PART II. By Millicent Hughes.

IN America, as in Europe, it is becoming increasingly recognised, that the fact of having received a good education, even if that education have included a University course, is no guarantee of fitness for the teaching profession. That some special professional preparation is also necessary before a teacher can be safely entrusted with teaching responsibility can hardly be said to be any longer a matter of debate among those who have devoted time and thought to educational questions. There may be much difference of opinion as to the best way of giving that preparation, but that it should be given is becoming more and more a foregone conclusion. There seems at last some chance that a well-earned rest may be allowed to the well-worn comparison made between the doctor’s and teacher’s professions, with its obvious moral—that just as no right-thinking parent would allow an unqualified practitioner to prescribe for his child’s body, so it should be impossible for that far less understood and delicate something, which we call the mind, to be entrusted to the care of one whose only qualification for the post is the possession of a certain amount of useful information. There are many battles yet to be fought, many experiments yet to be tried, many failures yet to be faced, ere all shall be agreed on the best kind of professional training that can be given to teachers; yet I have returned from America encouraged in the belief that the decisive battle in favour of training has been fought and won on both sides of the Atlantic, and that the old world and the new may with advantage to both join hands in the endeavour to discover the best ways and means of such training.

And it would seem especially fitting that England and America should thus join hands, for, after all, few things about the Americans impressed me more than the fact that they are really English, and that the inhabitants of Great Britain and the United States really form part of one great English-speaking nation, with the heritage of a noble language and literature, and a common life of thought and feeling. In matters educational, the truth of this oneness impressed me vividly. Allowing for such differences as must exist between an old and a new country, it is nevertheless true that most of the problems in education which they are trying to solve are those which perplex us also, and of these the problem of the Training of Teachers holds a place in the front rank. But it is a curious and interesting fact, that the solution should be attempted in both countries, and yet that so little attention should be paid in each to what is being done in the other. The ignorance that prevails among American teachers as to what is being attempted in England is, I fear, only equalled by our own ignorance of American educational life. This ignorance is largely the result of the difficulty that both American and English teachers experience, in obtaining definite information on educational matters in connection with either country. This fact made it very difficult for me even to map out my tour, so as to include as far as possible what was typical of American Training in the short time at my disposal, and had it not been for the unvarying kindness and courtesy shown me by American teachers, in directing my notice to what was best worth seeing, my task would have presented almost insuperable difficulties. As it is, I have, of course, been unable to cover the whole ground, and indeed have been able to personally examine into the opportunities for training in a very few States. These, however, I believe to be representative States, from a study of the means of training in which it is possible to arrive at a very fair conclusion of its condition in the States as a whole. They include the following: Pennsylvania, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, New York, Michigan and Illinois. I was, however, fortunate in being able to supplement the information thus obtained by a careful study of the many excellent State exhibits in the Educational Department of the Liberal Arts Building, at the World’s Fair, and to further correct and intensify the impressions I had received by many conversations with educationists from all parts of the United States, whom it was my good fortune to meet at the Educational Congresses, held at Chicago in July.

In considering any American educational question, there are one or two points which must never be lost sight of, and perhaps it will be well to indicate them here. In the first place, it must be remembered that there is not one American educational system, but many. Each State has complete control of its own educational matters, has its own School Law, sets aside common lands, or levies taxes for the support of its own schools, and is responsible to no higher authority. The only part taken by the Central Government of the United States in connection with education has been in the establishment of a Bureau of Education, the chief functions of which have been (1) the collecting of statistics and general information respecting education in all the various States, which are embodied in an annual report made by the Commissioner of Education, (2) the publishing of monographs and circulars of information on topics of educational interest, such as Co-education, Teaching of History, etc., and (3) the maintaining of a valuable Pedagogical Reference Library at Washington.

Secondly, a distinction must be made between the Western States, of which Michigan might be taken as representative, and the Eastern, of which Massachusetts might be considered typical. In the former we find a most complete system of State education, leading from the Primary School right up to the great co-educational University of Michigan. The State Schools there have few private rivals, and the University none. In the State of Massachusetts, on the contrary, although Primary, Grammar and High Schools are maintained at the public expense, yet the children of a large proportion of the inhabitants attend private schools and academies, which undertake to prepare them for Harvard or the Women’s Colleges, such as Wellesley. In fact, few of those who enter upon a University career do so straight from the common school, as is the case in the Western States. It follows from this that there are two classes of teachers to be considered in the Eastern States—(1) those who teach in the common schools (Primary, Grammar and High), and (2) those who teach in private schools and in the academies. Those of the second class are largely recruited from the ranks of College graduates, who rely upon their University course as preparation for the profession of teaching, and amongst whom the idea of a special training for their work has only here and there been awakened. It is mainly in connection with State education that the idea of the training of teachers has been developed, although the fact that several of the older Universities, including Harvard, are providing courses of lectures on the Science and Art of Teaching may be taken as a hopeful sign of the gradual growth of the idea among all classes of teachers.

It will be perhaps well to enumerate the various means available for the Training of Teachers in the United States, and then to describe more particularly the special features of the training to be obtained in each kind of institution.

Training may be obtained at:

Public or State.

i. Normal Schools City.

Private.

ii.City Training Schools.

Classes.

iii. Pedagogical Departments in Universities.

iv. Teachers’ Institutes.

v. Summer Schools.

NORMAL SCHOOLS.

There are three kinds of Normal Schools to be considered—State, City and Private. It was my privilege to visit a good number belonging to the first two classes, but I was not fortunate enough to be able to inspect any of the Private Normal Schools. These latter are, of course, chiefly to be found in those States which have few or no State or City Normal Schools.

The difference between State and City Normal Schools is mainly one of control. The State Normal School forms part of the State Common School system, and is under the direct supervision of the State Superintendent and Board of Education, while the City Normal School belongs to the City School system, and is under the jurisdiction of the City Superintendent. The State Normal School is intended to provide teachers for the schools in any part of the State, while the City Normal School has for its object the preparation of teachers for the City schools alone.

At present one of the most hotly debated questions in connection with Normal Schools relates to the subjects to be included in the curriculum. Shall the Normal School give professional training alone, or shall it also provide instruction in Academic subjects? There is at present much divergence of opinion on the subject, and some schools are organized on the one principle, and some on the other.

At present some of the Normal Schools have a double function to perform, that of serving as High Schools, and at the same time as professional Training Colleges. There is, however, a growing feeling against this plan, and a tendency, wherever possible, to separate those who intend to become teachers from those who do not. But many Normal Schools, while claiming to be only professional, yet include Academic subjects in their curricula. Two reasons for this are commonly urged. In the first place, it is said that it is impossible to get a large enough supply of candidates for training who are sufficiently well equipped for their profession from the point of view of mere information; and secondly, that even those who have the necessary information have acquired it in such a way that it is almost useless for teaching purposes. For such, a complete revision of the various subjects, taken in conjunction with a consideration of the best methods of teaching the same, is regarded as necessary; it being maintained by those in favour of this plan that it is almost impossible to get instruction in the various subjects that will be of any value to them as teachers, outside a Normal School.

On the other hand, there are some who maintain that the Normal School should be strictly professional, admitting none to its courses but those who can give evidence of having had ample academic preparation. Many, however, who believe that the courses in academic studies are at present necessary yet look forward to the time when they will be no longer required.

There appears to be a growing feeling in the States in favour of the complete separation of the professional from the academic course, and it is interesting to note that the question is agitating the minds of those who have to do with the training of teachers in America, at the same time that it has become a burning question in England in connection with the training of our Elementary Teachers. The Normal Schools correspond more or less closely with our English Elementary Training Colleges, and an examination of their points of likeness and difference may not prove unprofitable.

In the first place, it should be noted, that the absence of any uniform standard of attainment, such as is more or less secured in England by the fact that there is one government examination for all Colleges, makes it possible for there to be a great difference in the rank held by different Normal Schools. As each school fixes its own standard of graduation, and the conditions for admission, length of course and final tests vary with each institution, it comes about that much depends upon the Normal School, of which a given teacher is a graduate.

Some Normal Schools, for instance, have a course extending over four years, in others it only lasts from one to two years, while some offer a choice of courses of varying length. In England, on the contrary, the Elementary Training course is uniformly two years in all Colleges, the length being only occasionally varied in the cases of individuals, as when, on special recommendation, a third year is allowed, or a candidate who has already obtained a certificate is admitted to a Training College for one year’s training.

This lack of uniformity in the length of course in American Normal Schools is largely the result of the absence of any one standard of admission. While in England there is one examination, the Queen’s Scholarship, which must be passed by all, except University graduates who desire to enter an Elementary College, in America the conditions vary with each individual Normal School. Some require at least a certificate of graduation from a High School, some have an entrance examination of their own, which none may be excused, while others offer one to those who have no certificates to show.

Some Normal Schools are regarded as affording suitable preparation for the Universities, and are attended by those who hope to take up a University course later on, while others grant degrees of their own, or arrange special courses for those who have taken degrees elsewhere.

The fact that there are so many differences in respect of length of course and choice of subjects, between the Normal Schools of various States and Cities, makes it exceedingly difficult to form any accurate generalizations. It will probably, therefore, be wiser at this point to give a more detailed account of the Normal Schools which I had an opportunity of studying in the above-mentioned States.

PENNSYLVANIA.

Pennsylvania has eleven State Normal Schools, the two most important of which I was able to visit. The Normal School Law for this State provides for two courses of study; the Elementary Course and the Scientific Course. The first of these leads to the certificate Bachelor of the Element (B.E.), while the diploma of the second constitutes its holder Bachelor of the Sciences (B.S.).

The outlines of these courses are laid down by the State as follows, but each Normal School can adapt them as seems best. Most Normal Schools also arrange for a Preparatory Course.

Elementary Course.—Junior Year.

Pedagogics.—Elements of School Management and Methods.

Language.—Orthography and Reading; English Grammar, including Composition; Latin, sufficient for the introduction of Cæsar.

Mathematics.—Arithmetic; Elementary Algebra.

Natural Sciences.—Physiology and Hygiene.

Historical Sciences.—Geography—Physical, Mathematical, and Political; History of the United States; Civil Government.

The Arts.—Penmanship, sufficient to be able to explain some approved system—writing to be submitted to Board of Examiners; Drawing, a daily exercise for at least twenty-eight weeks—work to be submitted to the Board of Examiners; Book-keeping, single entry, seven weeks; Vocal music, elementary principles, and attendance upon daily exercises for at least one-third of a year.

Manual Training.

Elementary Course.—Second Year.

Pedagogics.—Psychology, embracing the intellect, sensibilities, and will; Methods; History of Education; Model School Work—at least twenty-one weeks of actual teaching daily during one period of not less than forty-five minutes; a Thesis on a professional Subject.

Language.—The outlines of Rhetoric, together with at least a fourteen weeks’ course in English literature, including the thorough study of one selection from each of four English classics; Latin—Cæsar.

Mathematics.—Arithmetic; Mensuration; Plane Geometry.

Natural Sciences.—Elementary Natural Philosophy; Botany.

Historical Sciences.—Reading of General History in connection with the History of Education.

The Arts.—Elocutionary Exercises in connection with the study of English literature.

Manual Training.

Scientific Course.—Two Years.

Pedagogics.—Moral Philosophy; Logic; Philosophy of Education; Course of Professional Reading, with abstracts, notes, criticisms, to be submitted to Board of Examiners; a Thesis on a professional subject.

Language.—Latin, six books of Virgil, four orations of Cicero, the Germania of Tacitus, or a full equivalent; an equivalent of Greek, French, or German will be accepted for Spherical Trigonometry, Analytical Geometry, Calculus, Mathematical Natural Philosophy, and Mathematical Astronomy; Literature.

Mathematics.—Higher Algebra; Solid Geometry; Plane and Spherical Trigonometry and Surveying, with use of instruments; Analytical Geometry; Differential and Integral Calculus.

Natural Science.—Natural Philosophy, as much as in Snell’s Olmsted; Anatomy, Descriptive and Mathematical; Chemistry; Geology or Mineralogy; Zoology; Astronomy.

History.—General History.

To graduate at a Pennsylvanian State Normal School, students must attend at least twenty-one weeks. The Faculty first examines the candidates in all the branches of study; if they find them qualified they recommend them to the State Board of Examiners, and certify that they have completed the course of study as required by law, and have taught the required time in the Model School.

The final examinations are conducted by a State Board of Examiners, who are appointed by the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, from the following classes:—the State Superintendent or Deputy Superintendent, who is President of the Board, the Principal of another Normal School, two County or Borough Superintendents from the First District, and the Principal of this Normal School. Each student must receive four votes out of the five in order to pass the examination, and to graduate.

The final examination occurs about two weeks before Commencement,[2] the date being fixed by the State Superintendent. The examination is almost wholly in writing, and lasts two or three days.

Regular graduates who have continued their studies for two years (i.e. have completed either the Elementary or Scientific Course), and have practised their profession for two years in the Common Schools of the State, and who have presented to the Faculty and Board of Examiners a certificate of good moral character and skill in the Art of Teaching from the Board or Boards of Directors by whom they were employed, countersigned by the proper County Superintendent, receive further diplomas, constituting them Masters in the Course in which they graduated, and conferring upon them one of the following degrees: Master of the Elements (M.E.); Master of the Sciences (M.S.).

These diplomas confer upon their holders the right to teach the subjects therein named, in the public schools of Pennsylvania, without further examination.

It is also the duty of the Pennsylvania Normal Schools to grant State certificates to such teachers in the Common Schools of the State who make application for the same, and who fulfil the following conditions:

i. Each applicant must be twenty-one years of age, and must have taught in the Common Schools of the State during three successive years.

ii. Each must present certificates of moral character, and skill in practical teaching.

iii. The examination must be either in the subjects of the Elementary or Scientific Course, and must be taken at the time of the Annual Examination of the Normal School at which application is made.

iv. Each applicant is required to present an original Thesis on some educational subject.

The School year is usually forty-two weeks, and is divided into two sessions—a winter session of about twenty-eight weeks from August to March, and a summer of fourteen weeks, beginning with the end of March.

The usual charge for the Winter Session is $140 (about £28), and for the Summer Session $70 (about £14).

By a recent Act of the Legislature the following appropriations are made by the State to Normal students and graduates.

i. Each student over seventeen years of age who shall sign a paper declaring his intention to teach in the Common Schools of the State shall receive the sum of fifty cents (about 2s.) per week toward defraying the expenses of tuition and boarding.

ii. Each student who upon graduating shall sign an agreement to teach in the Common Schools of the State two full school years shall receive the sum of fifty dollars (about £10).

iii. Any student desiring to secure the benefits must attend the School at least twelve consecutive weeks, and must join a class in Methods of Instruction or School Management. These benefits will be deducted from the regular expenses of board and tuition.

About four miles from Lancaster, and connected with it by an electric railway, is the little village of Millersville, where is located the oldest Normal School of the State. It was established in 1855, and recognised as the First State Normal School in Pennsylvania in 1859. It is a co-educational school with accommodation for about 500 students, although permission is also sometimes given to students to board out. The buildings are typical of this kind of Normal School. There is a central building containing the Chapel, recitation[3] and dining-rooms, etc., while on either side are two dormitories, one for the men students, and one for the women. There is also a gymnasium; and two handsome buildings—a Library, and a Science building with lecture rooms and laboratories—are in process of erection. There are more women students than men, and fewer of the latter intend to become teachers in the State; often they only use the Normal School as a stepping-stone to the University.

An excellent Model School, comprising a Kindergarten and eight grades, is attached to the Institution, in which the students observe the methods used by the critic teachers in various subjects, and also teach under supervision. I heard one of the critic teachers give a model lesson on a brook basin, and afterwards deliver a lecture to the students on the teaching of Geography, in which the special points of teaching method in connection with the brook basin, school district and township were dwelt upon and discussed. I had, moreover, the opportunity of hearing one of the students teach, and was also fortunate enough to be able to listen to a reading lesson given by the head of the Model School on the sentence method.

I next visited the Normal School at West Chester, which was started in 1871. Its buildings are on much the same plan as those at Millersville, with the two wings for men and women students, and the dining and recitation rooms in the centre. The Principal, with pardonable pride, drew my special attention to the gymnasium building, which, with the single exception of the new Yale Gymnasium, is believed to be the most complete connected with any school or college in the States. It contains a full supply of the best apparatus, running tracks, bath-rooms, large swimming-pool, bowling alleys, ball cage, etc. A thoroughly trained physician[4] and his wife are in charge of the gymnasium, and all exercise is taken under their supervision. I was able to attend several of the classes—one on School Method, which took the form of a discussion of such points as the following: “What degree of quiet is necessary in a school?” “On what does ability to govern depend?” “Can ability to govern be acquired?” I was much struck here, as in other American schools and colleges, with the ease in speaking, and the keen interest shown by the students in taking part in the discussion. A lesson in Arithmetic, in which the students made excellent use of that distinctive feature of an American recitation room—the continuous blackboard, one on United States history, and a lesson on physiology given in the Model School, helped to fill up a most interesting morning.

CONNECTICUT.

There are two State Normal Schools in the State of Connecticut—one at New Britain, started in 1850, and the other at Willimantic, opened in 1889. These schools have for their object the definite preparation of teachers for work in the State schools, and no encouragement is given to other students to enter. They thus differ from the Pennsylvania Normal Schools, which are often attended by those who do not intend to become teachers. This difference appears to produce one curious and instructive result—namely, that while a large number of men students are to be found in the Pennsylvania Normal Schools, they are conspicuous by their absence from those in Connecticut. This is easily understood when one remembers that an overwhelming majority of the teachers in the Common Schools are women, and that as few men intend to take up teaching as a permanent profession, they are not likely to be found in those Normal Schools, the courses of which will not serve as stepping-stones to a future college or other career.

Neither of these two Schools are residential, but the Principals undertake to assist students in finding comfortable accommodation. Board and lodging can usually be obtained from $3 to $4 (14s. to 17s.) per week.

Candidates for admission must either (1) pass an entrance examination held at certain centres in the State, or (2) present a certificate of graduation from a High School or State Teachers’ Certificate, or (3) have taught successfully for three years.

The course is arranged for two years, but no student can graduate from the schools unless considered fit to teach by the Faculty. They may either remain longer as students, or if thought to be hopeless may be requested to withdraw.

At both schools there are at least two parts to the course: (1) that done in the Normal School, including the Theory of Education, and special work in science and other subjects; and (2) that done in the Model or Training Schools. Each School has also a Kindergarten, and at New Britain there is a special course for the training of Kindergarten teachers.

Students who attain the required standard of scholarship in every prescribed subject, and exhibit a fair degree of skill in teaching and governing children, and pass the State Examination for Teachers, receive a Diploma of Graduation.

The fitness of any teacher for her profession is thus determined partly by the authorities of the Normal School, and partly by the State.

All necessary text-books are free, but students are encouraged to purchase a few books of reference.

The aim of this school is entirely professional, but it is found so difficult to obtain a supply of sufficiently prepared students that some academic work, especially in science, is found to be necessary, and each student is expected to learn to make certain sets of apparatus, which will be afterwards helpful in the teaching of science in the schools. The Principal informed me that he considered that the school was stronger on the practical than on the theoretical side. Most certainly the practical training of teachers is most thoroughly arranged for. A Model School of 500 children is attached to the school, the classes in which are in the hands of trained and enthusiastic teachers, who are constantly endeavouring to improve existing and devise new methods of teaching. In reading, for instance, the children make their own reading lesson, the subjects being taken from lessons on elementary science, literature, etc., which they have had. With the help of the blackboard, simple sentences, giving an account of the lesson or its story, are collected, and then printed by the school printing press, which proves an invaluable addition to the school apparatus. Drawing is also taught almost entirely in connection with other school subjects, the illustrating of Science, History and Geography lessons being thus utilized.

During the training course, the students give a few lessons in the Model School, and spend a good deal of time in observation. But a comparatively new and important feature in connection with the practical training is the six months which students are encouraged to spend after graduation at a Practice School which has been opened at South Manchester. Here the graduates teach under supervision, and obtain that amount of practice under favourable circumstances which is so necessary to the perfecting of the teacher.

At Willimantic, as at New Britain, especial stress is laid on preparing the teacher for the practical part of the profession. The child, however, is the unit of the school, and on the right understanding of the child depends the teacher’s success in teaching. The child has both a body and a mind to be trained, and the two cannot be separated. It is therefore necessary that a teacher should know something about each, and students are therefore expected to devote a good deal of time to the study of Physiology in the Junior year, and to the study of Psychology in the Senior.

The Model Schools[5] are most carefully staffed, and the students spend as much time as possible in observing work done in these schools.

During the last term of the course, each student serves as an assistant in the various grades of the Model Schools, thus having experience in teaching under the guidance and criticism of an expert in each grade.

The course is for two years, but the Principal is anxious to have the time extended.

NEW YORK STATE.

The first Normal School for the State of New York was opened at Albany in 1844. There are now eleven such schools in the State, two of which—Albany and Oswego—are entirely professional, while the others provide also for academic work.

Statistics of New York State Normal Schools.

Normal.Academic.

Location. No. Average No. Average

Registered. Attendance. Registered. Attendance.

Last Year. Last Year. Last Year. Last Year.

Albany 375 305

Oswego 382 323

Brockport 370 283 108 61

Cortland 384 312 35 25

Potsdam 490 395 182 134

Fredonia 253 196 67 49

Buffalo 357 295 12 7

Geneseo 535 391 78 65

New Paltz 227 170 26 13

Oneonta 365 304 23 15

Plattsburgh 142 106

The following extracts from the circular issued by the Superintendent of Public Instruction give the principal features common to all the Normal Schools of the State of New York.

“Students will be appointed to the Normal Schools by the Superintendent, upon the recommendation of superintendents and school commissioners. These officers will be relied upon to properly represent to possible candidates the needs of the public schools for well-qualified teachers, and the necessity of professional and technical training on the part of all who intend to teach. No students can be admitted who have not already acquired a substantial elementary education. This can be gained in all of the ordinary schools, and the professional training schools cannot be properly taxed with work which the common schools can perform as well. Through the quality of the work performed, through the attainments and the professional spirit and purpose of graduates, rather than through mere multiplicity of numbers, can the Normal Schools best promote the educational interests of the State. There is room and welcome in the Normal Schools for the graduates of the elementary and secondary schools, and even for those who have made substantial advancement in the elementary course without technical graduation, provided that they give promise of becoming successful teachers, and possess the desire to become such; but there is no room for students who have laid no real foundation for professional training, and who have no well-determined purpose about the matter and no fair conception of the responsibilities and obligations of a teacher’s occupation.

“Appointments will ordinarily follow recommendations, but students will be admitted or retained in Normal Schools only when they show scholarship and other qualities in justification of the appointment.

“The following form of recommendation will be used, and will be supplied from the department or from any of the schools upon application. When filled out it should be mailed to the Superintendent, and when approved it will be by him sent direct to the school. No student can be appointed who is not fully sixteen years of age.

To the Superintendent of Public Instruction:—

I hereby recommend of in the County of aged years, as possessing the health, scholarship, mental ability and moral character requisite for an appointment to the State Normal and Training School at

School Commissioner District of the County of Or, Superintendent City of

Dated.

“Students duly appointed, and presenting the diplomas of colleges, universities, high schools, academies or academic departments of union schools, State Certificates or Commissioner’s Certificates, granted under the uniform examination system, and still in force, showing a standing of seventy-five per cent. in arithmetic, grammar and geography, may be admitted at any time and without examination.

“Students duly appointed, but unable to present either of the above-named evidences of proficiency, may be admitted at the opening of each term upon duly passing an entrance examination to be held at the school.

“Non-residents of the State are not to be solicited or encouraged to enter our Normal Schools, but such persons as specially desire to do so, and who comply with the requirements as to admission, may be admitted upon paying to the treasurer of the Local Board a tuition fee of twenty dollars per term of twenty weeks in advance. No mileage fees[6] will be paid to non-residents.

“No student will be received into the academic department connected with any State Normal School who is not a bona fide resident of the territory whose people have heretofore given Normal School property to the State, and for whose benefit the State has pledged itself to maintain an academic department.

“Tuition and the use of all text-books are free. Students will be held responsible, however, for any injury or loss of books. They are advised to bring with them, for reference, any suitable books they may have. The amount of fare necessarily paid on public conveyances in coming to the school will be refunded to those who remain a full term.

“A year is divided into two terms of twenty weeks each. The Autumn term commences on the first Wednesday in September, and the Spring term on the second Wednesday in February. There will be an intermission for a week during the holidays.”

There are three courses of study which can be followed: an English course arranged for three years, a Classical and a Scientific arranged for four years. (Albany and Oswego have specially arranged courses.)

Students who satisfactorily complete any one of the above courses receive diplomas, which serve as licenses to teach in the public schools of the State.

The first Normal School of the State was located at Albany. Until 1890 it had, like most of the other schools, academic as well as professional work, but it was then reorganized on a new plan, under the title of “New York State Normal College.” This College now devotes itself entirely to the giving of instruction in the Science and Art of Teaching.

The courses of study are as follows:—

1. English Course, which extends over two years, and embraces Psychology, History and Philosophy of Education, Methods of teaching all ordinary school subjects, School Economy and School Law, Kindergarten methods and practice in teaching under criticism. Graduates from this course receive a life diploma or license to teach.

2. Classical Course. This is also a two years’ course on much the same lines as the English, but with the addition of Methods of teaching Latin and Greek, or German, or French. A much severer entrance examination must, however, be passed to gain admission to this course than is required for the English. A life diploma and the degree of Bachelor of Pedagogy are conferred on graduates from this course.

3. Supplementary Course. This takes one year, which is devoted to the reading of leading educational authors, the discussion of educational subjects, and the preparation of an original thesis. Those who take this course in addition to the English receive the degree of Bachelor of Pedagogy, and those who take it in addition to the Classical receive that of Master of Pedagogy.

4. One year Course for graduates from Colleges and Universities in which they are allowed to select a course (approved by the Faculty) for one year, and can receive a life diploma and the degree of Bachelor of Pedagogy.

5. Kindergartner’s Course.

I unfortunately reached Albany too late to see the school in working order, but from what its Principal, Dr. Milne, told me, it appears to possess the most purely professional course of any Normal School in the States.

Oswego.

The Oswego School was first organized as a City Training School in 1861, but was adopted as a State School in 1863. The history of this school is the history of its Principal, Dr. Sheldon. When quite young, he became interested in the question of the education of the poor of his native city, Oswego. With the help of friends the first free school was started, but as no teacher could be found, he had to teach himself. He was able, in 1853, to organize a city system of schools, and became superintendent. Dissatisfaction with the teaching results of his schools led him to consider the question of methods. On a visit to Toronto, he saw in the National Museum a collection of educational appliances used abroad, and especially at the Home and Colonial Training School in London. He brought back all the apparatus that he could, but both he and his teachers realized the need of training, and finally some of them resigned half their salaries for one year, in order that a training teacher might be brought over from the Home and Colonial Training College. Miss M. E. M. Jones, an ardent disciple of Pestalozzi, came in response to their request, and day by day, after school hours, she met this enthusiastic little band of teachers, which was the first Training Class. After she left, those she had taught were able to carry it on, and the training of teachers was an established fact in Oswego. The course was at first only for one year, but was later extended to three and four when the school was taken over by the State.

With the consent of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, the classical department has been dropped out of the Oswego School, and more extended lines of English work have been taken up as elective courses. The regular English course is taken for three years, and one of these for the fourth.

This course includes advanced work in science, history, higher English, psychology, pedagogy, drawing, and teaching under criticism, and occupies two terms of twenty weeks each.

Those who show marked talent for primary and kindergarten work may, after graduation, be invited by a vote of the Faculty to take an additional year in special training for kindergarten and primary teachers. At the end of this course diplomas are granted, indicating fitness to take charge of kindergartens; and in addition, certificates of special qualifications for primary work are given, signed by all the members of the Faculty.

In order to meet the increasing demand for teachers who can undertake training work in Normal Schools, a special course has been started, which lasts for five months, and includes lectures in psychology, pedagogy, kindergarten principles and methods; observation of the work in the kindergarten; attendance upon the criticisms of the critics in all the departments of the training work; making out criticisms on the work in the different departments of the school of practice and actual teaching under criticism; making out time-tables for the different grades of schools; observation of work in the school of practice as done by practice teachers, to gain an idea of arrangement, distribution and grading of subject matter; observation of special lessons, followed by criticisms of same. A course of professional reading is prescribed, as well as the preparation of papers on various topics connected with method and criticism. Occasional opportunities are provided, to put into practice ideal and experimental lines of work, by teaching classes; and instruction is given in making apparatus, charts, etc., to illustrate the subjects taught in the common schools.

Teachers for this course are also selected by the Faculty, on the ground of their superior moral, intellectual, physical and professional qualifications, and of special fitness for the work; and on the satisfactory completion of the same, receive certificates, signed by all the members of the Faculty, indicating their fitness to act as critics and teachers of methods in Normal and Training Schools.

Experience in teaching in the various grades of the public schools is considered important before entering upon this work.

It is not in a strict sense a residential college, but students from a distance are expected to live in a boarding-house attached to the school.

Great stress is laid upon the elaboration of methods of teaching of various subjects, and from the Oswego School have come many improvements in ways of teaching. Perhaps the chief contribution to methodology is that known as the “laboratory” method of teaching history, which is said to have revolutionized the teaching of history in American Schools. It is an adaptation of the seminary method introduced by the German historian Ranke. In order to make this method possible in the schools, specially prepared text-books were needed, and these Dr. Sheldon’s daughter undertook to write. Two text-books have been published: Studies in General History, and Studies in American History, both of which have been extensively adopted in American Schools. In these books there is presented to the pupil a carefully chosen body of original historical material—typical extracts from the laws, constitution, creeds and other records of the past—pictures of monuments, temples, statues and relics, together with questions upon this material that test and train the pupil’s powers of judgment and reason. In connection also with the teaching of history the plan is advocated, and carried out in connection with the Model School, of allowing the children to compile the history of their own town, collecting the information for themselves, and recording it in a manuscript book kept for the purpose, which they can also illustrate by original drawings of their own. I saw a delightful history of Oswego compiled in this way, and in several other towns I found that school children were undertaking similar work.

Most of the method-teaching is carried on by means of discussions on topics given. I was able to attend one of these, and also to see some of the teaching in the Practice School.

Perhaps what impressed me most about the school was the large amount of liberty allowed to the students, and the absence of rules. Dr. Sheldon told me that the experience of his lifetime had only confirmed him in the belief, that the fullest freedom is necessary for the right development of character, and that year by year he had given his students an ever-increasing amount of liberty. The idea of self-government and responsibility is inculcated, and rare are the cases in which this freedom is abused.

MASSACHUSETTS.

To Massachusetts belongs the honour of having led the way in the establishment of Normal Schools. The Massachusetts Board of Education, established in 1838, at once took up the question of the training of teachers for the public schools. A member of the Board, the Hon. Edmund Dwight, of Boston, offered $10,000 on condition that the Legislature would appropriate an equal amount towards providing for such training. His offer was accepted, and three Normal Schools were opened, each of which was to continue for three years as an experiment. The experiments proved completely successful. There are now six State Normal Schools, which are under the direct control of the Board of Education, and supported entirely by the State. Tuition is free to all who undertake to teach in the State Schools. The arrangements for boarding vary with each school.

The State appropriates $4,000 per annum to be divided among those students of Normal Schools who stand in need of such aid.

Text-books and reference books are free.

[7] “The design of the State Normal Schools is strictly professional; that is, to prepare in the best possible manner the pupils for the work of organizing, governing and teaching the public schools of the Commonwealth.

“To this end there must be the most thorough knowledge; first, of the branches of learning required to be taught in the schools; second, of the best methods of teaching those branches; and third, of right mental training.

“The time of one course extends through a period of two years; of the other, through a period of four years, and is divided into terms of twenty weeks each, with daily sessions of not less than five hours, five days each week.”

Studies.

Two Years’ Course:

Arithmetic, algebra, geometry, book-keeping.

Physics, astronomy, chemistry, physiology, botany, zoology, mineralogy, geology, geography.

Language, reading, orthography, etymology, grammar, rhetoric, literature, composition.

Penmanship, drawing, vocal music, gymnastics.

Psychology, science and art of education, school organization and history of education.

Civil polity of Massachusetts and of the United States, history, school laws of Massachusetts.

In accordance with a vote of the Board of Education, pupils are encouraged to add a half-year to this course of study, provided six months of their entire time be spent mainly in additional practice and observation.

Four Years’ Course:

In addition to the studies named above, the four years’ course includes advanced algebra and geometry, trigonometry and surveying.

Advanced chemistry, physics and botany.

Drawing, English literature, general history.

Latin and French required; German and Greek as the principal, and visitors shall decide.

This course is intended to give pupils that broad culture indispensable to the highest success in schools of any grade, but especially to fit them for service as teachers in high schools. The studies are so arranged that graduates from the shorter course may complete the four years’ course in two additional years.

The following statistics and extract are from the Public Document of the Board of Education for 1893.

Normal Schools.

Statistics for the Year 1891-92.

NumberNumber

of Students.of Graduates.

Bridgewater 262 67

Framingham 159 50

Salem 260 77

Westfield 147 33

Worcester 181 36

Normal Art School 215 24

1,224 287

“There are now in the Commonwealth six State Normal Schools, established for the purpose of training teachers to teach in the public schools. The Normal Schools are now well provided with the means of communicating professional instruction.

“As a knowledge of the principles and method of teaching seems to be one thing, and skill in the application of principles quite another, it is necessary that ample opportunity be given in the training schools connected with the Normal Schools for practice in teaching by the normal students as they study the principles. Such practice, if systematically and intelligently conducted during the course of instruction, will prepare the normal graduate to enter upon the practice of his profession with the advantages of experience.

“If the standard for admission to the Normal Schools be raised, as the Board of Education now contemplates, they will be relieved of a large amount of academical work now required, and of many candidates whose limited knowledge and capacity for acquiring it make them improper subjects for professional training.

“The time has come when a professional training should be considered a requisite for teaching in the public schools of the Commonwealth.”

Framingham, the first State Normal School in the United States, was first located at Lexington, where it was opened July 3rd, 1839, with three students. In 1852 the school was removed to Framingham. It admits women students only, who reside in the boarding halls attached to the school.

“The design of the school is to give:

1. “A review of the studies taught in the public schools.

2. “A careful study of the history of education and the school law of Massachusetts.

3. “A study of Psychology, for the purpose of ascertaining true principles and good methods.

4. “A practical application of these principles and methods in teaching.

5. “A high estimate of the importance and responsibility of the teacher’s work, and an enthusiasm for it.”

Westfield.

Another school was opened at Barre, September 4th, 1839, but was moved to Westfield in 1844. It is intended for both men and women students, but out of 147 students in 1892 only 7 were men.

There is a Normal Hall of Residence, erected and furnished by the State, at which either men or women students can live.

The subjects taken are the same as those in the other Normal Schools of the State, for the two or four years’ course. All studies are pursued on the topical plan, and with special reference to the best ways of teaching them. Every student frequently takes charge of a class, and teaches topics, so that throughout the course he is under actual training as teacher.

I had the opportunity of hearing a class in Didactics, conducted by Principal Greenough on the topical method. I found that “topics” simply meant the heads or divisions of subjects. The students had been previously given topics to prepare, and they were called on two at a time to go to the blackboard and write up and explain to the class alternately the various points to be considered under each head. These points were one by one discussed with the Principal and other students. This topical method is adopted at many other schools and colleges. It often happens that one or two students only are entrusted with topics to prepare, which they are expected to be ready to explain to the rest of the class, subject of course to the criticism of the teacher and discussion by the class.

The students obtain the necessary practice in teaching, partly in the above way by teaching each other, and partly by giving lessons in the Model School under the critic teachers. Each student is also required to teach for four weeks continuously, and to spend a good deal of time in observing children, and the work of the teachers in the Model School.

The school is very well provided with apparatus. Almost every subject taught has its special room with appropriate appliances for teaching. I was especially struck by the apparatus for teaching geography. Large wooden trays lined with zinc, and placed on supports so as to resemble low tables, were used for modelling in wet sand. Special classes were held to instruct the students in the art of sand-moulding.

Worcester.

Bridgewater Normal School was opened in 1840. It receives both men and women students, the number for this year being 272, of which 58 are men, and 214 women.

There are two Halls of Residence, at which students may reside.

Four courses are possible: 1. Two years’ course. 2. Three years’ or intermediate course. 3. Four years’ course, and 4. Post-graduate course for college graduates.

There appears to be especially good provision for the teaching of science, the new buildings having ample laboratory accommodation.

Worcester is the youngest of the Normal Schools, having been opened in 1874. It is open to both men and women, but the latter largely preponderate.

In addition to the ordinary two and four year courses, college graduates are allowed to take up a special elective course.

This school has certain special features which distinguish it and require note.

The study of psychology is pursued in part by the original observation of children. The students are asked to observe the conduct of children in all circumstances, and to record what they see and hear as soon as possible, in a simple and concise manner, without any comment by the writer. They are advised to note the usual rather than the unusual conduct of the children observed. For convenience of classification, blanks of five colours are used: white for observations made by the students themselves; red for those reported by others; yellow for reminiscences of the student’s own childhood; green for records made from books, and chocolate for a continued series of observations made on the same child. The date, name of observer and post-office address; the name, sex, nationality and age of child observed; and also the length of time elapsing between the making and recording of the observation, are all set forth on these papers.

The making of these observations is quite voluntary, but the students become so interested in the work that an ever-increasing number of reports are sent in. Some 16,000 have already been collected. These are placed at the disposal of the Clark University, which has from time to time made use of the material thus brought together. These records are valuable in themselves, but still more valuable is the training in observation of children afforded to the students in making them.

The students in this school have the opportunity before graduating of serving an apprenticeship as teachers in the public schools of Worcester.

The “apprentice” acts as assistant to the teacher of the city school; takes part in the instruction, management and general care of the pupils under the direction of the teacher; and is sometimes entrusted with the sole charge of the school during the teacher’s absence for an hour, a half day or a day. One student only at a time is assigned to any teacher, but each apprentice serves in at least three grades of schools.

The time taken for the apprenticeship comes just before the final term in the Normal School, and amounts to half a school year. But the apprentices spend one day of each week (Wednesday) at the Normal School, where they are occupied in the following manner:

They consult with the teacher, and with one another, and make use of books.

They make informal statements to the school of such facts of their experience as it may profit the other pupils to know,—concerning ways of teaching, cases of discipline and the like,—keeping in mind always the private character of the daily life of the school-room, and under special warning against revelations that might seem objectionable.

Each apprentice keeps a diary of the occupation and experience of every day, and this record is inspected by the Faculty of the Normal School.

The Faculty of the Normal School have the right of visiting the apprentices while at work, and of giving advice and suggestion. When the six months are over, the teacher of the school makes a report on the work of the student. The School Board approves the system, as those students who have been apprentices are found afterwards to be the most capable teachers in the Worcester public schools. Students are not forced to undergo apprenticeship, but most choose to do so. After it is over, they return to the Normal School for six months, before graduating.

Forty minutes each day are assigned to “Platform Exercises,” which consist in reading, speaking, drawing on the blackboard, etc., before the assembled school. They are found to be very useful in helping the students to overcome nervousness. Each student can choose her own time and subject, but at least nine must be ready to take part each day. No exercise is to be prepared for more than four minutes, but as questions may be asked by the teachers or other students, and criticism is sometimes offered, they often take longer.

A new and interesting feature of the school is the children’s class which has just been started. Between twenty and thirty children between three and five have been admitted. No charge is made for tuition, and it is understood that the class can be taught in any way thought good by the Principal. This class affords a good field for child-study and experiment in methods of elementary teaching. It is in charge of an experienced kindergartner.

I was attentively listening to a lecture on Psychology, given by Principal Russell, when suddenly, to my amazement, the whole class rose and left the room while he was still speaking. To my surprise, he did not seem at all disturbed, and he then proceeded to explain, that finding that most students were deficient in “time sense,” such a necessary possession for a teacher, he had adopted the plan of making the students keep their own time at lectures.

The Normal Art School, Boston, aims at training art teachers and supervisors for the State. Two courses are offered—one of four years’ training in the scientific and artistic branches and their practical application to industry, and one of two years’ training for the work of teaching or supervising Art in the public schools.

The following is a comprehensive plan of the work of this second course:

First Year:

1. Elements of psychology.

2. Outline course of drawing for Primary and Grammar Schools.

3. Practice teaching.

Second Year:

1. History of education.

2. Principles and methods of teaching.

3. Outline course of drawing for High and Evening Schools.

4. Practice teaching.

5. Practical details of supervisor’s work.

6. Presentation of the subject of drawing by each pupil before a body of assumed teachers.

MICHIGAN.

The State of Michigan maintains only one Normal School, but, as we shall see later, this State has other means of providing for the training of its teachers.

This school is located at Ypsilante, and is not residential. It is open to men and women, and tuition is free to those who undertake to teach in the State Schools. Graduates from recognised High Schools, approved by the Board of Education upon recommendation of the Faculty, are admitted without examination, and are credited with advanced work already done. Other candidates must pass an entrance examination.

The school offers three classes of courses:

1. Those covering three years of instruction leading to a certificate, which is a license to teach in the schools of Michigan for a period of five years; of these there are two, one especially for kindergartners, and the other to prepare teachers for the rural schools and for the lower High School grades.

2. Courses covering four years, leading to a diploma and a life-certificate. Of these there are many to choose from, but all are more or less distinctly literary, scientific or classical.

3. Advanced courses, leading to the degree of Bachelor of Pedagogics and a life-certificate. One for graduates of any of the four year courses, and can be completed in two years.

Any one holding an academic degree from the University of Michigan, or from an incorporated college, may receive the degree of B.Pd. by spending one half-year at the school, and attending professional instruction for 250 hours, and teaching under supervision for 100 hours.

Any person holding the degree of Bachelor of Pedagogics of the Michigan State Normal School may, upon application, receive the degree of Master of Pedagogics upon the following conditions:

(a) He shall furnish evidence satisfactory to the Faculty that he has been engaged in teaching or in school supervision continuously, and with pronounced success, for five years since receiving the Bachelor’s degree.

(b) He shall prepare and present a thesis acceptable to the said Faculty, upon some subject connected with the history, science, or art of education, the Faculty reserving the right to assign the subject of such thesis.

The design of the School is professional—i.e., only those students are admitted who intend to teach, but a large portion of the various courses is devoted to academic work. The school is directly under the control of the State Board of Education, which grants all certificates, diplomas and degrees upon recommendation of the Faculty.

ILLINOIS.

This State, which, like that of Michigan, is typical of the West, has provided two Normal Schools, known under the somewhat imposing names of the “Illinois State Normal University,” and the “Southern Illinois State Normal University.” Neither of these, however, are purely professional schools. The first of them has three departments—Normal, Training and High School, while the second has also three—Normal, High School and Preparatory.

Tuition is free in the Normal Department of both schools, to those who intend to teach in the State.

The courses in the Normal Departments are usually for three years, but may be extended to four, and at the completion of any course a diploma is granted.

The work is very largely academic, and in the first year hardly any really professional work is done.

One of the Counties of Illinois—Cook—possesses a Normal School which, although not technically a State School, yet is so in reality, or indeed something wider, for it attracts to itself students from all parts of the States. This is known as the Cook County School, or perhaps quite as often as Colonel Parker’s School.

It is situated at Englewood, a suburb of Chicago, and has a student’s hall attached to the school, where students may obtain board and lodging.

As a school it is probably unique, and as such exceedingly difficult to estimate. When visiting it, the charm of the School falls upon one, the enthusiasm of Colonel Parker and his band of teachers creates an atmosphere of inspiration which disarms criticism, and few would come away without feeling that the world was better than they thought, and a little child the most beautiful thing to be found on the earth. I think that it is in this genuine love and care for children that the real strength of the School lies, and that if it can continue to send out teachers who really love and understand children, it need fear no outside criticism. A chance remark of Colonel Parker’s seemed to me typical of the spirit of the School: “I do not want any of the children to know that I am not one of them.”

The following extracts from his report to the Cook County Board explain the distinguishing features of the School:

1. Any graduate (four years’ course) of an accredited High School, or a graduate of a college or university, will be admitted to the Professional Training Class, on presentation of diploma.

2. A teacher of three years’ successful experience in a Graded School, and holding a first-class certificate, will be admitted on presentation of said certificate, and certificates of success as a teacher.

Candidates with the above credentials will be admitted to the Professional Training Class at any time.

1. Students must be members of the Professional Training Class at least one year of forty weeks before they are eligible for graduation.

2. Whenever, after one year, the members of the Faculty are convinced that a student has the necessary knowledge, skill and governing power to teach and manage a school satisfactorily, the said candidate is recommended for graduation to the Board of Education.

The County Superintendent of Schools grants to each graduate a certificate to teach in Cook County, outside of Chicago, first or second grade, upon his own examination and the recommendation of the Principal.

First-grade certificates are given to those graduates who have manifested during their course marked ability in study and teaching.

Elective courses are allowed to those students only who have received diplomas of graduation.

Graduates of the Professional Training Class may elect for a one or two years’ course any one of the following post-graduate courses:

1. Kindergarten Training Class, physical training, elocution.

2. History, geography and literature.

3. Science, art and manual training.

4. Mathematics and manual training.

5. Modelling, painting, drawing and manual training.

6. Physical training, elocution, the Delsarte system of expression, music, anatomy, physiology and hygiene.

7. Advanced course in psychology, pedagogics and methods.

In all elective courses psychology, pedagogics and methods are included.

The Practice School consists of eight grades (nine rooms) and the kindergarten. There are two first primary rooms (A and B).

Each room in the Practice School is under the immediate charge of a critic teacher, who teaches the pupils in her room, and supervises the practice teaching in her grade.

The Practice School, with the exception of the kindergarten, is a public school of the city of Chicago.

The Practice School is an essential feature in the training of teachers. The entire professional work of the school is concentrated upon the teaching and training in this department.

One hour each day is devoted to teaching in the Practice School by members of the Professional Training Class.

The Practice School is divided, for the purpose of practice teaching, into forty or more groups, each group consisting of from six to ten pupils. Two groups are united, forming one section; two sections are united to form a division.

Pupil teachers are very carefully selected for merit, as (1) heads of groups; (2) leaders of sections; (3) teachers of divisions; (4) special assistants. Pupil teachers not thus chosen are assistants to group leaders.

The purpose of these divisions into groups, etc., is to give each pupil-teacher as much practice as possible. The teacher begins with a small number of pupils, and advances, as teaching power increases, to the leadership of a section, a division, and at last to a special assistant’s position. The latter position requires the ability to teach and govern an entire grade or room.

The entire work of the Professional Training Class is, in reality, preparation for practice teaching,—preparation in knowledge, theory and methods.

The course of work for the Training Class includes the following subjects:

1. Psychology, pedagogics, the history of education and methods of teaching.

2. Science in primary and grammar schools.

3. Geography with modelling, painting, drawing and chalk modelling as means of geographical study.

4. History and literature.

5. Mathematics; number, arithmetic, form and geometry.

6. Art, including modelling, painting and drawing.

7. Physical training, elocution, the Delsarte system of expression and vocal music.

8. Manual training, paste-board and wood sloyd and construction of apparatus for science teaching.

The special teacher at the head of each department presents the conditions for the knowledge needed for teaching his or her subject, and decides whether the pupil-teacher has the requisite knowledge and skill to prepare a plan for teaching.

The special teacher also teaches the principles and methods of his subject, and supervises the practice-work in his department throughout all the grades.

The practice teaching is divided into ten periods for one year, one period continuing for one month.

Each pupil-teacher is required to prepare one plan for teaching, each month, upon a subject selected by the critic teacher, under whose direct supervision the pupil-teacher is to work. This plan must be approved by the critic teacher, and also by the special teacher in charge of the subject taught, before the one who prepares the plan is permitted to teach.

Each month, certain group, section and division leaders are transferred from grade to grade in order that every pupil who has requisite ability and skill may teach in the eight grades during the course.

Whenever a pupil-teacher has reached the rank of special assistant, he or she is sent out to the county schools to act as substitute[8] upon the order of the County Superintendent.

The course of study followed in the school is the application of a doctrine or theory of education, called the Theory of Concentration. Upon this theory it was my privilege to hear Colonel Parker lecture from time to time, and the following is a short synopsis of his lectures as drawn up by himself.

“In this theory, the subjects of thought and study are the natural sciences, geography and history. The unity of these subjects is found in the study of life—the laws of life—and the laws which support life.

“The laws of life enter into the child through education, and become the essentials in his intellectual and moral character.

“Form, geometry, number and arithmetic are the indispensable means for the study and investigation of the laws of the universe acting through matter; therefore form and number must be studied in order to understand any and all subjects of thought.

“Attention is the one mode of study. Attention may be divided into three modes of thinking: (1) observation, (2) hearing language, (3) reading or book study. The subjects or objects of attention are the natural sciences, geography and history—therefore observation, hearing language, and reading are the means of knowing and thinking. The subjects of knowing and thinking should be immediately educative. Therefore, all acts of attention, observation, hearing language and reading should be concentrated upon these subjects, and objects of intrinsic thought. For example: all reading should be the most educative thinking, and therefore should consist of the purest and most thoughtful literature. Every word and sentence learned by the pupil should be learned under the immediate impulse of intrinsic thought.

“Under the theory of concentration, the modes of expression—gesture, music, modelling, painting, drawing, speech and writing, are used as the direct and immediate means of intensifying intrinsic thought, and under these impulses and stimuli the technical forms of expression in each mode are adequately acquired.

“The central and sole design of concentration is the harmonious development of individual character—knowledge, skill, are means, not ends—the eternal is the end. It goes without saying that the application of this doctrine of concentration requires the highest grade of knowledge, skill, art and devotion to human development.

“Considering this course of study from the standpoint of ‘knowledge for the sake of knowledge,’ taking the subjects presented in the light of ‘going over,’ ‘going through,’ ‘being marked upon,’ ‘final tests by written examinations,’ there must be a hopeless confusion; the burden would be greater than any corps of teachers could possibly bear.

“A course of study is a means to an end, and that end the full development of all the possibilities for good and growth in a human being. It should consist of all the subjects of thought, the germs of which a child spontaneously assimilates and enjoys before he enters school. A course of study should be very carefully arranged and adapted to the successive stages or steps of development.

“Its application, however, depends wholly upon the knowledge and skill of the teacher, the teacher who watches closely and sympathetically every movement of her pupil’s mind; the teacher who looks upon a course of study as a rich storehouse of mental food, to be presented as the mind needs it, or rejected when the conditions are not favourable to growth.

“Following or ‘going over’ a course of study belongs to the trade of school keeping, and not to the art of teaching.

“This course of study cannot be understood by studying the work of one grade alone—it must be studied as a whole and applied with the comprehensive knowledge of the whole.

“The final decision as to what should be applied to each individual pupil must be left to the teacher of that pupil.

“No authority outside of the teacher of a pupil can possibly determine what that pupil needs at any given moment.

“Grading and promotion, properly understood, are economical means of knowing and helping each individual pupil.

“The course of study in its best form and last analysis is the best means of helping each child, and of helping each child to be of immediate and essential aid to all his mates.”

CITY NORMAL SCHOOLS.

Very similar to the State Normal Schools in organization and curriculum are those maintained by certain cities. Of these the Philadelphia, New York and Boston schools may be taken as representatives. Such schools belong to the City School systems, and are under the supervision of the City Superintendent. Graduates from these schools are supposed to teach in the public schools of the city.

At Philadelphia the Normal School is in a transition state. Hitherto the Girls’ Normal School has at the same time been the Girls’ High School, and it was only possible to make a distinction in length of course between those who were going to teach and those who were not—the fourth year being especially devoted to professional work. The tendency in such a school would be, of course, to emphasize the academic work at the expense of the professional. According to the new scheme, the High School and Normal School will be separated, and the latter be purely professional. Admission to the Normal School will only be granted after a three years’ course at the High School, and the former will have a course of its own for two years. The present course of study and the future scheme are subjoined.

Subjects to be studied in the two years’ course at the new Girls’ Normal School, Philadelphia:

1. Educational Psychology. 2. Methods of Teaching. 3. School Economy. 4. The History of Education. 5. The Philosophy of Education. 6. Methods in Mathematics. 7. Methods in Language and Literature. 8. Methods in History, Sociology, and Civics. 9. Methods in Natural History. 10. Methods in Physics and Chemistry. 11. Methods in Elocution. 12. Methods in Vocal Music. 13. Methods in Modelling and Drawing. 14. Methods in Kindergarten. 15. Methods in Gymnastics and Physical Training. 16. Methods in Sewing and Fitting. 17. Methods in Wood-work, etc. 18. Observation in Model School. 19. Practice in Model School. 20. Discussion of Observation and Practice. 21. Educational Reading and Original Investigation.

Mention must also be made of the provision made for the training of men teachers in the new School of Pedagogy which has been opened in connection with the Central High School for boys. The students must be graduates of the latter, or of similar institutions. The course is for one year, and includes professional subjects only.

The New York Normal College is conducted in the same way as the present one at Philadelphia, it being at once a High and Normal School.

PRESENT COURSE OF STUDY IN PHILADELPHIA GIRLS’ NORMAL AND HIGH SCHOOL.

Course of Study in the Girls’ Normal School.

A 4th Year. B 3rd Year. C 2nd Year. D 1st Year.

English Language and Literature.

History of Education. Literature. Theme Writing. Reading of English Classics. Rhetoric. Theme Writing. History of the English Language; including the study of the derivations, formations, etc., of words. English Literature. Reading of English Classics. Grammar. Composition. History of the English Language; including the study of the derivations, formations, etc., of words. Reading of English Classics.

Mental and Moral Science in their relations to Education. Elocution. Elocution.

Mathematics.

Methods of Teaching. Higher Arithmetic; including Mensuration, Principles of Accounts and Book-keeping. Geometry. General Review of Arithmetic. Geometry. Algebra. Algebra. Arithmetic.

Science.

Philosophy and method of the Kindergarten. Chemistry. Natural Philosophy. Astronomy. Human Physiology and Hygiene. Zoology. Geology. Natural Philosophy. Physical Geography. Botany.

History.

Drawing; with instruction in methods of teaching this study. General History. History and Civil Government of the United States. General History.

Drawing.

School organisation and management. Drawing. Drawing. Drawing.

Sewing.

Modelling in Clay. Instruction in the Gifts and Occupations of the Kindergarten. Sewing. Sewing. Cooking. Sewing.

Music.

Music. Music. Music. Music.

1. Physical exercises throughout the first, second, and third years. 2. Laboratory work in chemistry when possible. 3. Laboratory work as far as possible in physics. 4. Drawing to include the treatment of Geometric Drawing, Construction, Decoration, Representation, and Object Drawing.

BOSTON NORMAL SCHOOL.

The Boston Normal School is of the professional type, with an ordinary course of a year and a half, although many students stay for a post-graduate course.

The course of study in this school is pursued with special reference to teaching, and is as follows:

1. Psychology and Logic. 2. Principles of Education. 3. Methods of Instruction and Discipline. 4. Physiology and Hygiene. 5. The Studies of the Primary and Grammar Schools. 6. Observation and Practice in the Training School. 7. Observation and Practice in the other Public Schools. 8. Science of Language. 9. Phonetics. 10. Gymnastics. 11. Vocal Music. 12. Drawing and Blackboard Illustration. 13. Special study of the Theory and Practice of the Kindergarten, for those members of the post-graduate class who desire to qualify themselves for teaching in that department.

The students practise and observe in the Rice Training Schools, and in the post-graduate class substitute service begins—i.e., any city school having a teacher absent may apply for a student to take her place.

BOSTON NORMAL SCHOOL.—COURSE OF STUDY.

First Term.

Subjects. Hours perNo. of

week. weeks.

Psychology 5 20

Physiology and Hygiene 4 16

Arithmetic 4 4

Language—

Oral Expression and Composition 3 9

Penmanship 3 3

Grammar 3 8

Geography 4 20

Drawing 2 20

Vocal Music 1 20

Gymnastics—

Theory 1 20

Practice 12 minutes daily.

Second Term.

Subjects. Hours perNo. of

week. weeks.

Principles of Education 5 16

Language—

Reading, including Phonics 4 8

Spelling 4 2

Literature 4 4

Grammar 4 2

Arithmetic 4 16

Elementary Science—

Minerals 3 5

Plants 3 11

Drawing 2 12

Form 2 4

Vocal Music 1 16

Gymnastics—

Theory 1 16

Practice 12 minutes daily.

Observation and Practice in the Public Schools all day, 4 weeks.

Third Term.

Subjects. Hours perNo. of

week. weeks.

Principles of Education 5 7

Logic 5 3

Language—

Oral Expression and Composition 4 3

Science of Language 4 4

History 4 3

Arithmetic 3 10

Elementary Science—

Plants 4 2

Animals 4 6

Colour 4 2

Drawing 1 10

Kindergarten 2 10

Gymnastics—

Theory 1 10

Practice 12 minutes daily.

Observation and Practice in Public Schools all day, 10 weeks.

Post-Graduate Course.

The work of the post-graduate class includes:

1. A further study of the principles of education, with special reference to their application in teaching the different subjects of the regular course, and in school discipline;

2. The history of education.

CITY TRAINING SCHOOLS.

In several cities an ordinary school is set apart for the special training of teachers, and is presided over by a head-mistress capable of giving instruction in the theory of education. In such a school the ordinary teaching of the children is largely carried on by the students, who at certain hours receive instruction in Methods, etc. These students often receive a small sum in return for their services.

I was able to visit several of these Training Schools, including those at New Haven (Connecticut), Fall River (Rhode Island), Pawtucket (Rhode Island), Springfield (Massachusetts), and Albany (New York).

At New Haven a most interesting Training School is carried on in connection with the Welch School. There are about thirty students in training for one year. The various classes of the school are in charge of regular teachers, who teach almost entirely during the first half of the year, for the students devote five or six months to the study of theory alone, only giving a few criticism lessons during that time. For the second half of the year the students teach more in the schools, and are supervised both by the critic teacher and the regular teacher of the class. Notes of lessons are prepared in various ways—sometimes the students are required simply to put the matter of their lessons into a series of logical statements, sometimes the matter and illustrations alone are given, and sometimes the lesson is written out as it is to be given in the order of statements and questions.

On the completion of the year’s training the students are usually appointed as substitute teachers to the districts, at a small fixed salary, and obtain permanent posts as vacancies occur.

At the Springfield Training School from ten to sixteen students take the course, which is usually for one year, but can be taken in two. Tuition is free to those living in the city, a charge of about £10 being made to those from a distance.

Students enter in the autumn, and devote the first term to theoretical work, only giving a few criticism lessons, and spending some time in observing the work of the school, and carefully recording observations.

The work in psychology is partly based on the observation of individual children, and partly carried on by discussion classes. The students also attend lectures given by Superintendent Balliet to all the teachers of the city. At the end of the year they take the city examination in order to graduate. In January they begin to teach for an hour a day in the school, and in the summer term this is increased to three hours a day. At the end of the course they give lessons in public, but they are not counted as necessary for graduation.

Some of the leading features of the Training School are the following:—

1. It is incorporated with a city or town Graded School covering from four to eight years’ work. This school is used as a place for observation and practice.

2. The Practice School, or school of observation, employs one or more regular teachers, who conduct the training class. In most Training Schools, “trainers” are relied upon for much of the teaching.

3. The course in the Training School includes a study of the principles of teaching and the history of education, with practice in the art.

4. The length of the term of study and practice is fixed, extending from one to two years in the greater number of schools.

5. A new class is admitted at a fixed time; the admissions are annual or semi-annual.

6. The maximum number of trainers is prescribed.

7. Admissions are made by a course of studies previously pursued, or by examination. Most require the equivalent of a four years’ course in a High School.

8. All provide for dropping unpromising students from the roll.

9. Most allow some compensation to trainers after the first term.

A list of Training Schools in Massachusetts is appended. It is taken from a useful little pamphlet drawn up for the information of visitors to the World’s Fair Educational Exhibit.

Table of Training Schools Reported, 1891-92.

Graduates.Period Regular

AnnualofGrades.Teachers.

Average.Training.

Adams 5 1

Cambridge 15 1

Fall River 12 1½

Haverhill 14 1½

Holyoke 12 1½

Lawrence 12 1½ I.-VI. 2

Lowell 32 1½ I.-IX. 6

Lynn 12

New Bedford 14 1½ 2

Newburyport 4 1½ 1

North Adams 6

Pittsfield 8 2

Springfield 8 1 I.-VII. 7

Taunton 1

TRAINING CLASSES.

In many cities training classes are held for one year. The students are distributed amongst the best schools of the city or town, and the instruction and criticism is given by the Superintendent and the highest teachers.

Table of Training Classes, Massachusetts.

Graduates.

Average Time of Remarks

Number Training. from Superintendents.

per

Annum.

Chelsea 17 1 year. Practice limited to

four city schools, normal

graduates preferred.

Clinton 5 ” Not equal to normal

graduates.

Concord 6 ” All urged to attend

normal schools.

Dedham 6 ”

Hingham 8 ” Not given school in

town until experience is

gained elsewhere.

Leominster 6 ”

Malden ” No teacher employed

not a normal graduate

or person of experience.

Quincy 30 ”

Watertown 4 ” Graduates expected to

teach out of town before

being employed at

home.

Weymouth 14 ”

Woburn 5 ”

PEDAGOGICAL DEPARTMENTS IN UNIVERSITIES.

It has been seen that a certain number of college graduates enter the Normal Schools for a course of training, but most of the leading Universities of America are now providing courses in the Science and Art of Education for those who desire to prepare for the teaching profession. I was able to visit a good many of these pedagogical departments, and was much interested in the work I saw. This work, however, differs so widely in the various institutions in which it is carried on that it is hardly possible to make any very general statements concerning it. In some universities the only provision made for the special preparation of teachers is in connection with special classes held by the professor or lecturer on any subject, for those who wish to discuss with him the teaching of it. However insufficient for training purposes this plan may be, it yet has, I believe, very special advantages to recommend it, not the least being the influence that may be thus exerted by the University through those who are about to become teachers on the Schools. In addition to these discussions, some provide for a few lectures on Pedagogy, and in others, again, Pedagogy may be taken as an elective subject, and count towards an ordinary degree. The Universities of Harvard, Cornell, Michigan, Illinois, Syracuse and others have adopted one or other of these plans.

The University of New York grants degrees in pedagogy, while at the Clark University, to which only graduates are admitted, education may be taken as part of the Ph.D. work. It should be noted, however, that the courses of training provided at these Universities is almost entirely theoretical, little or no attempt being made to arrange for practical work. In so far as this is not arranged for, the training seems to fall short of the ideal, it being surely nearly as bad to attempt to train teachers without providing for practical work as to teach chemistry without giving any time to the laboratory, or to train a doctor without arranging for hospital work. Probably the fact that a course on pedagogics is usually taken at the same time as other subjects, and also that those who take such courses very often do not intend to teach in the schools, but rather to take posts as lecturers, superintendents, etc., has caused this side of training to be neglected, and a still stronger reason is to be found in the location of so many of the Universities at a distance from the schools. In many places, however, I found that the question was being faced, and schemes considered for the introducing of practical work.

Harvard has begun to realize its responsibility with respect to the training of teachers, and a subdivision of the department of Philosophy is devoted to Education, the following courses being arranged for:

1. Course of twelve lectures on Topics in Psychology of interest to teachers.

2. Course for Graduates and Undergraduates:

The History of Educational Theories and Practices.

3. Course primarily for graduates:

(a) Organization of Public Schools and Academies.

(b) The Theory of Teaching.

These courses are, however, but short, and intended to be taken at the same time as other subjects. There is as yet no attempt to arrange for a complete course of training, but every prospect that from the beginning already made there may develop a graduate school for the training of teachers.

Harvard has already realized its responsibility in respect to the inspection and supervision of schools, for which I was given to understand very special arrangements are being made, and it will be but a step further for it to provide such training for the teachers it sends out to these schools as shall fit them duly for their work.

There are certain elective courses allowed in the philosophy course, at the University of Cornell, which really constitute a pedagogical department. They include the following:

1. Institutes of Education (Lectures).

2. School Systems and Organizations (Lectures).

3. Pedagogic Conference, Discussions and Essays on Educational topics, and reports on visits to schools.

4. History of Education (Lectures).

5. Pedagogical Seminary.

It is understood that none must take these courses unless they also know something of physiology, psychology and logic. These courses may either be attended so as to count towards a degree or may be taken as graduate work.

The only arrangement for practical work is in connection with the visits to schools for purposes of observation. The location of the University on the top of a hill overlooking Ithaca, although most advantageous in many other respects, would make the arranging for work in the schools or the establishment of a University School of Observation a matter of serious difficulty.

Seminaries are held in most subjects, at which the teaching methods are discussed, and thus opportunity is afforded to those students who are specializing in any subject with the intention of afterwards teaching it, to study it from the point of view of the teacher as well as of the learner.

To Michigan belongs the honour of having been the first University to undertake to provide professional training for teachers. Professor W. H. Payne was made the first professor of the Science and Art of Teaching in 1879, and on his leaving the University Professor Hinsdale carried on the work.[9] The following extract from the Calendar of the Michigan University explains the views held by its faculty as to the importance of the training of teachers:

“The aims of the University in providing instruction in the Science and the Art of Teaching are:

“1. To fit University students for the higher positions in the public school service.

“It is a natural function of the University, as the head of our system of public instruction, to supply the demand made upon it for furnishing the larger public schools with superintendents, principals, and assistants. Year by year these important positions are falling more and more into the hands of men that have received their education in the University. Till recently the training given to our graduates has been almost purely literary; it has lacked the professional character that alone gives special fitness for the successful management of schools and school systems. Now, however, the University offers students that wish to become teachers ample facilities for professional study.

“2. To promote the study of educational science.

“The establishment of a chair of teaching is a recognition of the truth that the art of education has its correlative science; and that the processes of the school-room can become rational only by developing and teaching the principles that underlie these processes. Systems of public instruction are everywhere on trial, and the final criteria by which they are to stand or fall must be found in a philosophical study of the educating art.

“3. To teach the history of education, and of educational systems and doctrines.

“The supreme right of the school is to grow; and much hurtful interference might be avoided by ascertaining the direction of educational progress and the history of educational thought.

“4. To secure to teaching the rights, prerogatives, and advantages of a profession.

“5. To give a more perfect unity to our State educational system by bringing the secondary schools into closer relations with the University.”

The Teacher’s diploma is given to a student at the time of receiving a Bachelor’s degree, provided he has completed three Courses of study offered by the professor of the Science and Art of Teaching, viz., Courses 1 and 2, and one of Courses 3, 5, 4, 6, or 7, and, also, at least one of the Teachers’ Courses offered by other professors, and by special examination has shown such marked proficiency in the Course chosen as qualifies him to give instruction in the same. The diploma is also given to a graduate student at the time of receiving a Master’s or a Doctor’s degree, provided he has pursued teaching as a major or a minor study, and has also taken a Teacher’s Course in some other department.

By authority of an Act of the State legislature, passed in 1891, the Faculty of this Department give a Teacher’s Certificate to any person who takes a Bachelor’s, Master’s, or Doctor’s degree, and also receives a Teacher’s diploma as provided above. By the terms of the Act, the certificate given by the Faculty “shall serve as a legal certificate of qualification to teach in any of the schools of this State, when a copy thereof shall have been filed or recorded in the office of the legal examining officer or officers of the county township, city, or district.”

To meet these special requirements the following courses have been arranged:—

First Course:

1. Practical: the arts of teaching and governing; methods of instruction and general school-room practice; school hygiene: school law. Recitations and lectures.

3. History of education: ancient and mediæval. Recitations and lectures. Text-book: Compayré’s History of Pedagogy.

5. School supervision; embracing general school management, the art of grading and arranging courses of study, the conduct of institutes, etc. Recitations and lectures. Text-book; Payne’s chapters on School Supervision.

Second Course:

2. Theoretical and critical; the principles underlying the arts of teaching and governing. Lectures.

4. History of education; modern. Recitations and lectures. Text-book; Compayré’s History of Pedagogy.

6. The comparative study of educational systems, domestic and foreign. Lectures.

7. Seminary. Study and discussion of special topics in the History and Philosophy of Education.

Special Teachers’ Courses are also arranged for in most subjects, and attendance at one at least of these is necessary in order to obtain the Teacher’s diploma.

The University of Illinois has a course in Pedagogy which may count towards a degree. It may count towards most of the degrees granted, but for the degree in philosophy and pedagogy, and which implies a four years’ course, the arrangement is as follows:—

The first and second years of this course may be those of any course in the College of Literature.

Third Year.

1. Psychology; Chemistry or History; Latin, German or French.

2. Logic; Zoology, or History, Latin, German, or French.

3. Philosophy of Education; Geology, or History; Latin, German or French.

Fourth Year.

1. History of Education; Educational Psychology; History of Civilization; English (half course); Elocution.

2. School hygiene; Constitutional History (England); English, (half course); Elocution.

3. School Supervision; Pedagogical Seminary; Political Economy, or Constitutional History (U.S.); English, (half course); Elocution.

The University of Indiana possesses a department of pedagogics the courses of which count towards a degree. There are three courses.

I.

(a) Educational Psychology (a knowledge of Psychology being presupposed). (b) The School as an Institution. (c) The General History of Education.

II.

(a) The Science of Education. (b) Didactics. (c) City School Systems. (d) School Supervision.

III.

(a) Contemporary Education. (b) School System of Indiana. (c) Philosophy of Education.

Special Teachers’ Courses in certain subjects are also given.

The School of Pedagogy in connection with the University of the City of New York, is based upon the idea that a degree should follow successful teaching. It has three professors and a lecturer. Only those are admitted as regular students who are graduates of Colleges, or of the New York State Normal Schools, but others may, at the discretion of the Faculty, be admitted as auditors. It was established in 1890 and has had 134 students.

The courses of study are as follows:—

1. History of Education. 2. Psychology and Ethics. 3. Institutes of Education. 4. Educational Classics and Æsthetics. 5. Systems of Education.

For the degree of Doctor of Pedagogy a thesis to be known as the “Thesis for the Doctorate in Pedagogy” has to be submitted for approval to the Faculty. This thesis must discuss a subject belonging to the field of one of the courses of study, and must show original treatment, or give evidence of independent research.

Each student who has been a member of the Senior Class for two or more years will be entitled to the degree of Doctor of Pedagogy upon the following conditions:—

1. He must have been credited with attendance upon the required lectures.

2. He must have been credited with attendance upon the required seminaria.

3. He must have passed an examination upon each of the five courses.

4. He must have presented the prescribed final thesis, and have received approval of the same.

5. He must have presented upon entering the School of Pedagogy a certain certificate showing four years’ successful experience in school-room work.

Each student of the School who has been a member of the Junior Class for one or more years, and a resident student at least one year, will be entitled to the degree of Master of Pedagogy upon the following conditions:—

1. He must have been credited with attendance upon the required lectures.

2. He must have passed the examination upon each of the four courses first named.

3. He must present a certificate showing three years’ successful experience in school-room work.

The Iowa University was the first to allow pedagogics to count towards a degree. Graduates of the University who have included in their course the year’s course of pedagogy may, after two years of successful teaching, be granted the degree of Bachelor of Didactics.

There is at New York an Institution which appeared to me to be unique in America, but of which the work more nearly resembled the best Secondary Training as carried on in Great Britain than any other which I had the opportunity of studying. It is known as the New York College for the Training of Teachers. It received its charter from the Board of Regents of the University of the State of New York in 1889, constituting it a Training College with the power of granting professional degrees. This year, however, it enters on a new phase of its life, having been affiliated with the Columbia College at New York.

Columbia College had already made provision for lectures on the Science and Art of Education, but its connection with the Teachers’ College, will enable it to offer in addition the advantages of training in the practical art of teaching to its students. On the other hand, it is felt to be an advantage to the Teachers’ College to be allied with a College of University rank—Columbia College—which will thus show by example that it is possible to combine both theoretical and practical training in a University Course.