleanor of Aquitaine, 42, 46, 59, 130 Escas Amanieu des, 121 Escondig, 33 Estampida, 33 Este, 95 Ezzelino III., 101 Faidit, Gaucelm, 99, 135 Ferdinand III. of Castile, 104, 116 Figueira, Guillem, 82, 138 Flamenca, 23 Florence, 100 Frederick II. of Sicily, 88, 105 Friedrich von Hausen, 129 Galicia, 123 Gasson, 3, 9, 115 Genoa, 78, 100 Gerona, Serveri de, 120 Guido delle Colonne, 106, 107 Guido Guinicelli, 106 Guiot de Dijon, 132 Hautefort, 60, 111 Henry II. of England, 47, 59, 63 Henry III. of England, 104, 117 Innocent III., 76, 77 Inquisition, 80 Isabella of Angoulême, 117 Jaime I. of Aragon, 85 Jaufre, Roman de, 23 Languedoc, 3 Lemosin, 5 Lentino, Jacopo da, 82 Leys d'Amors, 16, 23, 33, 138 Limousin, 3, 4, 8, 123 Louis VII. of France, 60, 69 Louis VIII. of France, 89 Lyons, 5, 77 Malaspina, Marquis of, 100 Malmesbury, William of, 41 Manfred II., 100, 102 Mantua, 101 Marcabrun, 35, 43, 68, 85, 110, 135 Mareuil, Arnaut de, 50, 53 Marseilles, 5, 10 —— Barral of 71, 79 —— Folquet of, 10, 13, 72, 78, 91 Marie of Champagne, 130 Marvejols, Bernard Sicart de, 84, 117, 118 Mauleon, Savaric de, 135 Minnesingers, 128 Miraval, Raímon de, 39, 83 Montanhagol, Guillem de, 117 Montaudon, Monk of, 11, 69, 79, 113 —— Beatrice of, 97 Montpelier, Germonde de, 89 —— William VII. of, 51, 79 Muret 78, 114 Music, 26 ff. Narbonne, 5, 59, 67 Navarre, 54, 110 —— Guillem de Tudela of, 120 Nesles, Blondel de, 131, 134 Nostradamus, 19 Novara, 102 Orange, William IV. of, 96 Partimen, 130 Pastorela, 33 Pegulhan, Aimeric de, 99, 107, 114, 138 Perdigon, 11 Pisa, 100 Planh, 30 Poitou, 4 Poitiers, 6, 8 —— William of, 6, 41, 65, 90 Portugal, Denis of, 124 Provence, 3 —— Beatrice of, 102 Puegsibot, Gausbert de, 14 Puy, 69 Raynouard, 19 Richard Coeur de Lion, 55, 58, 69, 72, 134 Riquier, Guiraut, 92, 118 Rogier, Peire, 66 Rovenhac, Bernart de, 118 Roussillon, 3 —— Girart de, 22 Rudel, Jaufre, 23, 44 Rudolf, Count of Neuenberg, 82 Savoy, 96 Serena, 33 Simon de Montfort, 78 Sirventes, 30, 135 Sordello, 96, 101, 116 Stanza, 24, ff. Tenso, 21, 31, 130 Thibaut IV. of Champagne, 131 Tor, Guillem de la, 100 Toronet, 79 Toulouse, 5, 13, 78, 80, 84, 138 —— N'At de Mons of, 117 —— Peire Raimon of, 113 —— Raimon V. of, 49, 50, 60, 67, 111 —— Raimon VI. of, 78, 80, 114 Tripoli, Countess of, 44 Trobar clus, 34 Turin, 96 Ussel, Gui d', 14 Vaqueiras, Raimbaut de, 96, 100 Vaudois, 76 Venice, 100 Ventadour, 11 —— Bernart of, 11, 13, 46, 68, 128, 130, 133, 135 Verona, 96 Vers, 23 Vidal, Peire, 71, 95, 97, 100, 112, 115, 127, 138 Virgin Mary, 15, 91 Zorzi, Bartolomeo, 100, 118